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Improvement of the body as an integral system. Improving the cardiovascular system through exercise. Improving the endocrine system through exercise

Movement, movement in space is one of the most important functions of living beings, including humans. The function of movement in mammals and humans is performed by the musculoskeletal system, which combines bones, their joints and skeletal muscles. The musculoskeletal system is divided into passive and active parts. The passive part includes bones and their joints, on which the nature of the movements of body parts depends, but they themselves cannot perform movements. The active part is made up of skeletal muscles, which have the ability to contract and set in motion the bones of the skeleton (bone levers).

The specificity of the apparatus of support and movements of a person is associated with the vertical position of his body, upright posture and labor activity. Adaptations to the vertical position of the body are present in the structure of all parts of the skeleton: spine, skull and limbs. The closer to the sacrum, the more massive the vertebrae (lumbar), which is caused by a large load on them. In the place where the spine, which takes on the weight of the head, the entire body, and the upper limbs, rests on the pelvic bones, the vertebrae (sacral) have fused into one massive bone, the sacrum. S-shape of the spine, its curves create the most favorable conditions for maintaining the vertical position of the body, as well as for performing spring, springy functions when walking and running.

The lower limbs of a person can withstand a large load and entirely take over the functions of movement. They have a more massive skeleton, large and stable joints and an arched foot. Developed longitudinal and transverse arches of the foot are unique to humans. The fulcrum of the foot is the heads of the metatarsal bones in front and the calcaneal tuberosity in the back. The springy arches of the foot distribute the weight falling on the foot, reduce tremors and shocks when walking, and make the gait smooth. The muscles of the lower limb have more strength, but at the same time less diversity in their structure than the muscles of the upper limb.

The liberation of the upper limbs from the support functions, their adaptation to labor activity led to the simplification of the skeleton, the presence of more muscles and joint mobility. The human hand has acquired special mobility, which is provided by long collarbones, the position of the shoulder blades, the shape of the chest, the structure of the shoulder and other joints of the upper limbs. Thanks to the collarbone, the upper limb is set aside from the chest, as a result of which the hand has acquired considerable freedom in its movements.

The shoulder blades are located on the back of the chest, which is flattened in the anteroposterior (sagittal) direction. The articular surfaces of the scapula and humerus provide greater freedom and variety of movements of the upper limbs, their large scope.

In connection with the adaptation of the upper limbs to labor operations, their muscles are functionally more developed. The human movable hand is of particular importance for labor functions. A large role in this belongs to the first finger of the hand due to its great mobility and ability to oppose the rest of the fingers. The functions of the first finger are so great that when it is lost, the hand almost loses the ability to grab and hold objects.

Significant changes in the structure of the skull are also associated with the vertical position of the body, with labor activity and speech functions. The medulla of the skull clearly predominates over the facial. The facial section is less developed and is located under the brain. The decrease in the size of the facial skull is associated with the relatively small size of the lower jaw and its other bones.

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D. a specific form of social consciousness about the universal laws of functioning and development of human being and thinking
III. Recommendations for the fulfillment of assignments and preparation for seminars. To study the categorical apparatus, it is advisable to refer to the texts of the Federal Law indicated in the list of recommended literature

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The functioning of the human body is manifested as a combination of mental, motor and vegetative (associated with work) internal organs) responses to environmental influences.

This process is based on both purely biological laws inherent in all living organisms, and social ones, characteristic only for humans and arising in the process of communication and conscious influence on external conditions. Physical exercises should be built taking into account both biological and social laws of the functioning of the body. The development and change of the body occurs in all periods of life.

Thus, human growth continues up to about 20 years, and in girls its greatest intensity is observed in the period from 10 to 13 years, and in boys - from 12 to 16 years. Body weight stabilizes by 20-25 years.

There are infant (up to 1 year old), children (1-12 years old), adolescent (12-15 years old), youthful (16-21 years old), mature (22-60 years old), elderly (61-74 years old) and senile ( 75 and over) age.

In adolescence, all organs and systems reach their morphological (associated with the structure) and functional maturity. Mature age is characterized by minor changes in body structure, and functionality is largely due to lifestyle, including motor activity. Elderly and senile age is characterized by a general decrease in the body's capabilities.

The body is a complex biological system in which all organs are interconnected. The regulation of their interaction is carried out by the nervous and endocrine systems. In this case, automatic maintenance or, in other words, self-regulation of vital important factors at the required level (the constancy of the internal environment, body temperature, etc.), i.e., the so-called homeostasis is carried out.

The body as a whole system consists of organs and tissues.

Organs their tissues are built, tissues consist of cells and intercellular substance. Cells vary in shape, size, and all have a nucleus and cytoplasm, which are enclosed in a cell wall. They participate in the metabolism and energy, are capable of growth, regeneration, reproduction, and the transfer of genetic information. The intercellular substance consists of the waste products of connective tissue cells.

cloth called a set of cells and intercellular substance having the same structure and functions.

There are four types of fabric:

epithelial (performs protective, excretory and secretory functions);
connective (loose, dense, cartilaginous, bone, blood);
muscular (striated, smooth, cardiac);
nervous (consists of nerve cells - neurons).

Organs are complexes of tissues that perform specific functions (muscles, heart, liver, etc.). Organs consist of all types of tissues, but only one of them is working.

Organ system or apparatus called a set of organs that perform a common function (musculoskeletal system, bone, muscle, cardiovascular and other systems).

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General characteristics of the musculoskeletal system.

The musculoskeletal system serves to create a support for the body, as well as to move the entire body and its parts in space. It is made up of bones, ligaments, muscles and muscle tendons. Most bones have movable joints called joints. They are hermetic capsules covered with a joint bag and filled with joint fluid. This fluid serves to reduce friction between the adjacent smooth articular cartilage. In addition to providing mobility, the joints also act as shock absorbers, which is especially important under shock loads. By shape, spherical joints are distinguished, having three axes of rotation and being the most mobile (shoulder, hip joints), cylindrical and block-shaped joints, having one axis of rotation (ankle joint), etc.

Ligaments serve mainly to strengthen the joints of bones and to limit movement in the joints.

The forces required to maintain a certain posture or to perform movements are transmitted from the skeletal muscles to the links of the body through the muscle tendons, with which they are attached to the bones.

Improvement of the musculoskeletal system through physical exercises

With systematic physical exercises, the following changes occur in the musculoskeletal system: along with bones and muscles, joints are strengthened, elasticity of ligaments and muscle tendons increases, and flexibility increases. In the case of insufficient motor activity, there is a gradual destruction of the articular cartilage and a change in the articular surfaces, which is accompanied by pain and limited mobility.

Particular attention should be paid to exercises aimed at improving the mobility of the spinal column and the formation of correct posture. They prevent the decrease in the elasticity of the intervertebral discs and strengthen the muscles surrounding the spine, which is the prevention of such a common disease as osteochondrosis of the spine and many associated diseases.

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The structure of the skeletal system

The human skeleton consists from the spine, skull, chest, bones of the upper and lower extremities (Fig. 1).

It includes more than 200 bones, which are divided into:

tubular (bones of the limbs);
spongy (ribs, sternum, vertebrae);
flat (bones of the skull, pelvis, limb belts);
mixed (base of the skull).

The surface of the bones is covered with a fibrous periosteum containing numerous vessels and nerves. Long tubular bones are hollow structures that contain bone marrow.

Upper limb skeleton formed by the shoulder girdle, consisting of two shoulder blades and two collarbones, and a free upper limb, including the shoulder, forearm and hand. The shoulder is one humerus; the forearm is formed by the radius and ulna; the brush includes a number of small bones.

Skeleton of the lower limb formed by the pelvic girdle, consisting of two pelvic bones and the sacrum, and a free lower limb, including the thigh, lower leg and foot. The thigh is one femur; the lower leg is formed by the tibia and fibula; the foot contains a number of small bones

The bones are made up of inorganic substances (65-70%) are mainly phosphorus and calcium, and organic substances (30-35%) are bone cells and collagen fibers. The elasticity of bones depends on the presence of inorganic substances in them, and the hardness is provided by mineral salts. The bones of children are more elastic and resilient, while the bones of older people are more fragile.

Improving the skeletal system through exercise

Physical activity has a significant impact on the growth and formation of bones. The bones become more massive, their diameter increases, well-defined thickenings are formed in the places of muscle attachment - bone protrusions, tubercles, ridges. There is also an increase in the number and size of bone cells, the bones become much stronger. In addition, optimal physical activity slows down the process of bone aging.

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The structure of the muscular system

Muscles are divided into two types:

smooth and
striated.

Smooth muscles are located in the walls of blood vessels and some internal organs (stomach, intestines, etc.).
From striated muscles consists of skeletal muscles. They also include the heart muscle - the myocardium.

The human skeletal muscles include about 600 muscles, most of which are paired.(Fig. 2).

To the muscles of the body include the muscles of the chest, back and abdomen. The largest muscles of the chest are the pectoralis major and minor, the serratus anterior; back - trapezius, latissimus dorsi and the muscle that straightens the body; abdomen - rectus, external and internal oblique muscles.

Muscles of the upper limbs move the shoulder girdle, shoulder, forearm, hand and fingers. The main muscle involved in shoulder abduction (moving to the side) is the deltoid muscle; in flexion of the shoulder and forearm (forward movement) - the biceps of the shoulder; in extension of the shoulder and forearm (backward movement) - the triceps muscle of the shoulder.

Muscles of the lower limb move the thigh, lower leg, foot and toes. One of the most massive muscles human body is the quadriceps femoris. Its function is to flex the hip and extend the lower leg (forward movement). The gluteus maximus is involved in hip extension; in extension of the hip and flexion of the knee (backward movement) - the biceps femoris; in flexion of the lower leg and foot - the triceps muscle of the lower leg.

Muscles are made up of proteins. Skeletal muscle tissue is formed by multinucleated cells - striated muscle fibers. They contain special organelles that can contract - myofibrils. The contraction occurs under the action of impulses transmitted along the nerve fibers from the brain and spinal cord. In turn, along the sensitive nerve fibers, information about the work of the muscles comes in the opposite direction.

Muscles contain two types of fibers - red and white.

Red or "slow" muscle fibers are characterized by the ability to perform work for a long time without high power, a white or "fast"- on the contrary, to perform short work of high power. For each person, their ratio in the muscles is genetically determined and does not change, which must be taken into account when choosing a particular sport for practicing.

Improving the muscular system through exercise

The force developed by the muscle depends on the total number of fibers in the muscle and on their number simultaneously involved in the work; from the contractility of muscle fibers; from the initial length of the muscle, the speed of contraction, etc.

When doing physical exercises, the so-called working muscle hypertrophy occurs, that is, an increase in their diameter.

Long-term exercises with a relatively small power load lead to an increase in the content in muscle fibers non-contractile proteins and energy substances - glycogen, creatine phosphate and others, as well as an increase in the number of capillaries and an improvement in oxidative capacity, i.e., the ability to use incoming oxygen. These processes, along with others, underlie the development of endurance.

Exercises with a high power load lead to an increase in the number and volume of myofibrils, resulting in increased muscle strength.

With age, muscle size decreases. If a person does not exercise, then from 30 to 70 years old he loses about 40% muscle mass. This is also partly due to the general deterioration of metabolism.

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The structure of the blood system

Blood performs a transport function in the body, that is, it delivers nutrients and oxygen to organs and cells and removes metabolic products. It is also involved in the processes of thermoregulation.

Blood makes up approximately 7% of a person's body weight and with a weight of 70 kg its volume is 5-5.5 liters. 55-60% blood consists of plasma and 40-45% of formed elements: erythrocytes, leukocytes, platelets and other substances.

Erythrocytes or red blood cells contain the protein hemoglobin, which is able to form a compound with oxygen and transport it from the lungs to the tissues, and transfer it from the tissues carbon dioxide to the lungs. Red blood cells are produced in the red bone marrow.

Leukocytes or white blood cells perform a protective function, destroying foreign bodies and pathogenic microbes. Leukocytes are produced in the red bone marrow, as well as in the lymph nodes, thymus, tonsils, and follicles.

Platelets or platelets play an important role in blood clotting.

Blood plasma contains hormones, mineral salts, nutrients, antibodies that create immunity, as well as decay products removed from tissues.

When blood moves through the capillaries, part of the plasma constantly seeps through their walls into the interstitial space and forms interstitial fluid. From it, cells absorb nutrients and oxygen and release decay products into it. Some substances of the interstitial fluid seep into the lymphatic vessels and form lymph. By means of lymph, proteins return to the blood, metabolism in tissues is maintained, and pathogens are removed from the body. Lymph returns to the blood through the lymphatic vessels.

In humans, there are four blood types that you need to know in case of a blood transfusion.

Improving the blood system through exercise

At rest, 40-50% of the blood does not participate in circulation and is located in the "blood depots": the liver, spleen, skin vessels, muscles, and lungs. During physical work, this volume of blood is reflexively sent to the working muscles. Prolonged exercise leads to an increase in circulating blood volume (mainly due to blood plasma). This increase can be more than 20%. In addition, those involved improve the so-called buffer systems that prevent a significant increase in blood acidity. This is important for maintaining performance during intense physical exertion. An effective way to increase the content of erythrocytes and hemoglobin in the blood is training under conditions of oxygen starvation, i.e., hypoxia.

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The structure of the cardiovascular system

The cardiovascular system consists of large and small circles of blood circulation. The large circle starts from the left ventricle of the heart, passes through the tissues of all organs and ends in the right atrium. From the right atrium, blood passes into the right ventricle. The small circle starts from the right ventricle of the heart, passes through the lungs, where the blood gives off carbon dioxide and is saturated with oxygen, and ends in the left atrium. From the left atrium, blood passes into the left ventricle.

The heart is a hollow muscular organ with a volume of 250-350 cm 3 , performing rhythmic contractions offline.

At the same time, the work of the heart is regulated by the nervous system and through the endocrine glands. The cardiac cycle consists of three phases: atrial contraction, ventricular contraction, and general relaxation of the heart. At rest, the heart rate (HR) in young men is normally 60-70 beats / min, in women - about 75 beats / min. The maximum value of heart rate can exceed 210 bpm.

Among the blood vessels, there are arteries, through which blood flows from the heart, veins, through which blood returns to the heart, and blood capillaries, through the walls of which the exchange of substances between blood and tissues occurs and through which blood passes from arterial vessels to venous ones.

The largest vessel through which the left ventricle of the heart connects to the vessels of the systemic circulation is the aorta. The peculiarity of veins, unlike arteries, is that many of them have valves that prevent the reverse flow of blood.

Promotion of blood through the vessels is determined not only by heart contractions, but also by the work of the so-called muscle pump. Its action is based on the fact that when the skeletal muscles contract, the muscle veins are compressed and the outflow of blood through the veins towards the heart is accelerated. It should not be forgotten that with a sharp cessation of work, the muscle pump is turned off and gravitational shock may occur, accompanied by loss of consciousness.

As a result of contraction (systole) of the ventricles of the heart, blood is ejected into the arteries, stretching their elastic walls, which leads to an increase in pressure in the arterial system. The maximum blood pressure in the aorta and large arteries is called systolic. During relaxation (diastole) of the ventricles, the pressure drops. The minimum pressure in the arteries is called diastolic. At rest, systolic pressure is normally about 120, and diastolic - 80 mm Hg. Art.

Improving Your Cardiovascular System Through Exercise

Physical exercise, especially for endurance, leads to significant changes in the cardiovascular system:

the volume of the cavities of the heart increases;
HR decreases by 10-20 beats / min at rest and when working at a given power, while increasing the amount of blood ejected by the heart with each contraction, i.e., the efficiency of the heart increases;
vessels become more elastic and the network of capillaries of active organs and tissues increases, which is one of the factors in the prevention of hypertension.

Short-term intense exercise has a much smaller effect. In particular, there is no increase in the volume of the cavities of the heart, but at the same time, the thickness of their walls increases.

Improving the respiratory system through exercise

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The structure of the respiratory system

The respiratory system includes the nasal cavity, larynx, trachea, bronchi and lungs.

Atmospheric air enters through the nasal cavity and larynx into the trachea, which is divided into two bronchi, and then through the smallest branches of the bronchi (bronchioles) into the lungs. Bronchioles pass 8 closed alveolar passages with a large number of pulmonary vesicles (alveoli), surrounded by a dense network of capillaries.

Breathing is carried out reflexively. Inhalation occurs due to the expansion of the chest by the diaphragm and intercostal muscles. At the same time, the pressure in the closed chest cavity decreases and air is sucked into it. Exhalation occurs passively due to a decrease in the volume of the chest under the action of gravity and elasticity. During intensive physical work, other skeletal muscles also take part in breathing, in particular, the abdominal muscles.

The vital capacity of the lungs (VC), which is the maximum volume of air exhaled after a maximum inspiration, in an adult is approximately 4 liters. The respiratory rate at rest is 12-15 cycles / min.

There are external (pulmonary) and internal (tissue) respiration. During external respiration through the semi-permeable walls of the alveoli and capillaries, oxygen from atmospheric air passes into the blood, and carbon dioxide - from the blood into the air. During internal respiration, through the membranes of erythrocytes and capillary walls, oxygen passes from the blood into the interstitial fluid and from there to tissue cells, and carbon dioxide passes from the cells into the interstitial fluid and then into the blood.

Improving the respiratory system through exercise

Endurance training leads to a more economical and efficient work of the respiratory system. Respiratory rate at rest decreases, VC increases. The highest VC, reaching 7 liters or more, is observed in swimmers, runners-stayers, and rowers. An increase in lung capacity is accompanied by an increase in the strength and endurance of the respiratory muscles, extensibility of the chest and lungs.

Increases the ability of the transfer of oxygen from the alveoli to the blood. This occurs mainly due to the expansion of the alveolar and capillary networks. This process can be facilitated by training under hypoxic conditions.

Improving the digestive and excretory systems through exercise

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The structure of the digestive and excretory systems

The digestive organs provide mechanical grinding and chemical breakdown of nutrients into components and their absorption into the blood and lymph. The digestive system consists of the oral cavity, salivary glands, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, liver, and pancreas.

In the oral cavity, food is moistened with saliva, under the action of which the breakdown of carbohydrates begins, and is crushed by chewing. Further, through the pharynx and esophagus, it enters the stomach, where it is mixed and saturated with gastric juice. The digestion of proteins occurs mainly in the stomach. From the stomach, food passes in separate portions into the small intestine, where it is exposed to the action of pancreatic juice, bile and intestinal juice. Pancreatic juice is produced by the pancreas and is involved in the breakdown of proteins, as well as carbohydrates and fats. Bile is produced by the liver, stored in the gallbladder, and excreted through the bile duct into the intestines. The main role of bile is the breakdown of fats. Under the action of intestinal juice, the digestion of proteins, carbohydrates and fats ends. In the large intestine, the breakdown of plant fiber and the destruction of unabsorbed products of protein digestion are carried out.

Suction nutrients occurs primarily in the small intestine. In the stomach, water, mineral salts and monosaccharides are absorbed in small quantities, and in the large intestine - mainly water.

Food moves through the digestive tract due to the wave-like contraction of smooth muscles in the walls of the stomach and intestines.

The excretory system consists of the kidneys, ureters, bladder and the urethra. They provide excretion of harmful metabolic products from the body with urine. In addition, metabolic products are excreted through the skin (with the secret of sweat and sebaceous glands), lungs (with exhaled air) and through the gastrointestinal tract.

Muscular activity has a different effect on the processes of digestion. Moderate physical work activates metabolic processes and the motor function of the digestive system. On the other hand, hard work depresses the digestive processes. In particular, the secretion of gastric juice decreases, especially after eating a meal rich in carbohydrates and fats. There is a redistribution of blood, as a result of which the blood flow in the digestive organs decreases several times.

Improving the digestive and excretory systems through exercise

With intense and prolonged physical work, the excretory system experiences a great load.

Dramatically increases, especially at high temperatures, sweating. By increasing the acidity of the blood and the formation of metabolic products, the composition of urine produced in the kidneys changes. The volume of urine in most cases decreases.

Optimal in intensity and duration of physical work leads to an improvement in the ability of the excretory system to maintain the constancy of the internal environment of the body.

Improving the nervous system and analyzers through physical exercises

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The structure of the nervous system and analyzers

Nervous system controls and coordinates the functioning of various organs and other systems, uniting them into an integral organism. It provides the perception and processing of signals coming from the external and internal environment of the body and controls the work of the muscles, which forms the basis of motor activity.

The nervous system is divided into central and peripheral. The central nervous system includes the brain and spinal cord. The connection of the brain and spinal cord with all organs is carried out by the peripheral nervous system.

Spinal cord lies in the spinal canal formed by the arches of the vertebrae. It performs a reflex function, i.e., the implementation of a response to irritation through the transmission of nerve impulses from special formations - receptors to muscles or internal organs (for example, pulling back a hand when a finger is pricked). Another function of the spinal cord is conduction. Oia consists in the transfer of excitation from the brain to the spinal cord and further to the executive organs, as well as in the opposite direction, which allows for arbitrary (conscious) movements.

Brain located in the cranial cavity and is an accumulation of a huge number of nerve cells. It consists of the medulla oblongata, hindbrain, midbrain, diencephalon and cerebral cortex. The cerebral cortex is the highest division of the central nervous system, which governs all other divisions. Its various parts, for example, the anterior sections of the frontal cortex, play a primary role in the regulation of voluntary movements. A feature of the brain in comparison with other organs is its increased need for oxygen and glucose. In this regard, even a slight deterioration in the blood supply to the brain adversely affects its functions.

Peripheral nervous system includes nerves, nerve plexuses, nerve ganglions and nerve trunks. It is conditionally divided into somatic and vegetative. The somatic nervous system innervates (transmits nervous excitation) the motor apparatus, skin and sense organs; vegetative - internal organs. The autonomic nervous system, in turn, is subdivided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems, the combined action of which on the organs causes, as a rule, the opposite effect.

Analyzers or sensor systems provide perception and analysis of stimuli. There are visual, auditory, vestibular (located in the inner ear and perceives signals about the position of the body in space), olfactory, gustatory, skin, visceral (receives signals from internal organs), motor (receives signals from joints, muscles and tendons) analyzers.

Analyzers consist of three departments:

receptors that are selectively sensitive to various stimuli,
conductor part and
central formation in the brain.

Improving the nervous system and analyzers through physical exercises

The mechanisms of improvement of the nervous system in the process of training are that a more subtle interaction of the processes of excitation and inhibition of various nerve centers that regulate the work of muscular and other functional systems is achieved. The sensitivity of a number of analyzers increases, among which a special role belongs to the motor analyzer.

All this leads to the ability to differentiate movements and quickly form new motor skills.

Improving the endocrine system through exercise

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The structure of the endocrine system

The endocrine system is formed by the endocrine glands or endocrine glands. They produce highly active biological substances- hormones that provide along with the nervous humoral (through the blood, lymph, interstitial fluid) regulation of physiological processes in the body. The activity of the endocrine glands themselves is also regulated by the nervous system. Thus, a unified neurohumoral regulation of body functions is ensured.

The endocrine glands include:

thyroid,
parathyroid and thymus glands,
adrenal glands,
pituitary,
epiphysis,
pancreas and
sexual glands.

Thyroid located in the neck. It produces the hormone thyroxine, which stimulates metabolic processes, increases the excitability of the central nervous system. The full functioning of the thyroid gland is possible only with a sufficient content of iodine in food.

Parathyroid glands produce parathyroid hormone. It affects the excitability of the first and muscular systems.

adrenal glands composed of medulla and cortical layers. The medulla produces the hormones adrenaline and norepinephrine. They cause constriction of the blood vessels of the skin and digestive organs, dilation of the vessels of the brain, skeletal muscles and heart. Adrenaline enhances action
heart, mobilizes the energy resources of the orginish. Steroid hormones called corticosteroids are produced in the cortex. They regulate water-salt metabolism, provide adaptation of the body to changes in the external environment due to the regulation of protein and carbohydrate metabolism.

Pituitary is located in the diencephalon and secretes the so-called triple hormones, which selectively regulate the activity of other endocrine glands.

Pancreas and gonads(in men - testicles, in women - ovaries) are glands of mixed external and internal secretion.

Pancreas in addition to pancreatic juice, it produces the hormone insulin, which is involved in the regulation of carbohydrate and fat metabolism, in particular, ensures the utilization of glucose. Lack of insulin in the body leads to the development of diabetes or diabetes.

gonads in addition to germ cells, they produce hormones: the male sex hormone testosterone and the female sex hormones estrogen. They provide the formation of secondary sexual characteristics, in particular, affect the state of the skeleton, muscles, body fat.

Improving the endocrine system through exercise

Physical exercise increases the activity of the endocrine system: the secretion of the adrenal glands, pancreas and sex glands, and the pituitary gland increase.

The nature of physical work affects the functioning of the endocrine system. So, with prolonged intense exercise, after the increase, inhibition of the production of adrenaline, corticosteroids, and insulin is observed, which is a protective reaction of the body and switching to a more economical mode of metabolism.

Large physical activity tends to reduce estrogen production, and strength training leads to increased testosterone production and, as a result, to the development of muscle hypertrophy.

Children with dysfunctions of the musculoskeletal locomotive system(ODA) is a group that is diverse in terms of clinical and psychological and pedagogical characteristics, which is conventionally divided into three categories:

1. Diseases of the nervous system:

· cerebral palsy

poliomyelitis.

2. Congenital pathology of the musculoskeletal system:

Congenital dislocation of the hip

torticollis,

clubfoot and other deformities of the feet,

anomalies in the development of the spine (scoliosis),

underdevelopment and defects of the limbs,

anomalies in the development of the fingers,

Arthrogryposis (congenital deformity).

3. Acquired diseases and injuries of the musculoskeletal system:

traumatic injuries of the spinal cord, brain and extremities,

polyarthritis,

diseases of the skeleton (tuberculosis, bone tumors, osteomyelitis),

systemic diseases of the skeleton (chondrodystrophy, rickets).

Congenital dislocation of the hip is the most common congenital defect of the musculoskeletal system.

When talking about the frequency of this pathology, they mean not only the formed dislocation of the femur, which is rarely observed in the first days of life, but the so-called dysplasia (improper location of the femoral head), against which a dislocation may subsequently form. Bilateral and unilateral dislocation occurs in young children, more often in girls than in boys.

The diagnosis of hip dysplasia is as follows:

Restriction of abduction in the hip joints;

· Slip or click symptom;

· Asymmetry of folds on a hip and gluteal salaries behind;

Shortening of the lower limb determined by eye;

The listed symptoms can be observed either all at the same time, or only a part, in the latter case, suspect congenital hip dysplasia and take an x-ray.

Torticollis - deformation of the neck, characterized by an incorrect position of the head (tilting to the side and turning it).

Torticollis occurs due to pathological changes in the soft tissues, mainly in the sternocleidomastoid muscle.

More often, this deformation is right-sided and occurs in girls. There is also bilateral torticollis.

Congenital torticollis can be diagnosed at 2-3 weeks of a child's life. On the affected side, as a result of changes in the sternocleidomastoid muscle, a swelling of a dense consistency (strand) appears, not soldered to the underlying soft tissues.

Simultaneously with the appearance of a dense cord, the head tilts towards the altered muscle, but the head is turned in the opposite direction. This explains the same position of the head in such a child - turning to the side. Congenital clubfoot is a deformity of the foot, characterized by its deviation inward from the longitudinal axis of the leg. Congenital clubfoot can be one of the signs of both systemic diseases and skeletal dysplasia - arthrogryposis, dysostosis, osteochondrodysplasia, and malformations, such as longitudinal ectromelia. It is one- and two-sided.

Congenital clubfoot as an independent disease is one of the most common deformities. Usually it is detected at birth and progresses further. A congenital contracture of the joints of the foot is found, manifested by plantar flexion in the ankle joint (equinus), drooping of the outer edge of the foot (supination), adduction of its anterior section (adduction). With a pronounced clubfoot, the foot is turned inward, its outer edge is turned down and edge, and the inner concave edge is up. The back of the foot faces forward and down, and the plantar faces back and up. Supination of the foot is so significant that the heel can touch inner surface shins. In addition to these symptoms, with congenital clubfoot, twisting of the bones of the lower leg outward (torsion), transverse bending of the sole (inflection) is often observed, which is accompanied by the formation of a transverse groove running along the inner edge of the midfoot (Adams groove) and varus deformity of the toes.

Depending on the fixedness of the contractures of the joints of the foot, there are: mild degree clubfoot (movements in the ankle joint are preserved, and the deformity can be passively corrected), moderate clubfoot (movements are limited, partial correction is possible) and severe clubfoot (passive correction is impossible). Regardless of the degree of deformity, the shape and function of not only the foot, but the entire lower limb are disturbed.

Acquired clubfoot - occurs much less frequently than congenital. It occurs in diseases of the nervous system, for example, flaccid or spastic paralysis as a result of a neuroinfection, improperly fused fractures of the bones that form the ankle joint, growth disorders of the limbs of the lower leg and foot as a result of premature closure of growth zones after epiphysiolysis, burns, acute and chronic specific (for example, , tuberculosis) and nonspecific (osteomyelitis) inflammatory processes, some tumors.

Flatfoot is a deformity of the foot characterized by its flattening. There are longitudinal and transverse flat feet, a combination of both forms is possible. With transverse flat feet, the transverse arch of the foot is flattened, its anterior section rests on the head of all five metatarsal bones, and not on the first and fifth, as is normal. With longitudinal flat feet, the longitudinal arch is flattened and the foot is in contact with the floor with almost the entire area of the sole.

The cause of flat feet is weakness of the musculoskeletal apparatus of the foot, wearing improperly selected shoes, clubfoot, injuries to the foot, ankle, ankle, and paralysis of the lower limb. Sometimes flat feet occur as an occupational disease in people whose work is associated with a long stay on their feet (hairdressers, sellers).

The earliest signs of flat feet are fatigue of the legs, aching pain (when walking, and later when standing) in the foot, muscles of the lower leg, thigh, and lower back. By evening, swelling of the foot may appear, disappearing overnight.

With pronounced flat feet, the foot lengthens and expands in the middle part. Those suffering from flat feet walk with their legs wide apart, slightly bending their legs at the knee and hip joints, and waving their arms vigorously. They usually wear out the inside of the soles and heels of the shoes. Posture - the usual position of the human body at rest and during movement; is formed from the earliest period of childhood in the process of growth, development and education. Correct posture makes the human figure beautiful and contributes to the normal functioning of the motor apparatus and the entire human body.

Types of incorrect posture are stoop, sluggish posture, curvature of the spine.

With stoop, which is due to the weak development of the back muscles, the thoracic spine evenly protrudes backwards (round back), the head is tilted forward, the chest is flattened, the shoulders are brought together, the stomach is protruded.

Sluggish posture is manifested by such signs as lowering the head, flattening of the chest, lagging behind the back of the shoulder blades, bringing the shoulders together, legs bent at the knees. Various diseases can lead to a violation of posture in children, primarily such as rickets, malnutrition, obesity, infectious diseases, flat feet, as well as improper organization of the regime, malnutrition, improperly selected furniture in the house, etc.

Most of the children with disorders of the musculoskeletal system are children with cerebral palsy - 89% of the number of children suffering from disorders of the musculoskeletal system.

CEREBRAL PALSY (ICP) is a serious disease of the nervous system, which often leads to disability of the child.

Cerebral palsy occurs as a result of underdevelopment or damage to the brain in the early stages of development (during the prenatal period, at the time of birth and in the first year of life). Movement disorders in children with cerebral palsy are often combined with mental and speech disorders, with impaired functions of other analyzers (vision, hearing). Therefore, these children need medical, psychological, pedagogical and social assistance.

Cerebral palsy is the most common cause of childhood disability, among which diseases of the nervous system are in the first place. Cerebral palsy is the second most common neurological disorder in childhood; the first is mental retardation in children. In third place are congenital anomalies.

Recent publications in the international research journal Evolutionary Medicine and Pediatric Neurology and the Research Foundation of Cerebral Palsy Associations (UCPA, USA) provide an insight into the statistics of the birth of children with cerebral palsy.

Among children with normal birth weight who became disabled due to cerebral palsy:

· Approximately 70% became disabled due to factors that took place before birth (prenatal period);

About 20% - due to factors that manifested themselves either during childbirth (perinatal period) or immediately after birth (first four weeks of life);

10% - due to factors that manifested themselves during the first two years of life (postnatal period);

The incidence of cerebral palsy in different countries ranges from 1 to 8 cases per 1000 population.

With regard to the extent of the lesion, one of the most common lesions, which is now associated with new views on cerebral palsy, is spasticity of one or more limbs. It turns out that muscle spasticity of the extremities at the birth of an infant with normal weight is caused by lesions that dominate the prenatal period; and at the birth of premature babies and babies with low birth weight, limb spasticity is caused by lesions that dominate the perinatal (starting from the 28th week of fetal life to the 7th day of the newborn's life) and neonatal periods of the newborn. This study is confirmed by similar data in the USA, Germany, and Russia. Clearly, special attention needs to be paid to when brain damage occurs, what are the risk factors that endanger the health of the infant, and what are the most common consequences of cerebral palsy. As the likelihood of cerebral impairment increases as the number of surviving preterm infants increases, the causes of low birth weight and preterm birth are becoming a priority in research.