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Great help in writing an essay on vocabulary and grammar will be provided by Lev Uspensky's book "A Word about Words". Let's turn to her. Analysis of the work of L. Uspensky A word about words - Biography A word on television: Essays on the latest word usage in Russian

Theme description: The great Russian philologist Lev Vasilyevich Uspensky, with his wise statement, made it clear that: “There are ... words in the language. The language has… grammar. These are the ways that language uses to build sentences." The statement has become a statement. What is the essence of the famous philologist's statement?

What is the essence of the famous philologist's statement? Let's figure it out:

"What is grammar for?"

Those who study the theory of the Russian language, of course, have come across an expression from the heritage of the famous philologist, an expert on the Russian language Lev Uspensky: “There are ... words in the language. The language has… grammar. These are the ways that language uses to build sentences." This scientist said about the Russian language. But this statement is true for many other languages as well. What is its essence?

The language has words. This means that the basis of the language is the word, the language consists of words. Each word has its own meaning. Nouns denote objects and phenomena, adjectives describe their properties, verbs convey actions. When we say or hear a word, we immediately have an image in our head of what the word means. Different words: "ball", "sadness", "fell", "woke up", "bitter", "orange" - cause different images in our thoughts. We understand well what each word means.

But words alone are not enough to convey a thought, describe an event, answer a lesson. It is impossible to say in a history lesson: "1812. Russia. Napoleon. War. Offensive. Moscow. Fire." It is necessary to make a more understandable sentence from which it will be clear that in 1812 Napoleon started a war with Russia. The offensive brought the French troops to Moscow, which by the time they appeared was on fire. Each word in a sentence is connected to others according to certain rules.

These rules are defined by grammar. It is she who allows different words in different sentences to convey different meanings, to make speech understandable, coherent. So many languages are built on the same principle: they are based on words that, using grammar rules, can be combined into different sentences. But the rules may differ.

Without grammar, words would not be able to form sentences. And we can convey feelings, thoughts, any information only by sentences - they are like small bricks from which the building of our speech is built. By applying the wrong rules to construct a sentence, we can distort the meaning. This is why knowledge of grammar is so important.

I continue to acquaint you, dear students of the 9th grade, with samples of essays on a linguistic topic. IN you got acquainted with sample essays on quotes, revealing the concept of "culture of speech". Today we turn to quotes (I emphasizepossible, approximate), concerning the connection between vocabulary and grammar.ALLI borrowed samples of essays from a teacher of secondary school No. 21 (Arkhipovskoye village, Budyonnovsky district, Stavropol Territory) N.G. Kharlanova or from the site "Traps of the Unified State Examination and GIA" . I express my deepest gratitude Natalya Georgievna And Lyubov Mikhailovna Bendeleeva for selfless work, excellent work, excellent materials!

Possible citations that may be in this section:

1. Grammar can show how people use language to express all the richness of their inner world ... ( From the works of N.F. Bunakov)

2. Studying the grammatical structure of a language without taking into account its lexical side ... is impossible. (V.V. Vinogradov)

3. The lexicon of a language shows what people think, and the grammar shows how they think. ( G.Stepanov)

4. One vocabulary without grammar does not yet constitute a language. It is only when it is at the disposal of grammar that it acquires the greatest significance. ( L.V. Uspensky)

5. ... vocabulary, the vocabulary of a language does not in itself constitute a language, but is building material for language. (A.A. Reformed)

6. Grammar allows us to connect any words to each other in order to express any thought about any subject. ( L.V. Uspensky)

7. All sciences need grammar. Stupid oratorio, tongue-tied poetry, unfounded philosophy, unpleasant history, dubious jurisprudence without grammar. ( M.V. Lomonosov)

8. ... for skills in correct speech and correct writing, it is useful to know grammar ... ( D.N. Ushakov)

9. The rules of syntax determine the logical relationships between words, and the composition of the lexicon corresponds to the knowledge of the people, testifies to their way of life. (N.G. Chernyshevsky)

10. I realized that a person can know a great many words, can write them correctly and combine them in a sentence just as correctly. Grammar teaches us all this. ( M.V. Isakovsky)

11. There are…words in the language. The language has… grammar. These are the ways the language uses to build sentences. ( L.V. Uspensky)

Sample #1

Write an essay-reasoning, revealing the meaning of the statement of the Russian philologist Lev Vasilyevich Uspensky: “There are ... words in the language. The language has... grammar. These are the ways that language uses to build sentences.”

FIRST VERSION OF THE ESSAY

L.V. Ouspensky talks about the relationship between words and grammar, stating that "these are the ways that language uses to build sentences." Let's try to prove the correctness of this judgment.

The word names objects, phenomena of reality, denotes signs, actions. Grammar studies the structure of the language, its laws. A sentence is the minimum unit of a language; it is a grammatically organized combination of words that has semantic and intonational completeness. We see that there are no words without grammar and grammar without a word, our thought is formed into a sentence with the help of words and according to the laws of grammar.

All this fully applies to how the passage from the novel is constructed.M. Sholokhov. The second sentence of the text expresses a complete complex thought: it is a complex sentence with sequential subordination of subordinate clauses. From it we learn about the time of what is happening, we see the dug trench with skill, we get acquainted with the cook Lisichenko. Among the lexical phenomena, adjective epithets “tired, impassive, cold blue” attract attention, they help us to see the eyes of the hero, to imagine him.

Addresses play a special role in the text: in the 20th sentence, Lisichenko ironically calls Lopakhin a “hero”, in the 23rd - just by his last name. In 31 sentences, Lopakhin addresses the cook with restrained fury, calling him "dear". And in the proposalNo. 44, he calls the cook “you are my precious man,” showing that he has awakened respect for a person who is ready not only to cook food, but also to fight to the best of his ability. Thus, the appeal names the person to whom we are addressing with a speech, and helps to understand the feelings of the characters, their attitude towards each other.

So, we are convinced of the following: to build a sentence, they use both vocabulary and grammar. Lexical and grammatical phenomena help to understand the author's intention, to more accurately determine the attitude of the author to the characters, the characters to each other.

SECOND OPTION OF THE ESSAY

L.V. Ouspensky states: “There are ... words in the language. The language has... grammar. These are the ways that language uses to build sentences.” Let's think about this statement together.

Any of our thoughts about the world around us is embodied in a word, words are built into sentences according to the laws of grammar. Let us consider how this is realized in an excerpt from M. A. Sholokhov’s novel “They Fought for the Motherland”.

The first sentence of the text is complex with a consistent subordination of subordinate clauses, it expresses a complete complex thought, from it we learn about Lopakhin's state of mind and that there is a retreat. And the vocabulary of the sentence, especially the epithets “hard and bitter” on the heart, “fierce battles”, troops “exhausted ... by shelling and bombing”, enhances the emotional perception of what is read.

Noteworthy in the syntax of the passage is the use of the dialogue(offers from No. 5 to No. 9, from No. 10 to 28 and others). The dialogue enlivens the narrative, helping to see how Lopakhin's attitude towards the cook is changing as he learns why the cook is not in the field kitchen, where he should be, but on the front line. Bitterness is replaced by respect, the ironic, embittered, ironic appeal "dear" changes to "you are my precious person."

Thus, we were convinced of the correctness of the words of L.V. Ouspensky that words and grammar are “the ways that language uses to build sentences”. Proper use of vocabulary and grammar of the language helps to present what the author wanted to convey to the reader, to understand his creative intent.

THIRD OPTION OF THE ESSAY

L.V. Ouspensky, in my opinion, speaks of the unity of the content and form of language. Words name an object, its sign or action, and grammar allows you to create a coherent statement, text.

So sentence 16 consists of ten separate words naming or pointing to the subject ("I", "newcomer") and his actions. Every fifth word in the sentence belongs to the high vocabulary (“dared”, “intrude”), allowing us to present the stranger as an intelligent person with the correct literary speech. If we write all these words separated by commas and in the initial form, then we get nonsense. But it is worth using all the verbs in the required form, and putting the pronoun "you" in the dative case - the words will receive a single meaning, turning into a sentence.

They play a role in turning a set of words into a syntactic construction and punctuation marks. So the three dashes in this sentence indicate the presence of a replica in a dialogue that is a complete thought.

Thus, we can conclude that the Russian philologist L.V. was right. Ouspensky, who argued that language uses vocabulary and grammar to build a sentence.

SAMPLE #2

Write an essay-reasoning, revealing the meaning of the statement of the Russian philologist L.V. Uspensky: “One vocabulary without grammar does not yet constitute a language. It is only when it comes to the disposal of grammar that it acquires the greatest significance.

L.V. Uspensky, in my opinion, speaks of the unity of the content and form of the language. Words call an object, its sign, the action of an object. But only! Only with the help of grammar is it possible to create a coherent statement from a set of words. Let us turn to the text of Y. Bondarev.

So sentence 25 consists of eight separate words naming an object, its action and a sign of this action. The author interestingly uses in this syntactic construction the antonyms “a lot and a little”, which give artistic speech a special sharpness and emotionality. They give it on the condition that we pass the indicated words “at the disposal of grammar”. For example, let's put the word "man" in the dative case, and the word "happiness" in the genitive case, create a phrase with a subordinating connection management: "it is necessary for happiness" (sentence 25). To express emotions, the author put an exclamation mark at the end of the sentence. And then the proposal received "the greatest significance."

Thus, I can conclude: the Russian philologist L.V. was right. Uspensky, who argued that “one vocabulary without grammar does not yet constitute a language. It is only when it comes to the disposal of grammar that it acquires the greatest significance.

SAMPLE #3

Write an essay-reasoning, revealing the meaning of the statement of the Russian philologist L.V. Uspensky: "Grammar allows us to connect any words to each other in order to express any thought about any subject."

The meaning of L.V. I understand Ouspensky as follows: grammar allows the words collected in a sentence to acquire a single meaning in order to express any thought. I will give examples based on sentence 2 of V. Astafiev's text.

It consists of thirteen individual words. If we write all these words separated by commas and in the initial form, then we get nonsense. But it is worth using them in the right form, as they get a single meaning and become a sentence telling about the white-breasted marten.

They play a role in turning a set of words into a syntactic construction and punctuation marks. Two commas in this sentence highlight the introductory word "perhaps", with which the speaker expresses his attitude to what he is talking about. In this sentence, the introductory word helps the narrator express his uncertainty, an assumption about what he is saying.

Thus, the Russian philologist L.V. was right. Ouspensky, who states that "grammar allows us to connect any words to each other in order to express any thought about any subject."

What is grammar? This is a branch of the science of language that studies word formation, morphology and syntax. If you do not create new words with the help of various morphemes, do not decline nouns and adjectives, do not conjugate verbs, do not use prepositions to connect words, you will get a meaningless verbal set. And only with the help of grammar this “word set” in our speech acquires a semantic meaning. I will give examples from the text of V.P. Astafiev.

So in sentences 1 and 2 I meet the grammatical form of the same word: "slope" and "slope". In the word "slope" the zero ending indicates that we have a noun used in the nominative or accusative case, and in the word "slope" belonging to the genitive case is expressed using the ending -a. It is the ending in these words that is a linguistic means that serves to express grammatical meaning and contribute to the connection of words in a phrase and sentence.

They play their role in turning a set of words into a syntactic construction expressing any thought, and punctuation marks. In sentence 4, the author uses several commas. So the first of them indicates the presence of homogeneous predicates: "warmed", "licked". They help the author to express more clearly the thought of what a caring mother Belogrudka was.

Thus, I can conclude that the Russian philologist L.V. was right. Uspensky, who stated: "... grammar allows us to connect any words to each other in order to express any thought about any subject."

L.V. Ouspensky argued: "Grammar allows us to connect any words to each other in order to express any thought about any subject." I completely agree with this, because without knowing the rules of grammar, we will not be able to express thoughts and connect words.

The text of the Russian writer V.P. will help us prove this. Astafiev. Thus, in sentence 5, the author replaces the stylistically neutral synonym "plenty" with the colloquial word "plenty", emphasizing the idea that Belogrudka was a very caring mother and "provided plenty of food" for her babies.

In sentence 2, the writer uses the introductory word "perhaps", which expresses doubt that the white-breasted marten is a secretive, timid animal. After all, it is no coincidence that in the finale of the story the marten, avenging her cubs, is no longer afraid to appear at people's houses even during the day (sentence 35).

Therefore, L.V. was right. Ouspensky, who argued that we convey our thoughts in words that are connected with the help of grammar.

C. 1 Write an essay-reasoning, revealing the meaning of the statement of the Russian philologist L. V. Uspensky: “There are ... words in the language. The language has… grammar. These are the ways that language uses to build sentences.”

L.V. Uspensky, in my opinion, speaks of the unity of the content and form of the language. Words name an object, its sign or action, and grammar allows you to create a coherent statement, text. I will give examples from the story of A. Aleksin.

Thus, sentence 16 consists of ten separate words naming or pointing to the subject ("I", "newcomer") and his actions. Every fifth word in the sentence belongs to the high vocabulary (“dared”, “intrude”), allowing us to present the stranger as an intelligent person with the correct literary speech. If we write all these words separated by commas and in the initial form, then we get nonsense. But it is worth using all the verbs in the required form, and putting the pronoun "you" in the dative case - the words will receive a single meaning, turning into a sentence.

They play a role in turning a set of words into a syntactic construction and punctuation marks. So, three dashes in this sentence indicate the presence of a replica in a dialogue that is a complete thought.

Thus, we can conclude that the Russian philologist L.V. Uspensky was right, who argued that the language uses vocabulary and grammar to build a sentence.

AT 2. Write an essay-reasoning, revealing the meaning of the statement of the Russian philologist L. V. Uspensky: “One vocabulary without grammar does not yet constitute a language. It is only when it comes to the disposal of grammar that it acquires the greatest significance.

So, sentence 25 consists of eight separate words that name the object, its action and the sign of this action. The author interestingly uses in this syntactic construction the antonyms "a lot and a little", which give artistic speech a special sharpness and emotionality. They give it on the condition that we pass the indicated words “at the disposal of grammar”.

For example, let's put the word "man" in the dative case, and the word "happiness" in the genitive case, create a phrase with a subordinating connection management: "it is necessary for happiness." To express the author's emotions, we put an exclamation mark at the end of the sentence. And then the proposal, according to L.V. Uspensky, will receive "the greatest significance."

AT 3. Write an essay-reasoning, revealing the meaning of the statement of the writer K. A. Fedin: "The accuracy of the word is not only a requirement of style, a requirement of taste, but, above all, a requirement of meaning." "The accuracy of the word is not only a requirement of style, a requirement of taste, but, above all, a requirement of meaning," the writer K.A. Fedin.

Indeed, the more precisely the writer chooses words to reveal his intention, the easier it is for the reader to understand not only what the author is talking about, but also what exactly he wants to say. So, for example, A. Aleksin, talking about the mother of the protagonist, does not use the stylistically neutral word "called", but the outdated word "called" (sentence 1), thereby showing the respectful attitude of others towards Kolka's mother.

If Kolka's father was an indispensable referee during yard volleyball matches, then his mother turned out to be a "referee" at home (sentence 15). Using the word "judge" in figurative meaning, A. Aleksin shows how fair Lyolya, Kolka's mother, was in everyday life, how much harmony in the family depended on her decisions.

Thus, the exact choice of words allowed A. Aleksin to tell very clearly about his heroine. The reader, in turn, got the opportunity to understand why Kolka was proud of his mother.

C. 4 Write an essay-reasoning, revealing the meaning of the statement of the outstanding Russian linguist Alexander Afanasyevich Potebnya: “The similarity between the conditional mood and the imperative is that both of them ... express not a real event, but an ideal one, that is, represented as existing only in the speaker’s thoughts” .

I understand the meaning of the statement of a famous linguist as follows: if verbs in the indicative mood denote actions that actually happened, are happening or will happen, then verbs in the conditional and imperative mood denote actions that are desired or possible under certain conditions.

So, in sentence 11 I find the verb of the imperative mood, which is included in the phraseological unit “keep in mind”. It denotes the motivation for action of the one to whom the speech is addressed.

And in sentences 13 and 26 I meet the conditional verbs “would have regretted” and “would have seen”, which, in my opinion, are used in the meaning of the imperative mood. Interlocutors give each other advice that, in their opinion, is useful.

Thus, the conditional and imperative moods are very similar, since they express desired actions, not actual ones.

C. 5. Write an essay-reasoning, revealing the meaning of the statement of the outstanding Russian writer M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin: “Thought forms itself without concealment, in its entirety; that is why it easily finds an expression that is clear to itself. And syntax, and grammar, and punctuation willingly obey her.

I agree with the statement of Mikhail Evgrafovich Saltykov-Shchedrin: "Thought forms itself without concealment, in its entirety; therefore, it easily finds a clear expression for itself. Both syntax, grammar, and punctuation marks willingly obey it." Indeed, syntax, grammar and punctuation help thoughts reach the reader faster and more intelligibly. I will prove this on the example of T. Ustinova's text.

In sentence 6, the author uses the phraseological unit "to see in a pink light", this stable combination is clear to us: do not notice the bad, see only the good. With the help of this means of expression, Ustinova was able to convey her idea to us: Timofey next to Masha is so good that he does not notice the bad.

There are many epithets and figurative definitions in the text. With their help, it becomes clearer to us those images about which the author writes. Sentence 41 contains the epithet "indifferent" sky. With the help of this expressive means, T. Ustinova, comparing the state of the hero and nature, conveyed the mood of Timothy, who is lonely, who has no one to pity.

Here it is, a thought formed "without concealment, in its entirety" not without the help of syntax, grammar and punctuation marks!

C. 6. Write an essay-reasoning, revealing the meaning of the statement taken from the Literary Encyclopedia: “Forcing the characters to talk to each other, instead of conveying their conversation on their own, the author can bring the appropriate shades to such a dialogue. He characterizes his characters with themes and manner of speech.

Do you imagine a work of art where all the characters are silent? Of course not. When they talk, they seem to be talking about themselves. I will give examples.

The entire text proposed for analysis is a dialogue from which we form an idea about the characters. So, Fox, in my opinion, is a wise creature. It is no coincidence that he owns expressions that have become aphorisms: “Only the heart is vigilant” (sentence 47) and “... you are forever responsible for everyone you tamed” (sentence 52).

Another character, the Little Prince, is very lonely and inexperienced. But he wants to learn everything. This is evidenced by his remark from their dialogue: “What should be done for this?”

Thus, I can conclude that the statement from the Literary Encyclopedia is true. Indeed, the author "... characterizes his characters with the theme and manner of speech."

AT 7. Write an essay-reasoning, revealing the meaning of the statement of the Russian writer K. G. Paustovsky: “There are no such sounds, colors, images and thoughts for which there would be no exact expression in our language.”

I understand the words of K. G. Paustovsky as follows: there is no object in the Universe for which a person has not come up with exact words. The Russian language is especially rich in expressions, because many words in it are used in a direct and figurative sense, a huge number of synonyms and antonyms, paronyms and phraseological units, comparisons and metaphors. Let's turn to the text.

So, in sentence 52 it is said that "... the extinguished sky pressed tightly ... against the waves." Before us is a metaphor, with the help of which the author conveys the drowsiness of the evening nature surrounding Kostya, and evokes a sad mood.

In sentences 33, 53 and 54 I find words and phrases that clearly characterize a devoted dog. So, the phraseological unit “did not take her eyes off” helps the writer show how faithfully the dog is waiting for its deceased owner. And the epithets in the phrases “permanent fasting” and “eternal expectation” give the text a special expressiveness, exacerbate the tragedy of the described situation.

Consequently, the Russian writer K. G. Paustovsky was right, stating that "... there are no such sounds, colors, images and thoughts for which there would not be an exact expression in our language."

C. 8. Write an essay-reasoning, revealing the meaning of the statement of the Russian linguist Boris Nikolaevich Golovin: “We should approach the assessment of the merits of speech with the question: how well are various language units selected from the language and used to express thoughts and feelings?”

What language units do I know? This word, phrase, sentence ... It is they, well chosen, that make it possible to draw a conclusion about the merits of speech. I will give examples from the text where we see the main character Costa through the eyes of his teacher Evgenia Ivanovna.

At the beginning of the story, the boy irritated the teacher because he constantly yawned in class. How figuratively, with the help of well-chosen words and phrases in sentence 1, the author depicts this process of yawning! The boy “closed his eyes”, “wrinkled his nose” and “opened his mouth wide” ... And this was in the lesson! Agree, the picture is not pleasant.

At the end of the story, Costa will reveal herself to the teacher as a kind and merciful person. And the author will say that in front of Yevgenia Ivanovna the boy "changed like a rosemary twig." How successfully Yu.Ya. Yakovlev is a comparison!

I can conclude that the Russian linguist B.N. was right. Golovin, who argued that “... we should approach the assessment of the merits of speech with the question: how well are various language units selected from the language and used to express thoughts and feelings?”

AT 9. Write an essay-reasoning, revealing the meaning of the statement of the Russian philologist L. V. Uspensky: “Grammar allows us to connect any words to each other in order to express any thought about any subject.”

I understand the meaning of L. V. Uspensky’s statement as follows: grammar allows the words collected in a sentence to acquire a single meaning in order to express any thought. I will give examples based on Proposition 2.

Thus, the Russian philologist L. V. Uspensky was right, stating that "... grammar allows us to connect any words to each other in order to express any thought about any subject."

AT 10 O'CLOCK. Write an essay-reasoning, revealing the meaning of the statement of the Russian writer I. A. Goncharov: “Language is not only dialect, speech: language is the image of the entire inner person, all forces, mental and moral.”

This is how I understand this phrase. With the help of language, we can not only communicate, but also represent the image of any person. I will give examples.

Sentence 49 “What have you done, young naturalist!”, which Tolik shouted crying, helps us to imagine both the excitement that the boy experienced during the fire, and his admiration for the act of his friend, who was burned, but saved the little chickens. Tolik respectfully looked at him, envied Temka ...

And he envied in vain! In sentences 35 - 38 it is said that Tolya is also a hero. He directed all his physical and moral strength to save his friend. And we learn about this from the text, written in an accessible and emotional language.

Thus, we can conclude that the Russian writer I. A. Goncharov was right when he asserted that "... language is not only dialect, speech: language is the image of the entire inner person, all forces, mental and moral."

AT 11. Write an essay-reasoning, revealing the meaning of the statement of the Russian linguist A.A. Zelenetsky: "Giving imagery to words is constantly being improved in modern speech through epithets."

Undoubtedly, epithets give imagery and emotionality to modern speech. I will dwell on a number of examples.

First, in sentences 2,10,26, using the epithets "giant", "majestic", "beautiful" (animal), E. Seton-Thompson draws us an unusual deer of the Sandy Hills. All these colorful definitions help to vividly and clearly describe the handsome deer and give us the opportunity to see it the way it appeared that morning in front of the hunter.

Secondly, in sentences 6,16,25 I find epithets expressed in qualitative adverbs: “move silently”, “sounded uncertainly, weakly”, “spoke authoritatively and loudly” These epithets help to describe the action picturesquely.

I can conclude that the linguist A.A. was right. Zelenetsky: epithets allow us to make our speech brighter, more emotional, to give imagery to words.

C. 12. Write an essay-reasoning, revealing the meaning of the statement of the linguist M.N. Kozhina: "The reader penetrates the world of images of a work of art through its speech fabric."

The statement of M. N. Kozhina prompted me to the following thoughts ... Reading the words and sentences underlying the speech fabric of the work, we recreate in our imagination the world that was born by the writer's pen. We sympathize with some characters with all our hearts, even love them, the actions of others revolt us, bad character traits cause rejection. Let's take a look at the proposed text.

From Taborka's words about the dog, we can conclude that this is a very kind, sympathetic boy. Only a generous person can say: “There is only joy from a dog” (sentence 35). And with what confidence in sentence 59 the hero says what he will do when he becomes an adult: “I will protect the dogs!”

In sentences 31,38-39, which are the dialogue's replicas of the hero, the negative image of Taborka's father and the boy's attitude towards him are recreated. He, never calling his father “dad”, only asks himself or his interlocutor a rhetorical question: “What prevented him from the dog?” With just one phrase in sentence 46 (“And now I don’t have a dog”), the boy expresses his grief and intransigence towards his father, who drove the dog out of the house.

Thus, I can conclude that the linguist M.N. Kozhina was right, stating that "... the reader penetrates the world of images of a work of art through its speech tissue."

C. 13. Write an essay-reasoning, revealing the meaning of the statement of the linguist Iraida Ivanovna Postnikova: "Having both lexical and grammatical meaning, a word can be combined with other words, included in a sentence." A word can be included in a sentence only when combined with other words that have lexical and grammatical meaning. I will give examples.

Firstly, in sentence 8 of K. Osipov's text, I find among the words: "library", "books", "mind", the word "food" that would seem to be inappropriate in meaning. But, used by the author in a figurative sense (“that which is a source for something”, in this case, a “source” for enriching knowledge), it is very suitable for this verbal set and is “included” in the sentence with full rights.

Secondly, sentence 25 of the text, consisting of ten words, becomes a syntactic unit only when the author agrees the adjective with the noun in gender, number and case, puts three verbs in the past tense and the singular, the phraseological unit “caught on the fly”, which is the predicate agrees with the subject.

Thus, I can conclude: I. I. Postnikova was right, stating that only “having both lexical and grammatical meaning, a word can be combined with other words, included in a sentence.”

B. 14. Write an essay-reasoning, revealing the meaning of the statement of the famous linguist A. A. Reformatsky: “Pronominal words are secondary words, substitute words. The golden fund for pronouns are significant words, without which the existence of pronouns is “devalued”.

The term "pronoun" comes from the Latin "pronomen", which means "instead of a name", that is, instead of a noun, adjective and numeral. The linguist A.A. Reformatsky was right in saying that “significant words are the golden fund for pronouns.” Without them, the existence of pronouns is meaningless. Let's turn to the text.

So, in sentences 7-8, 19-20, instead of the word "Demosthenes" the personal pronoun "he" is used. This replacement allows the authors of the book to avoid lexical repetition, making speech more concise and expressive.

In sentence 20 I find the relative pronoun "which", replacing the noun "expressiveness" and used to connect parts of a complex sentence with each other.

Thus, I can conclude that "... pronominal words are secondary words, .. substitutes" for significant words, without which the existence of pronouns is "devalued"

B. 15. Write an essay-reasoning, revealing the meaning of the statement of the linguist Alexander Alexandrovich Reformatsky: “What in the language allows it to fulfill its main role - the function of communication? It's the syntax."

Syntax studies the structure of coherent speech, which means that it is this section of the language that helps to solve the function of communication.

An important syntactic device is the dialogue (the form of speech in which communication takes place), which is presented in the text of L. Panteleev very widely. I will give examples.

Sentences 39 - 40 ("-I am a sergeant ... - And I am a major ..."), which are replicas of the dialogue, are distinguished by the brevity of the statement, characteristic of colloquial speech. In the replicas of the dialogue I find several references that help in the process of communication to designate the person to whom the speech is addressed. For example, in sentence 37: - Comrade guard, - said the commander.

Thus, I can conclude that the linguist A. A. Reformatsky was right: the syntax presented in this text in the form of a dialogue, calls, allows you to perform the communicative function of the language.

B. 16. Write an essay-reasoning, revealing the meaning of the statement of the modern scientist S. I. Lvova: “Punctuation marks have their own specific purpose in written speech. Like every note, the punctuation mark has its own place in the writing system, it has its own unique "character".

No. 1 Punctuation marks, in the words of A.P. Chekhov, are “reading notes”, which help in the perception of the text, lead our thoughts in the direction given by the author. In the proposed passage, I find almost all existing punctuation marks: a period and a question mark, an exclamation mark and a comma, a dash and a colon, an ellipsis and quotation marks.

The most common character in text is the comma. It is found both in a complex sentence, and in a simple complicated one, and in a dialogue ... Sentence 18 seemed interesting to me, where the comma, firstly, separates the repeated words “..thank you, thank you ...”, and secondly, it highlights the word-address “old man”, thirdly, this sign is present at the junction of direct speech and the words of the author.

The second sign I noticed was the exclamation mark. In sentence 11, “How hard it is to wake up after this!” it helps the author to express the gamut of negative feelings that Meresyev experiences after a dream in which he saw himself as healthy.

Thus, we can conclude that each punctuation mark “has its own specific place in the writing system, has its own unique “character”.

No. 2 I understand the meaning of the statement of the linguist Svetlana Ivanovna Lvova as follows: each punctuation mark has its own specific place, its own “character” and its purpose in the text. I will give examples from the text of B. Polevoy.

So, in the non-union complex sentence (2) I meet such a punctuation mark as a colon, which not only separates two simple sentences in a complex one, but also indicates that one of them explains the other. Sentence 11 of the text with an exclamation point emphasizes the emotional experiences of the hero. Thus, S.I. was right. Lvova, who argued that “... like every note, the punctuation mark has its own specific place in the writing system, has its own unique “character”.

B. 17. Write an essay-reasoning, revealing the meaning of the statement of the French writer N. Chamfort: "The author goes from thought to words, and the reader - from words to thought." According to the French writer Nicolas de Chamfort: "The author goes from thought to words, and the reader - from words to thought." I agree with this statement. Indeed, both the author and the reader are two links in the same chain. And you, and I, and each of us - we all constantly think. Is it possible to think without words?

By what words a person uses in speech, how he builds sentences, you can tell a lot about him. To express the special emotional state of the speaker, in this case the female boss, the author uses parceling in 14-22 sentences. Sentence 42 reinforces the idea that the author carefully chose the words to put into the mouth of a nurse, cynical, tough, who values little abandoned children as a commodity. How not to be indignant, because she says about them: “Ours are white, strong, however, there are many patients ...” Thus, I can conclude that N. Chamfort was right. After all, the author draws images, pictures, thoughts, actions, actions in words in order to enable us, readers, to imagine the events described, to convey our emotions, to evoke response feelings and experiences.

B. 18. Write an essay-reasoning, revealing the meaning of the statement of the linguist Alexander Ivanovich Gorshkov: “Expressiveness is the property of what is said or written in its semantic form to attract special attention of the reader, to make a strong impression on him.” There are many means of expression in the Russian language. These are metaphors, epithets, hyperbole... The authors use these artistic techniques to "...attract special attention of the reader, make a strong impression on him." I will give examples from the text.

So, in sentences 4,6,7 I meet lexical repetitions: “sentencing, sentencing”, “sentencing, sentenced”, “stroking ... and stroking”, - helping A.A. Likhanov to tell how long and stubbornly the caretaker looked after Pryakhin.

In sentence 5 I find the metaphor “pupils dilated with pain”, which allows readers to more vividly imagine the painful state of Alexei.

Thus, I agree with the words of the linguist A. I. Gorshkov: figurativeness, emotionality and expressiveness of speech enhance its effectiveness, contribute to better understanding, perception and memorization, and deliver aesthetic pleasure.

V. 19. Write an essay-reasoning, revealing the meaning of the statement of the Russian writer Boris Viktorovich Shergin: "An oral phrase transferred to paper always undergoes some processing, at least in terms of syntax." Undoubtedly, “an oral phrase transferred to paper is always subjected to some processing,” because oral speech is primary, and written speech is edited and improved. Book vocabulary, complex extended sentences, participial and adverbial phrases predominate in written speech. In oral speech, repetitions, incomplete, simple sentences, colloquial words and expressions are observed.

For example, in sentence 1 I find the adverbial phrase “perched on the fence”, which indicates that we have a written speech, not an oral one. Thus, the above examples and reasoning show that oral speech changes a lot under the writer's pen.

V. Oseeva actively uses in the text such a syntactic device as ellipsis. So, in sentence 18 (“Wait ... I’ll arrange a trick for her!”), This sign after the words of Levka can mean a lot! Perhaps in the conversation the boy at that moment showed something or depicted it with a gesture. The author, having processed the phrase, put an ellipsis.

Syntax, I think, greatly helps the writer to process "an oral phrase transferred to paper."

IN 20. Write an essay-reasoning, revealing the meaning of the statement of the linguist I.I. Postnikova: "The ability of a word to communicate with other words is manifested in a phrase." Words have the ability to connect in meaning and grammatically as part of a phrase. I will give examples from the text of A. Likhanov.

In sentence 1, the words “splash” and “inflorescences”, having combined in meaning and grammatically with the help of the preposition “in” and the ending -y of the dependent noun, created the phrase “splashing in inflorescences”, which more clearly defines the action of the subject, since the dependent word clarifies the meaning main.

In sentence 9 I find the phrase “uncomprehending eyes”, where two words showed the ability, when combined in the composition of the phrase with the help of the ending -ie of the dependent participle, to more accurately determine the attribute of the subject.

Thus, I can conclude that the linguist I.I. Postnikova, who argued that "... the ability of a word to communicate with other words is manifested in a phrase."

AT 21. Write an essay-reasoning, revealing the meaning of the statement of the German linguist Georg von Gabelenz: "A person not only expresses something with language, but also expresses himself with it." The best way to get to know a person is to listen to how he speaks, because speech reflects his inner state, feelings, culture of behavior. I will give examples from the text of V. Oseeva.

So, in sentence 2 I see Pavlik's remark "... move over!", addressed to the old man. The boy speaks harshly and dryly, using neither respectful address nor "magic word". The speech shows what an ill-bred child is before us. But Pavlik, having mastered the “magic word” given by the old man, is transformed before our eyes! In the child’s address to his grandmother (sentence 53), everything changes: he uses not only the magic “please”, but also words with diminutive suffixes “a piece of pie”. Just a few words! And before us is a completely different person! Thus, I can conclude that the German linguist Georg von Gabelenz was right: "... with language, a person not only expresses something, but also expresses himself with it."

An essay-reasoning for a linguistic theme "Grammar allows us to connect any words to each other in order to express any thought about any subject." L. V. Uspensky

The Russian language is very rich and beautiful. To express your thoughts beautifully and accessible, you need to use not a random set of words arranged in a chaotic manner, but obey the laws of grammar. It is she who allows you to choose all the words in the sentence successfully and harmoniously, use them in the right form and put each in its place. This is exactly what the famous linguist L. V. Uspensky is talking about, who insists that grammar is a unique link that can connect any words and express any thought.
And this is true, because it is grammar that allows you to connect almost any words with each other, fasten them with a semantic connection, allows you to convey any thought clearly and intelligibly, while remaining understood and heard. Using a variety of words, swapping them, you can get a completely new meaning and color the sentence in piquant shades. One has only to add a prefix to the desired word, and it will play in a new way, become more expressive.
Many people believe that only teachers and writers should correctly express their thoughts both in speech and in writing. But this is fundamentally not the right position. Without the use of grammar, expressing one's own thoughts clearly and transparently is a very difficult task, and interferes with a person's life. After all, a person deprived of the ability to colorfully express his thoughts and desires is a bird deprived of wings. Namely, grammar gives us the opportunity to soar into the sky.
Grammar is unique tool, which conveys the logic and train of thought of a person, exposes his thinking and aspirations. Using such a powerful tool, one can vividly describe all emotions and experiences, unheard-of joy and despondency of sadness. An important role is played by vocabulary and an abundance of vocabulary, which very accurately formulate thoughts and adequately express them in writing.
Therefore, the statement of L. V. Uspensky about the importance of grammar in expressing thoughts remains indisputable. In order for the train of thought to be clear to the reader, and the beauty of the presentation of the text to amaze, it is necessary to use the rules of grammar.

St. Petersburg State University of Economics and Finance

Abstract analysis

On the book "Word about words", chapter II, "Various theories of the origin of language"

1st year students

125 groups

Lychko Maria

Checked

Valentina Ivanovna

Saint Petersburg

Abstract plan:

Introduction

Lev Vasilievich Uspensky. Biography

Foreword

Main thought. Content

Own opinion, assessment

Introduction

My work is dedicated to the book by Lev Vasilyevich Uspensky "A Word about Words". The book of a remarkable linguist tells in a fascinating way about the properties of the language, its history, about the languages that exist in the world now and existed in the distant past, about what the magnificent science of linguistics is doing.

I would like to start my analysis with a brief biography of the author, as well as the idea of creating a book and the facts that contributed to this.

Lev Vasilievich Uspensky. Biography

Lev Vasilyevich Uspensky (01/27/1900 - 12/18/1978)

He is a contemporary of the twentieth century. The childhood of Lev Uspensky and his younger brother (later co-author) Vsevolod was quite prosperous. A well-to-do, moreover, intelligent St. Petersburg family; children get a good education. Little Leo is fond of reading Brehm, railway and aviation. The last interest would not let him go even years later: in 1929, while collecting an aviation dictionary, he, by the way, flew several times on the Junkers-13 with Valery Chkalov.

Children's verbal impressions were alive and varied:
“... When I myself was in infancy, my grandmother came in the evenings to read a prayer over me: “Blessed mother to sleep the baby Lyova ...” Only much later, already a youth, I thought about these strange words and asked my grandmother: what is she talking about me read? She read: “Bless, holy mother, for the dream to come…” But the magic formula remained in my mind exactly in the form in which I perceived it, without understanding anything, “from that time on.”
Another, bookish, impression:

“To this day I remember engraved in gold on the spines of the Encyclopedia of Brockhaus, standing behind glass in my father’s closet, mysterious and alluring pairs of words: vol. VII - “Bittsburg to Bosch”, vol. XVII - “Goa to Engraver”. And the most mysterious, on which was written: "Infancy before Meishagol." For me, it is indisputable that it was from these golden-shiny spines that my love for books began.
After the revolutionary upheavals, the Uspenskys remained in Russia. Lev Vasilyevich was going to be a forestry scientist, but in the mid-1920s he finally chose linguistics as his occupation. He graduated from the verbal department of the Institute of Art History (which existed until 1930). Lectures were given by L.V. Shcherba, V.M. Zhirmunsky, B.V. Tomashevsky, B.A. Larin, B.M. Eikhenbaum, Yu.N. Much later, in an essay on the culture of speech, Ouspensky wrote about his teachers: “All of them mastered the art of polished, elegant, captivating speech from the pulpit. In this art, they were able to combine the highest signs of “correctness” with the freedom of a witty deviation from the “rules”, with decorating the “learned style” with sparkles of deliberate errors against it ... ". It is important to note that Ouspensky clearly distinguished between genuinely cultured Russian speech and false, smooth, seemingly witty chatter. We read in the same essay: “...“play” can and should remain only “play”, that is, some part of the very material of speech. If it begins to displace the whole language, to replace it and replace it, then tragedy begins. High wit turns into so-called joking ... ". It is high wit that is a characteristic feature of the philological books of Ouspensky himself. Then, while studying at the Institute of Art History, he, in his own words, "decided sometime in the future to start writing books on "Entertaining Linguistics"". There was also a story with the encryption of a letter for the novel "The Smell of Lemon". Uspensky wrote an adventurous novel together with his friend L.A. Rubinov, and they could not encrypt a spy letter with the help of Pushkin's ballad "Mermaid", in which the word "oil" must have been present. The letter "ef" was not found in other classical Russian verses either. The involuntary investigation of the fate of this letter so captivated the philology student that he decided to prefer entertaining linguistics to fiction. And "The Smell of Lemon", a novel by Lev Rubus, was still printed.

L.V. Uspensky also wrote other fiction books: in 1939, in collaboration with the military historian G.N. Karaev, the novel Pulkovo Meridian, and in 1955, the novel with the same characters defenders of Leningrad. Lev Vasilievich himself participated in the defense of his native city, for his courage he was awarded the Order of the Red Star. About his fellow countrymen, Leningraders and Pskovians, he wrote both the story "Skobar" and stories - here he conveys with great accuracy the features of the folk dialect. As a linguist, Uspensky in the 1920s and 30s published the articles “The Language of the Revolution” and “Materials on the Language of Russian Pilots” and worked in a team of scientists led by B.A. Larin to compile the “Dictionary of the Old Russian Language”. It's amazing how he did it! After all, at the same time he began to write for children. The first book was called "The Cat on the Plane". Uspensky was published in the magazines "Chizh" and "Hedgehog", in collaboration with V.A. Kamsky, Ya.I. Together with his brother Vsevolod Vasilievich, he made an excellent retelling of ancient Greek myths: "The 12 Labors of Hercules" (1938) and "The Golden Fleece" (1941). Then there was "Entertaining Geography" (1947), "On 101 Islands: Stories about Leningrad" (1957) and "With Seven Seals: Essays on Archeology" (1958, both co-authored with K.N. Schneider).

"A Word about Words" - the first book for schoolchildren on linguistics - was published in Detgiz in 1954. Although one of the chapters of this book - "Gloka Kuzdra" - was published in Pioneer back in 1936. What kind of kudra is this? Glokaya. This is a story about how Professor L.V. Shcherba, giving a lecture on the course "Introduction to Linguistics", ordered one student to write the following phrase on the blackboard: "The ghastly kuzdra shteko has bobbed up the beak and curls the beak." The professor easily and cheerfully proved to the astonished students that this phrase is similar to an algebraic formula, because, assembled from words with fictitious roots, it is nevertheless built according to the laws of Russian grammar. “You can even translate it,” said the professor, “the translation would be something like this: “Something feminine in one step did something on some kind of male creature, and then started doing something like this for a long, gradual one with his cub ". Is that correct?" Right. And this is a sure way to entertain schoolchildren about linguistics - a science that often seems to them not very interesting. Actually, "Word about words" is an entertaining introduction to linguistics. How entertaining - testifies the writer Boris Almazov: “I was ten years old and my ear hurt. (Happy is the one who does not know what it is - I couldn’t find a place for myself from pain.) But then my grandmother brought a book from the library. I opened it without any interest, somewhere in the middle, read a few lines and could not stop. The book was taken away from me by force only at midnight, when the Kremlin chimes were beating on the radio” (“The Tale of the Assumption”). The book was "with a bang" adopted by children and adults. Lev Vasilyevich received tens of thousands of letters and answered almost all of them! Since then, correspondence with readers has become for him an occupation that requires more and more time. Let's get back to the book itself. It consists of a preface and eight chapters.

In my work, I will consider only the second chapter, which deals with theories of the origin of language. But first, let's look at the preface.

Foreword

Lev Uspensky begins his book with a preface in which he talks about the extreme importance of language, its significance and omnipresence: “Everything that people do in the truly human world is done with the help of language. It is impossible to work without it in concert, together with others. Without his mediation, it is unthinkable to advance science, technology, crafts, art - life a single step.

The author also cites several pairs of words similar in gender, and one declension, but at the same time changing in cases in completely different ways; this question is of interest to Uspensky. Further, he writes about the history of the language, about the existence of several past tenses and how they influenced the modern (mid-20th century) Russian language. “….let us turn to the history of the Slavic languages in general. All of them once knew not one past tense, as we do now, but a whole system of such tenses: imperfect simple, two perfect (simple and complex), long past. Anyone who studies English, German or French will not be surprised by this. “You know that there are many languages in the world. But how many exactly are there on the globe? A hundred, a thousand, ten thousand? No, there are only two and a half, three thousand. Why are there so many? Are they similar or are they all completely different? Where did they come from? - these questions are asked by the author further in the preface.

Ouspensky gives two descriptions of the death of Prince Oleg, and these small fragments of works interested me:

"The prince quietly stepped on the horse's skull

And he said: "Sleep, lonely friend! ..

So that's where my death lurked!

The bone threatened me with death!"

From the dead head the coffin snake

Meanwhile, hersing crawled out;

Like a black ribbon wrapped around the legs,
And suddenly the stung prince cried out.

So A. S. Pushkin tells us the legend of the death of Oleg of Kyiv, sets out in magnificent Russian.

And here is another story about the same legendary incident:

"And Oleg arrived at the place, where his bones (of the horse - L.U.) were lying, and his forehead was bare ... and step with your foot on your forehead; take out the snake and peck and in your leg and die from that sickness." What language is it written in? Polish, Czech? No! Before us is also a beautiful and correct Russian language, but such as our ancestors used seven or eight centuries before Pushkin. Compare both narratives, and it will become clear to you what a changeable thing, constantly taking on new forms, is language. Language is like a river. The Volga today does not flow the way it did in the days of the Khazars and the Polovtsians. Nevertheless, this is the same Volga. So it is with language."

In the last paragraphs and lines of the preface, the author tells us how important and necessary linguistics is, and brings some clarity to the ideas about the work of linguists. (“No, truly linguistics is a magnificent science!”).

The author set himself the goal: “... to tell not everything, but some of what people know about the language, maybe not even the most significant, not the most important; but on the other hand, the most accessible to understanding and at the same time capable of arousing interest.

Lev Uspensky ends the preface with gratitude to the people who helped him in replenishing and expanding the editions of his book, as well as to the readers.

Main thought. Content

Let's move on to the content of the second chapter of the book and its main idea.

The author writes that three-quarters of the thick volumes written over hundreds of years on linguistics are devoted to solving such questions as "Where and how did people get this amazing ability to speak? How did they learn the language?"

And Lev Uspensky gives us several theories that answer these questions each in its own way.

Interest in the problem of the origin of language arose long ago. At different times and by different scientists this question was solved differently. The ancient Greeks, discussing the nature of the relationship between the name (word) and the subject, substantiated two concepts of the origin of the word. Supporters first concept The origin of the word considered the appearance of words supernatural, divine, without human intervention.

By second concept, words are reflections of things, phenomena and arise as a result of the impact of the real world on people. People themselves give names to all things, based on qualities. This is manifested in the fact that the sounds of the word are associated with the qualities individual items. Greek philosophers believed that if there were no sounding speech, then people would express themselves with gestures, imitating objects. In the case when they use speech, they also imitate objects, but not the sounds that objects make, but their signs and qualities. The position of the organs of speech reproduces the features of the object. For example, the sound, [p] is pronounced by shaking the organs of speech, therefore it expresses such qualities of the subject as shaking, sharpness. The sound [Υ] (gamma) “clings to a sliding tongue”, so it conveys stickiness, stickiness. This theory was later continued in the onomatopoeic theory.

Ouspensky in his book gives us his own interpretation of these theories.

So, the first theory - the Divine theory, says that the language was given by God. At the time when this theory arose, all phenomena that man could not explain were attributed to the will of God, and therefore the heavenly origin was granted to language.

Different peoples had their own ideas, legends and myths about this. The Gospel says: "In the beginning of everything there was a word. This word was addressed to God. It itself was God. Everything was contained in this word, and apart from it, nothing in the world could appear ..."

But there are contradictions here - how can words exist without a person? Without the one who pronounces it?

In the biblical Hebrew myths, the appearance of language is said differently, but even there there are contradictions: first, God gives names to phenomena, and then allows this to a person. And the main thing is that “God spoke Hebrew words at a time when not only the Jewish people, but also man in general, and even the Earth itself, did not yet exist.”

“Of course, even ancient people could not long be satisfied with such confused and contradictory tales. They began to think differently about the human ability to speak. And it began to occur to many that this ability is one of the natural, natural properties of a person.

One of the first who tried to prove this experimentally was Pharaoh Psammetich. And this attempt is described by Herodotus, the Greek historian and philosopher. I will quote from the book, since everything is clearly and accessible in it: “Before Pharaoh Psammetich, an Ethiopian by birth, reigned in Egypt, the Egyptians arrogantly considered themselves the most ancient people in the world.

King Psammetich, however, wished to make sure - is this true or not? After his investigation, the Egyptians had to admit that the Phrygians appeared on earth before everyone else, and consider themselves the second oldest people.

Psammetikos for a long time failed to achieve a solution to the issue, and he finally figured out how to do it.

He ordered that two babies be taken away from their parents - the Egyptians of the simplest rank - and raised away from people, in a secluded place, under the supervision of an old shepherd of the royal flocks. It was strictly ordered that the children grow up on their own, seeing no one, and the shepherd would take care of them himself, feed them with goat's milk, not allow anyone to see them and not utter a single word in their presence, either in Egyptian or in English. other languages.

The inquisitive Pharaoh invented all these strictness in order to find out what the first word will fall from the children's lips when the time comes for the little ones to speak.

Everything was done according to the royal wish.

Two years later, the shepherd, once entering the hut with milk and bread, heard how both children, clinging to him and hugging him with their arms, began to repeat an incomprehensible word: "Bekos, bekos!"

At first, the elder did not attach any importance to this. However, since every time the children saw him, he heard the same word from them, it occurred to him to report this to his master. The pharaoh immediately summoned the learned men and began to inquire what people knew the word "bekos" and what it meant in their language. Finally managed to find out that this is how the Phrygians call bread.

Since then, on the basis of such irrefutable evidence, the Egyptians had to admit that their Phrygian neighbors are an older tribe than they themselves, and that the Phrygian language has all the birthrights ... "

Old Herodotus ingenuously wrote down everything that various experienced people told him. They wrote down this obvious invention. According to him, one has to think that Psammetichus was only concerned with the question of which people were older.

But it is very possible that the inquisitive pharaoh wanted to know not this, but something completely different. Perhaps he was trying to verify the tales of the priests, who claimed that the Egyptian language was not only the first, but also divine, that it was given to the Egyptians by their harsh gods themselves. It was not safe even for the pharaoh to start such a test in the open; for the sake of "insurance" he came up with an intricate pretext for her.

True, judging sensibly, Psammetichus should have considered his cruel experience superfluous. Long before him, nature performed exactly the same experiments thousands of times - and always with the same result.

In Egypt, as elsewhere, deaf children were often born or infants lost their hearing from various diseases. It was not necessary to lock them up in secluded huts so that the words of human speech did not reach them; even living among people, they did not hear anything and certainly could not learn the human language. And always, from the beginning of days, such deaf babies invariably became dumb. Not one of them ever spoke himself, not in Phrygian, not in Egyptian, not in any other language. Watching them, one could firmly say: no, by itself, without the help of other people, without training, not a single person is able to start talking.

Language is not given to a person "by nature", although this is how he develops the ability to breathe, smile with joy, cry in pain, suck mother's milk or wince at the sour taste in his mouth.

A person can learn a language only from another person, from other people. Language is born and lives only where people communicate with each other.

Herodotus Psammetich could not, of course, judge in this way. He sacredly believed his experience and became convinced that people have a natural, innate ability to speak. He remained convinced that, sooner or later, every person, if he is not "confusing", will speak Phrygian. Thus, for him, the riddle of human language was solved.

But this theory did not satisfy many. Naturally, many others also appeared, but the most widespread were those three, which Lev Vasilievich Uspensky tells about further.

wow wow theory.

Or otherwise - the theory of onomatopoeia, explained the appearance of the first words by imitation of the sounds of nature. For example, in the words cuckoo, meow, bang, croak, the basis of the word is the sound features of these actions.

The principle of sound imitation, however, was not limited to the imitation of the sounds of nature. This principle was also extended by the supporters of the theory to the reflection in the sound of a word of a non-sound sign of the called object, phenomenon. In this case, the sounds were endowed with the ability to be symbols of any feelings, qualities. So, in the words bagel, bob, lips, the sound [b] is associated with something round, protruding. The theory of onomatopoeia in its infancy appeared in the arguments of ancient Greek philosophers. This theory is presented in an expanded form in the works
G. Leibniz.

In support of this theory, many words can be cited that are similar to the sounds emitted by the object to which the word itself refers. As in the case of the cuckoo, it is enough to compare the words that I call this bird in other languages, and we immediately see the similarity:

For Russians, she is a cuckoo
In the Czech Republic - cuckoo
Bulgarians have kukuvitsa
The Germans have a kukuk
The French have kuku
Romanians have cook
Spanish - Cuco
In Italy, cuculo
In Turkey, guguk

This argument convinces many who are superficially acquainted with theories, but Ouspensky believes that she cannot explain the origin of the entire language.

But, of course, it has its advantages.

For example, it is positive to try to consider the mechanism of production of the first human words. In addition, the recognition of the original connection between sound and meaning proves the natural, and not divine, nature of the emergence of language. Studies of recent decades assign a significant role to onomatopoeia and sound symbolism, along with sign language, in the emergence of human language.

But, again, it is suitable for explaining some words. But in the case of the great and mighty, she is powerless.

Ouspensky calls the second theory "Mouths of Babies"

As for the "children's" language, then there were opponents. And Uspensky explains the main drawback of this theory as follows: “The movements of babies are still uncomprehending, random; they mismanage them. In the same way, they continuously emit, either clumsily slapping their lips in different ways, then squeezing them, then opening, incomprehensible sounds.

“The baby feels cold, then warm, then satiety, then hunger ... He responds to all this with movements and voice, babble. The mother came up, so he starts his own: "bababa" or "mother". They began to feed him - he again purrs something of the same kind. What exactly? Yes, absolutely nothing: what will happen.

But adults are used to the language; used to speak and understand what others say. And they involuntarily begin to put into each sound made by the child the meaning that seems to them (and not at all to him) to be the most suitable.

Comparing with other languages, we trace the fact that in some languages the word mother means father (Georgian), and dad means bread.

This means that the opponents of this theory are right: it cannot explain the true origin of language.

But there is also a third theory. - Theory of emotional cries

This - emotional theory of the origin of language, or interjectional theory.

According to supporters of this theory, the language of the first people was the language that expressed human emotions. The first words were interjections, since it is this group of words in all languages that reflects feelings. The meaning of interjections depended on the situation.

Interjection theory is directly related to the theory of labor cries. According to this theory, the first words were exclamations that escaped from people during labor movements. However, cries cannot be considered words, since they are not the names of feelings, but constitute their direct expression.

Its most important representative was J.-J. Rousseau. (1712-1778). In a treatise on the origin of languages, Rousseau wrote that "passions caused the first sounds of the voice." According to Rousseau, "the first languages were melodious and passionate, and only later did they become simple and methodical." According to Rousseau, it turned out that the first languages were much richer than the subsequent ones. But civilization has corrupted man. That is why language, according to Rousseau, has deteriorated from being richer, more emotional, more direct, and has become dry, rational and methodical.
The emotional theory of Rousseau received a peculiar development in the 19th and 20th centuries and became known as the theory of interjections. One of the defenders of this theory, the Russian linguist Kudryavsky (1863-1920), believed that interjections were a kind of first human words. Interjections were the most emotional words in which the primitive man put different meanings depending on a particular situation. According to Kudryavsky, in interjections, sound and meanings were still inextricably linked. Subsequently, as interjections turned into words, the sound and meanings diverged, and this transition of interjections into words was associated with the emergence of articulate speech.

But even this theory is unlikely to satisfy the modern reader. And Lev Uspensky believes that they are not correct, and the correct path is the path of Marx and Engels.

Engels' labor theory.

The labor theory received its substantiation in the work of F. Engels "The role of labor in the process of turning a monkey into a man." According to this theory, labor was the basis for the development of society, since it caused the cohesion of the society of the great people, led to the development of joint activities. Under these conditions, there is a need to convey information through language. Language can thus be regarded as a product of labor activity. The need for conversion, in turn, stimulated the development of thinking. Thus, from the very beginning of its emergence, language and thinking were connected.

Engels writes: "First, work, and then articulate speech along with it, were the two most important stimuli under the influence of which the human brain gradually turned into a human brain."

Own opinion, assessment

Thus, we analyzed the second chapter of Lev Uspensky's book "Word about words". With all the variety of theories, a person is free to choose the one he will adhere to.

And I would like to conclude by writing about something that was not mentioned in Ouspensky's book and which, in my opinion, is quite significant and can help with the determination of those who need it.

So, there are a great many theories in total, but the main ones are no more than ten and they are divided into two groups - the divine origin of the language, and words, as reflections of things.

As for first concept, I would like to briefly tell the biblical legend, which is undoubtedly known to many. This is the legend of the Tower of Babel. The tradition about her is set forth in the first nine verses of the 11th chapter of the book of Genesis. According to this legend, after the Flood, humanity was represented by one people who spoke the same language. From the east, people came to the land of Shinar (in the lower reaches of the Tigris and Euphrates), where they decided to build a city (Babylon) and a tower as high as heaven in order to "make a name for themselves." The construction of the tower was interrupted by God, who "mixed" the language of the people, because of which they ceased to understand each other, could not continue the construction of the city and the tower, and scattered throughout the earth. Thus, the legend of the Tower of Babel explains the emergence of various languages after the Flood.

“The whole earth had one language and one dialect. Moving from the east, [people] found a plain in the land of Shinar and settled there. And they said to one another, Let us make bricks and burn them with fire. And they became bricks instead of stones, and earthen tar (silt) instead of lime. And they said, Let us build ourselves a city, and a tower as high as the heavens; and this is what they began to do ... Let us go down and confuse their language there, so that one does not understand the speech of the other ”

(Gen 11:1-7).

Co. second concept include theories such as:

Onomatopoeic theory (which was discussed above).

The theory of the emotional origin of language and the theory of interjections.

The theory of sound cries.

The theory of the social contract.

The human origin of language.

Engels' labor theory.

I'll talk a little about those that have not been mentioned before.

The theory of the social contract.

From the middle of the 18th century, the theory of the social contract appeared.
The essence of this theory is that in the later stages of the development of the language it is possible to agree on certain words, especially in the field of terminology. But it is quite obvious that, first of all, in order to "agree on a language", one must already have a language in which one "agrees".

The human origin of language.

The German philosopher Herder spoke of the purely human origin of language. Herder believed that human language arose not to communicate with other people, but to communicate with oneself, to realize one's own self. If a person lived in complete solitude, then, according to Herder, he would have a language. Language was the result of "a secret agreement that the soul of man entered into with itself."

There are also other theories about the origin of the language. For example, the theory of gestures (Geiger, Wundt, Marr). All references to supposedly purely "sign languages" cannot be supported by facts; gestures always act as something secondary for people who have a spoken language. There are no words among gestures, gestures are not connected with concepts. It is also unlawful to derive the origin of the language from analogues with the mating songs of birds as manifestations of the instinct of self-preservation (Ch. Darwin), especially from human singing (Rousseau, Jespersen). The disadvantage of all the theories listed above is that they ignore language as a social phenomenon.

Conclusion

Personally, I believe that language emerged gradually, first with inarticulate sounds that were called certain objects, and then they became certain words.

I think my position is closest to the contractual theory of the emergence of language. In addition, it explains the existence of many languages - in different parts of the world things were called differently.

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