What is a directory in the history of France. Government of the Directory in France (1795-1799). Napoleon Bonaparte during the siege of Toulon

The arrests and execution of the last Jacobin leaders were carried out by the so-called "Thermidorians" - opponents of the Jacobins from among the moderate bourgeois leaders, who by the summer of 1794 constituted the majority in the Convention. After the overthrow of the Jacobin dictatorship, they proclaimed an "era of mercy", but it also laid the foundation for a new terror - now against the Jacobins. First of all, emergency revolutionary bodies were liquidated: the Jacobin Club, the Committee of Public Safety, revolutionary committees and tribunals. Also, some, and clearly not bourgeois, revolutionary innovations were abolished (the system of forced taxation of prices and wages was abolished).

However, the unresolved nature of many problems and the beginning of counter-revolutionary terror led to a surge of popular uprisings in 1795. Under these conditions, the main task of the Thermidorians was to search for forms of new power.

In accordance with the new Constitution adopted by the Convention in August 1795, a new system of higher state bodies was created.

The legislature consisted of a bicameral legislative body, which included:

· Council of Elders, formed from 250 delegates from departments (the right to approve bills);

· The Council of Five Hundred, elected by the departmental assemblies (the right of legislative initiative).

Executive power was represented by the Directory, a special committee of five directors, annually renewed per member, elected by secret ballot by deputies of the legislative body. Each of the directors presided over the Directory for three months a year, heading the government it created and signing the laws adopted by the legislative body.

The fragility of the position and the absence of a political course, internal conspiracies, the danger of a royalist putsch, as well as a clear inability to cope with economic difficulties, led to instability in the actions of the Directory (“swing politics”), which caused constant irritation of the masses and, what was even more dangerous, fermentation in army.

Under these conditions, the Directory, obviously burdened by its position, began to look for a strong personality capable of taking control of the situation. Ultimately, the choice settled on the young and ambitious Brigadier General - Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821).

The Constitution of 1799 of France and the political system of the consulate of Napoleon Bonaparte 1.

The administration of the country was handed over to three consuls. The real power was concentrated in the first consul, Bonaparte took his post.

The democratic forces, which had been considerably weakened in previous years, were unable to offer due resistance to the new dictatorship. The exchange responded to the coup by raising the price of securities. The new regime was supported by the peasantry, who were promised and actually secured the protection of their land ownership.

Constitution of 1799(according to the republican calendar - the Constitution of the VIII year) The Constitution legally fixed the new regime.

The main features of the state system she introduced were the supremacy of the government and representation by plebiscite. The government consisted of three consuls, elected for a term of 10 years. The first consul was endowed with special powers:

He exercised executive power

Appointed and dismissed, at his discretion, ministers, members State Council, ambassadors, generals, senior officials of local government, judges.

He had the right to initiate legislation.

The second and third consuls had advisory powers. The constitution appointed Napoleon Bonaparte as First Consul.

The following were established as legislative bodies:

State Council,

The Tribunate

Legislative body

· Protective Senate.

In fact, they were only a parody of Parliament. Bills could only be proposed by the government, i.e. first consul.

ü The Council of State edited these bills,

The Tribunate discussed them,

ü The legislative body accepted or rejected entirely without debate,

ü Protective Senate approved.

Thus, these bodies, none of which had independent significance, only masked the autocracy of the first consul.

The procedure for their formation further strengthened their dependence on the executive branch:

ü Members of the State Council were appointed by the first consul.

ü The Protective Senate consisted of members appointed for life (later they were elected by

ü Senate of candidates nominated by the First Consul, the Legislative Corps and the Tribunate),

The members of the Legislative Corps and the Tribunate were appointed by the Senate.

A strict hierarchical subordination of all officials to the first consul was established. The process of centralization and bureaucratization of the state apparatus has reached its logical conclusion.

Empire period I:

In 1802, Bonaparte was declared consul for life with the right to appoint a successor. His power, still covered by a republican decorum, took on a monarchical character. Bonaparte was soon proclaimed Emperor of the French. Since that time, not only executive, but also legislative power has been concentrated in his hands (and partly in the Senate).

Huge impact on political life the country was acquired by the army. By this time, it had turned from a liberation, revolutionary army into a professional and, in fact, mercenary army. Privileged troops were created - the imperial guard.

Of particular importance in the state was the police, in fact, not even one, but several, each of which carried out secret surveillance of the other. The most important, almost unlimited powers were vested in the secret political police.

Council of Five"), organ government controlled, a board of 5 ministers of the Provisional Government headed by A.F. Kerensky, 1-25.9.1917. September 1 declared Russia a republic. It ceased to exist with the formation of the 3rd coalition Provisional Government.

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Directory

From November 1795 a new constitution came into force. Executive power in France passed into the hands of the Directory, which included Barras and other prominent Thermidorians.

The period of the Directory was a time of unlimited domination by the bourgeoisie. Marx wrote: “Under the Directory, the real life of bourgeois society is rapidly breaking out and is in full swing.” )

The “bourgeois orgy of the Directory” (See Engels - to V. Adler, December 4, 1889, K. Marx, F. Engels, Selected Letters, M. 1953, p. 414.) with its unbridled speculation and excitement provided huge profits to the greedy bourgeois money-grubbers. But it entailed an increase in suffering, disasters and needs of the broad masses of working people. In the figurative expression of one contemporary, the French society of the Directory era was "an infamous contrast between the most violent wealth and the most appalling poverty."

Gracchus Babeuf and the "Conspiracy for Equality"

The winter and spring of 1795-1796 turned out to be especially difficult for the workers. Continued inflation, the continuous fall in the exchange rate of assignats and the irrepressible rise in prices have created a hopeless situation for workers, artisans, office workers and the intelligentsia. “Only the wealthy class can enjoy life at the present moment, while the working people are in extreme need”; artisans and workers "see less and less correspondence between the fruits of their labor and their daily needs"; "despair and grief reached their highest limit" - such statements were cited these days in almost every police report. Workers and employees were forced to sell and mortgage the last. Ragged people roamed the streets, looking for various garbage in the garbage to satisfy their hunger. Suicide took on a mass character.

The workers were especially bitterly disappointed with the unattractive bourgeois reality. This contributed to the awakening of their class consciousness. The workers not only recalled with sympathy the time of the Jacobin dictatorship, but also looked for some new ways to put an end to the existing social evil.

The spokesman for these vague social aspirations of the working class, which gradually stood out from the general plebeian mass, was Noel-Francois Babeuf (1760 - 1797), who called himself the name of the ancient Roman tribune-reformer Gracchus. From the very first days of the revolution, he became, as he himself said, "a propagandist of freedom and a defender of the oppressed" and took an active part in the turbulent events of this era. Repeatedly subjected to arrests and persecution, already in the first years of the revolution, Babeuf came out as a resolute opponent of private ownership of land, and did not seek the sale of national property, but their distribution on a long-term lease to poor peasants. In the spring of 1793, Babeuf drew up a draft of "sans-culottes legislation", which was supposed to ensure "perfect equality".

A courageous revolutionary, a bold thinker, a man of action who sought solutions to burning social issues, Babeuf came to the fore in the dark years of Thermidorian reaction. In 1795, while in prison, he became close to the revolutionaries-democrats Buonarroti, Darte and some others imprisoned there and rallied them around communist ideas and a plan for a new revolutionary coup.

Having been released from prison after the amnesty declared by the Thermidorian Convention, Babeuf and his associates, the Babouvists, energetically set to work. At the beginning of 1796, under the leadership of Babeuf, the "Secret Directory of Public Salvation" was created, whose activities went down in history under the name "conspiracy in the name of equality." “Unlimited equality, maximum happiness for everyone, confidence in its strength - these were the benefits that the Secret Directory of Public Salvation wanted to provide to the French people,” this is how its participant and historian Philippe Buonarroti defined the Purpose of the conspiracy.

The Babouvists believed that complete equality was possible only under communism, a social system that did not know private property. Communist society seemed to them based on a strictly even distribution of all material wealth among citizens, that is, on equalization. It was primitive, egalitarian communism, still far from scientific communism. However, unlike Morelli and other French pre-revolutionary communist thinkers, of whom Babeuf was a student, the Babouvists not only pictured the future of communist society, but also raised the question of practical ways of creating it. Under the influence of the experience of the revolution, they came to the conviction of the need for a violent revolutionary upheaval, to the idea of ​​the need to establish a revolutionary dictatorship of the working people, although they did not understand - and at that stage of social development could not understand - the historical role of the proletariat.

The new, revolutionary government, in the opinion of the Babouvists, should have immediately taken steps to alleviate the plight of the masses. For these purposes, it was supposed to organize a free supply of bread to the population, to return things pledged by the poor from pawnshops free of charge, and to move the poor into the homes of the rich. But the main task of the revolutionary dictatorship was the gradual establishment of communism in France. It was planned to organize a large "national commune", to which the unsold church lands and the lands of emigrants, as well as the property of the enemies of the revolution, were to be transferred to Thermidor. Along with the “national commune,” private farms of peasants and artisans were to be preserved for some time. Subsequently, as a result of a whole system of measures (tax policy, the abolition of the right to inherit, etc.), private property was subject to final liquidation.

The surviving figures of the Parisian sections and popular societies rallied around Babeuf and his newspaper The Tribune of the People, forming the backbone of the Babouvist movement. In the military organization that prepared the uprising, General Rossignol, who came out of the plebeian environment, took an active part. Some Robespierreists, former deputies of the Jacobin Convention, joined the movement, such as Drouet (who arrested Louis XVI in Varenia).

The Babouvists unleashed extensive propaganda in Paris, which found a sympathetic response among the working people of the French capital. In April 1796, a Parisian newspaper reported that even in the streets there were talks about the benefits that could be achieved if the community of property was established.

The plan of an armed uprising carefully prepared by the "Secret Directory", however, was thwarted: a provocateur, who had made his way into the ranks of the participants in the movement, betrayed him to the government. In May 1796, Babeuf and other leaders of the Secret Directory were arrested. An attempt by the Babouvist-influenced soldiers of the Grenelle camp to raise an uprising failed. A year later, Babeuf and Darte were executed. They met death the same way they lived - courageously and nobly.

- "Swing Politics"

The defeat of the Babeuf conspiracy dealt a heavy blow to the democratic forces and encouraged the royalists. In 1797, in the election of one-third of the deputies to the legislature, the royalists won. With numerous supporters in the state apparatus, they almost openly prepared for a coup. The Directory was ahead of them. On September 3, 1797, government troops occupied the buildings of the Council of Five Hundred and the Council of Elders and arrested some of the deputies. The next day, September 4 (18 fructidor), it was decided to annul the election of monarchist deputies, to expel them to the colony, to intensify repressions against monarchist propaganda in the country.

Waging a struggle against the royalists, the Directory was forced to seek support in the opposite camp, among the surviving Jacobins. But it was enough to somewhat loosen the restrictions on democratic freedoms, as the influence of democratic forces in the country again rapidly increased. In the elections of 1798, the Republican-Democrats won a serious victory: among the elected were several figures from the period of the Jacobin dictatorship. Frightened by the electoral successes of the left groups, the Directory now swung to the right and passed on May 11 (Floreal 22), 1798, a decision to annul the elections of democratic deputies.

The Directory tried to present its vacillation now to the right, now to the left as a policy of the "golden mean". Contemporaries gave it a much more correct definition, calling it the "swing policy." This policy expressed the internal weakness and rottenness of the Directory regime.

French victories in Italy and peace with Austria

The unprincipled policy of maneuvering between opposing political camps could maintain the unstable regime of the Directory only as long as its internal vices were covered up by major victories at the fronts.

French armies under the command of such talented commanders as Gauche, Bonaparte, Moreau, Jourdany and others, using new methods of warfare created by the revolution, new tactics and strategy, continued to win. They beat the troops Austrian Empire and its allies, in which the routine reigned, implanted by arrogant, mediocre military leaders.

The main blows to the Austrian troops were delivered by the French army in Northern Italy under the command of Bonaparte. Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821), the son of an impoverished Corsican lawyer, who studied at public expense at the provincial Brienne military school, was one of those young generals who, thanks to his talent, quickly advanced during the revolution. After he suppressed the Vandemiere uprising of the royalists, the Directory placed him at the head of the French army, sent in April 1796 to northern Italy.

Bonaparte forced first the Sardinian kingdom, and then other Italian states, to make peace with France. Having thus isolated the Austrians, he inflicted a series of decisive defeats on the territory of Northern Italy. On May 10, he defeated the Austrian troops in the battle of Lodi, entered Milan and soon began the siege of the main Austrian military base - the fortress of Mantua. In the battles of Castiglione (August 5), Bassano (September 8), Arcola (November 17, 1796) and Rivoli (January 14, 1797), French troops successively defeated four Austrian armies, transferred one after another to Italy. Having achieved the capitulation of Mantua (February 2), the French troops launched a new offensive, invaded Austria through the Republic of Venice and began to quickly approach Vienna.

In April 1797, Austria had to conclude a truce, and on October 17 of the same year, sign a peace treaty with France at Campo Formio. Austria was forced to recognize the annexation of Belgium and the left bank of the Rhine to France and abandon Lombardy, receiving in return most of the territory of the former Venetian Republic. In northern Italy, the French founded two "subsidiary" republics - Cisalpine and Ligurian, placed in complete dependence on France.

As the war continued, its character began to change. The consequences of the Thermidorian coup and the seizure of power by the big bourgeoisie began to affect the goals of the war and the methods of its conduct. The Directory not only did not supply its armies, which were fed at the expense of the population of the occupied territories, but also lived at their expense. When concluding a peace treaty with Holland, France forced her to pay 100 million florins. Large indemnities were imposed on the German and Swiss cities occupied by the French army. But Napoleon Bonaparte acted especially shamelessly in Italy. Concluding agreements, he demanded multimillion-dollar indemnities, seized and exported to France unique monuments of art and huge material values. Receiving from their generals the gold they stole, the Directory became more and more dependent on them.

Expedition to Egypt

The French Republic was turning into the strongest power in continental Europe. But the main enemy of France - England, invulnerable to the French armies due to its island position and strong navy, continued to fight. In an effort to deliver a sensitive blow to England and undermine its colonial power, the government of the Directory decided to prepare a military expedition to conquer the richest English possessions in India. Since the route to India lay through the Arab countries, the Directory approved the proposal put forward by Bonaparte after his return from Italy to seize Egypt, which was part of the Ottoman Empire. The capture of Egypt, which had long been the object of the colonial aspirations of the French bourgeoisie, also pursued another goal. He was supposed to restore and strengthen the economic and political positions of France in the East, which she had lost during the revolution.

July 1798 French troops under the command of Bonaparte landed in Alexandria. The actual power in Egypt then belonged not to the Turks, but to the local feudal rulers - the Mamluk beys. Having defeated the Mamluk detachments in the battle at the pyramids, the French entered Cairo and occupied a significant part of the country. However, further developments turned out to be unfavorable for them.

The English fleet of Admiral Nelson destroyed the ships that delivered the French landing at Abukir, and thereby deprived the French army of the opportunity to receive reinforcements and supplies from France. In Egypt itself, the French faced the resistance of the masses who opposed the new invaders. In addition, the Turkish Sultan Selim III, in response to the French invasion of Egypt in September 1798, declared war on France, and in early 1799, having concluded an alliance with Russia and England, he moved troops through Syria to attack the French.

Bonaparte tried to get ahead of the Turks. In the early spring of 1799, the main body of the French expeditionary army invaded southern Syria and besieged the fortress of Akka, but after a two-month fruitless siege, they had to retreat and return to Egypt.

Soon Napoleon Bonaparte left for France, transferring command of the troops to General Kleber. Despite the partial military successes of Kleber, the position of the French in Egypt worsened more and more. In Egypt, popular indignation against the French grew.

In 1800 Kleber was killed by an Arab patriot. A year later, in August 1801, the French troops, pressed by the British and Turks, were forced to capitulate and evacuate from Egypt.

Second coalition

Meanwhile, the British government was making efforts to recreate the anti-French coalition. It especially sought to involve the forces of tsarist Russia in an active struggle against France. The captures carried out by the French in 1798, the creation of new vassal republics - Batavian (Holland), Helvetic (Switzerland) and Rome (Papal States), the occupation of the island of Malta by French troops and their invasion of the Middle East - all this facilitated the task of British diplomacy. The foreign policy goals of Russia and England coincided for some time.

The defeat of the French fleet at Aboukir, as a result of which the best of the French armies was cut off in Egypt, inspired the opponents of France. At the end of 1798-beginning of 1799, a second anti-French coalition arose, which included Russia, England, Austria, Turkey, and the Kingdom of Naples.

The war in Europe resumed in the spring of 1799 under unfavorable conditions for France. The army under the command of Jourdan was defeated in Germany and retreated beyond the Rhine. Even more serious setbacks befell the French in Italy. Having covered huge distances in a swift march, the Russian troops, led by A. V. Suvorov, appeared in Northern Italy in April 1799, occupied Milan at the end of April, and entered Turin on May 26. Having prevented the French armies of Moreau and Macdonald from joining, Suvorov defeated Macdonald's army in the three-day fierce battle of Trebbia (June 17-19), thereby forcing the retreat of Moreau's army.

Frightened by all this, the Directory removed MacDonald and appointed Joubert, who was considered one of the best generals of the republic, as commander in chief. All hopes were placed on him. However, on August 15, in a fierce battle at Novi, which lasted 16 hours, Joubert was killed, he was replaced by Moreau. Despite his best efforts, Moreau did not achieve victory. Russian soldiers showed exceptional stamina. Suvorov himself led his regiments into the attack. By evening, the French wavered and retreated.

Suvorov's victory at Novi made a strong impression in Europe. In France, it caused a panic. All French conquests in Italy seemed to have been lost. Suvorov stood at the gates of France. However, this victory did not receive further development, since at the insistence of Austria, Suvorov's troops were sent to Switzerland to help the Austrian troops stationed there.

Having made an unprecedented transition through St. Gotthard, overcoming the incredible difficulties of mountain warfare, having suffered hardships and a lack of provisions, weapons and ammunition, Suvorov's army passed through the Alps. However, when Suvorov's troops entered Switzerland, the Austrian corps under the command of Archduke Karl had already left the country, and Suvorov's troops found themselves in an extremely difficult situation.

By this time, disagreements between Russia, on the one hand, and England and Austria, on the other, led to Russia's withdrawal from the coalition. Paul I ordered the Russian troops to return home.

Coup of 18 Brumaire

Military failures and the danger of enemy armies invading France forced the Directory to take a number of emergency measures. Mass conscription into the army (the second time after 1793) brought in several hundred thousand new soldiers. Some former Jacobins were promoted to leadership positions. Again. The Jacobin Club was legalized, in which the surviving Babouvists took an active part. The government passed a forced loan at the expense of the rich and a hostage law directed against the families of emigrants and counter-revolutionaries. Although in fact the Directory did not intend to pursue a consistent democratic policy, these measures alarmed the big bourgeoisie; it seemed to her that 1793 was returning again. On the other hand, the monarchical danger intensified. Royalists again raised an uprising in the Vendée and flooded the country with armed bandit gangs that terrorized the local authorities and the population.

The obvious weakness of the Directory, its inconsistency and the presence of internal contradictions in it, prompted the leading circles of the bourgeoisie to think about the need for a "strong government" based on the army and capable of ensuring bourgeois "order" and the interests of the bourgeoisie both inside and outside the country.

When, in October 1799, General Bonaparte, having abandoned his army in Egypt, returned to Paris, he found there the ground prepared for change. political regime. Influential representatives of the bourgeoisie were intensively looking for a candidate for the role of dictator. They called the names of the generals Moreau, Jourdan, and called the name of Bonaparte.

Napoleon Bonaparte had long cherished ambitious dreams of power. Of all the French generals, he was not only the most talented and decisive, but he had the closest ties with the bourgeois elite, in particular with the "new rich". He multiplied the millionth fortune he had acquired in Italy through bribes and embezzlement by speculating on the purchase and resale of land holdings in France.

Bonaparte was helped by experienced politicians bourgeoisie - the former leader of the constitutionalists Sieyes, the clever and treacherous Foreign Minister Talleyrand, the master of political investigation and provocation, Minister of Police Fouche, as well as the most influential bankers and rulers of the stock exchange. Feeling the power of Bonaparte and hoping to use him to their advantage, they offered him their support, connections, money. It took only three weeks from the return of Bonaparte to Paris to the implementation of a carefully prepared coup d'état that abolished the regime of the Directory.

On November 9 (Brumaire 18), 1799, under the pretext of protecting the republic from a fictitious Jacobin conspiracy, martial law was introduced in Paris, and Bonaparte was appointed commander of the Paris military district. At the same time, all members of the Directory resigned. The next day, November 10 (19 Brumaire), Bonaparte, with the help of grenadiers loyal to him, dispersed the Council of Five Hundred and the Council of Elders and dictated to a handful of deputies assembled by him a decree on the transfer of power to three consuls, the first of which was himself.

Thus was established the military dictatorship of Napoleon Bonaparte.

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DIRECTORATE (in France) DIRECTORATE (in France)

DIRECTORY (Executive Directory), the government of the French Republic from November 1795 to November 1799.
Results of the Thermidorian coup (cm. THERMIDORIAN REVOLUTION) 1794 were enshrined in the constitution of the III year, developed and adopted by the Convention (cm. CONVENTION) in the autumn of 1795. The Convention itself was dissolved (October 26, 1795). Legislative power was concentrated in two chambers - the Council of Five Hundred and the Council of Elders; the executive was handed over to the Directory. The latter consisted of five people and was annually renewed by one-fifth of its composition; during the first four years, the order of outgoing members was decided by lot. The Directory of the first composition included L. M. La Revelier-Lepeau, J. F. Rebel, F. L. O. Letourner, P. Barras (cm. Barras Paul), L. N. Karno (cm. CARNO Lazar Nicola). For each vacant seat, the Council of Five Hundred compiled a list of ten candidates, from which the Council of Elders chose a new member of the Directory.
The Directory regime corresponded to the needs of the social consolidation of the class of proprietors on the descending line of the revolution, providing a compromise between those sections of the bourgeoisie who benefited from the revolutionary redistribution of property, but were not going to risk the fixed capital, compiled even before 1789, and the "new" owners, whose fixed capital was formed after 1789 and whose immunity was guaranteed by the Jacobin dictatorship (cm. JACOBINS).
Even before the adoption of the new constitution, the Thermidorians successfully dealt with the uprisings of the Parisian poor in the Germinal and Prairial (April and May 1795). The social nature of the Directory was clearly manifested during the defeat of Babeuf's "Conspiracy of Equals", drawn up in 1795-96, and at the same time during the suppression of the royalist rebellion in Paris on 13 Vendemière (October 5, 1795). Nevertheless, the results of the elections to the Council of Five Hundred and the Council of Elders in Germinal Year V (1797) showed a serious increase in the influence of the royalists. The monarchists, who filled up both chambers, began to liquidate the revolutionary legislation. Thus, on 7 fructidore (May 20, 1797), the laws of 1792-93 against unsworn priests were repealed, and on Prairial 30 (June 18, 1797), the Council of Five Hundred voted to transfer the right to manage finances from the Directory to the Treasury, controlled by the ultraconservatives. On 18 Fructidor V (September 4, 1797), republican troops loyal to the Directory occupied Paris, the most active monarchist deputies were arrested, the results of elections to both chambers in 49 departments were annulled, new laws were passed against emigrants and unsworn priests, and the activity of patriotic clubs was allowed. The liquidation of the parliamentary opposition allowed the Directory to streamline the tax system (November 1797 - December 1798), but in general the financial situation remained difficult. The economic revival and further stabilization of the internal political life of France was facilitated by large-scale external expansion - the Napoleonic wars in Italy, Egypt, robbery neighboring countries. This aggression protected Thermidorian France both from the threat of the restoration of the "old order" and from a new upsurge of the revolutionary movement. The inevitable growth in the influence of the army under these conditions led to the coup of 18 Brumaire (November 9), 1799, the establishment of "firm power" - the dictatorship of Napoleon (cm. NAPOLEON I Bonaparte) that ended the existence of the Directory.

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