David alfaro siqueiros biography. School Encyclopedia. Excerpt characterizing Alfaro Siqueiros, José David
José David Alfaro Siqueiros (Spanish: José David Alfaro Siqueiros, 1896-1974) is a Mexican painter. Painter, graphic artist and muralist. Political activist, member of the communist movement.
David Alfaro Siqueiros in 1911 entered the Academy of Fine Arts of San Carlos in Mexico City, where he participated in a student strike, protesting against the order in the institution. Then he studied at the Santa Anita Art School. From his youth he felt like a revolutionary, in 1911 he took part in civil war on the side of the constitutionalists. He served as an officer in the army of Mexican President Venustiano Carranza.
In 1919-1922, Siqueiros lived in France and Spain. In 1921 he published in Barcelona the "Manifesto of Revolutionary Art", and in 1922 he founded the "Revolutionary Syndicate of Workers in Technology and Art". Member of the Mexican communist party(MKP) since 1922. Since 1924, a member of the Central Committee of the ITUC, an active participant in the organization of the trade union movement and international communist congresses, served as editor-in-chief of the newspaper El Mundo, collaborated with other left-wing newspapers. Other Mexican artists took part with him in the communist movement, notably Diego Rivera.
In 1930, Siqueiros was arrested and then exiled to the town of Taxco. The link turned out to be fruitful in terms of creativity - here the artist created several dozen works.
Between 1932 and 1936, Siqueiros lived and worked primarily in the United States; there he painted the façades of the Chouinard School of Art and the Plaza Art Center in Los Angeles (1932).
In 1937-1939. Siqueiros fought in the Spanish Civil War as an officer in the Republican army under Enrique Lister. He rose to the rank of colonel.
May 24, 1940, together with Leopoldo and Luis Arenal and others, participates in the action of intimidation of L.D. Trotsky. Disguised in police uniforms, a detachment of 25 breaks into Trotsky's villa, ties up the five policemen guarding the villa, and fires indiscriminately. No one was injured in the attack. The action had two goals: to steal documents discrediting Trotsky, in particular evidence of receiving funds from ultra-reactionary US newspapers, and to force him to leave Mexico. Siqueiros himself considered the assassination of Trotsky or his guards "counterproductive." The attackers did not manage to get to the archive, nor did they succeed in forcing Trotsky to leave the country. On June 23, the Mexican Communist Party issued an official statement that none of the members of the party was involved in the attack on Trotsky, and all the attackers were "uncontrolled elements and provocateurs." As a result of the investigation, Siqueiros was arrested on October 4, 1940.
In 1960 he was elected a member of the Political Commission of the Central Committee of the ITUC. In the same year he was imprisoned for political activity, but in 1964 the authorities released him under pressure from international public opinion.
Repeatedly came to Moscow (1927, 1955, 1958 and 1972). Honorary member of the Academy of Arts of the USSR (1967), laureate of the International Lenin Prize "For strengthening peace between peoples" (1967).
One of the streets in the Vyborgsky district of St. Petersburg is named after Alfaro Siqueiros.
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Introduction
Jose David Alfaro Siqueiros (Spanish) Jose David Alfaro Siqueiros, 1896-1974) - Mexican painter, graphic artist and muralist, political activist, member of the communist movement.
1. Biography
David Alfaro Siqueiros was born on December 29, 1896 in the Mexican city of Camargo, in the province of Chihuahua. In 1911 he entered the Academy of Fine Arts of San Carlos in Mexico City, where he participated in a student strike, protesting against the order in the institution. Then he studied at the Santa Anita Art School. From his youth he felt like a revolutionary, in 1911 he took part in the civil war on the side of the constitutionalists. He served as an officer in the army of Mexican President Venustiano Carranza.
From 1919 to 1922 Siqueiros lived in France and Spain. In 1921 he published in Barcelona the "Manifesto of Revolutionary Art", and in 1922 he founded the "Revolutionary Syndicate of Workers in Technology and Art". Since 1924, the artist was one of the leaders of the Mexican Communist Party, actively participated in the organization of the trade union movement and in international communist congresses, served as editor-in-chief of the newspaper El Mundo, collaborated with other left-wing newspapers. Along with him, other Mexican artists took part in the communist movement, in particular Diego Rivera.
In 1930, Siqueiros was arrested and then exiled to the town of Taxco. The link turned out to be fruitful in terms of creativity - here the artist created several dozen works.
Between 1932 and 1936, Siqueiros lived and worked primarily in the United States; there he painted the façades of the Chouinard School of Art and the Plaza Art Center in Los Angeles (1932).
In 1937-1939, Siqueiros participated in the Spanish Civil War as an officer in the Republican Army under the command of Enrique Lister. He rose to the rank of colonel.
On the instructions of the NKVD, the communist-Stalinist Siqueiros takes part in a group of militants (codenamed "Horse"), formed to eliminate Trotsky.
May 24, 1940 - Together with "Filipe", Leopoldo and Luis Arenal and others, he participates in the failed assassination attempt on Trotsky.
At the end of 1940, he was arrested along with other members of the Kon group in connection with the assassination of Trotsky.
In 1960, Siqueiros was imprisoned for political activities, but in 1964 the authorities released him under pressure from international public opinion.
He repeatedly came to Moscow (1927, 1955, 1958 and 1972). Honorary member of the Academy of Arts of the USSR (1967), laureate of the International Lenin Prize "For strengthening peace between peoples" (1967).
A street in St. Petersburg is named after him.
2. Major works
2.1. Monumental compositions
painting at the National Preparatory School (mural, 1922-23, Mexico City),
mural in the electricians union club (1939, Mexico City),
painting in the Palace of Fine Arts (1945 and 1950-51, Mexico City),
painting in National Museum history (started in 1959, Mexico City)
mosaic and relief on the façade of the Rector's Office of the University Campus (1952-54, Mexico City);
monumental and decorative building "Polyforum" (1971, Mexico City)
2.2. easel painting
"Proletarian Mother" (1929-1930, Museum of Modern Art, New York),
Portrait of J. Gershwin (1936, Museum of Modern Art, New York).
Mine accident (Accidente en la mina, 1931).
New Democracy (La nueva democracia, 1945)
Siqueiros actually Alfaro Siqueiros (Alfaro Siqueiros) Jose David (12/29/1898, Chihuahua, - 01/06/1974, Cuernavaca), Mexican painter and graphic artist, one of the founders of the Mexican school of monumental painting; public figure. He studied in Mexico City at the Academy of Arts (1911) and the Santa Anita School (1913). From 1911 he participated in the revolutionary movement. In 1914-18, an officer in the army of V. Carranza. In 1919-22 he worked in France and Spain; in 1921 he published the Manifesto of Revolutionary Art in Barcelona. Founder (1922) and General Secretary (1923-25) of the Revolutionary Syndicate of Workers in Technology and Art. Since 1924 - one of the leaders of the Mexican Communist Party, editor-in-chief of the newspaper El Mundo. In the 20s. - Active trade union leader, Secretary General of the Mexican Unitary Trade Union Confederation (since 1929). In 1930 he was arrested, in 1931 he was exiled to Taska. In 1932-34 and 1935-36 he worked in the USA, founded an experimental workshop in New York (1936). In 1937-39 he was an officer in the Republican Army in Spain. S.'s activity in Argentina (1933), Chile (1941–42), and Cuba (1943) had a great influence on the development of monumental art in the countries of Latin America. In 1927, 1955, 1958 and 1972 S. visited Moscow. In 1960 he was imprisoned for political activities, and in 1964 he was released under pressure from international public opinion. Honorary member of the Academy of Arts of the USSR (1967). Laureate of the International Lenin Prize "For strengthening peace between peoples" (1966). A fighter for revolutionary art imbued with communist ideology, S. imparted increased expression and greater plastic power to images, defending new principles for the active influence of works of art on the masses. He created monumental compositions in which specific characters are combined with symbolic personifications of socio-historical forces, used the effects of a dynamically shrinking perspective, boldly introduced painting into interaction with sculptural forms, applied new artistic materials (synthetic paints, ceramic relief mosaics, etc.) . In the 50-60s. in the work of S., concrete expressiveness in the interpretation of historical events and types, the political content of the images is sharpened. The main works of S.: murals - in the National Preparatory School (fresco, 1922-23), in the club of the trade union of electricians (1939), in the Palace of Fine Arts (1945 and 1950-51), in the National Museum of History (begun in 1959): mosaic and a relief on the façade of the Rector's Office of the University Campus (1952-54); the monumental and decorative building "Polyforum", combining architecture, painting and sculpture (1971); all works - in Mexico City; easel paintings - "Proletarian Mother" (1929-30), a portrait of J. Gershwin (1936), both - in the Museum of Modern Art, New York. He made many lithographs and drawings. Cit.: Cómo se pinta un mural, Méch., 1951; L "art et la revolution, P., 1973. Lit.: Zhadova L., Monumental painting of Mexico, M., 1965; Field V., Art of the countries of Latin America, M., 1967; David Siqueiros, [L., 1969]; Tibol R., David Alfaro Siqueiros, Mex., . V. M. Polevoy.
Big soviet encyclopedia. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1969-1978 .
See what "Siqueiros" is in other dictionaries:
Siqueiros A.S.- SIKÉYROS Alfaro Siqueiros David (18961974), mex. painter, post. Academy of Arts of the USSR (1967). Since 1924 one of the hands. Mex. KP. In 193739 an officer of the Rep. armies in Spain; in 1940 he organized an unsuccessful attempt on the life of L. D. Trotsky. ... ... Biographical Dictionary
- ... Wikipedia
SIKEIROS, JOSE DAVID, or Alfaro Siqueiros (Alfaro Siqueiros, Jose David) (1896 1974), Mexican painter and graphic artist. Born in Chihuahua. From a young age until the end of his life, Siqueiros combined political activity with professional pursuits ... ... Collier Encyclopedia
- (actually Alfaro Siqueiros, Alfaro Siqueiros) (1896 1974), Mexican painter and graphic artist, public figure. One of the founders and the largest master of the Mexican school of monumental painting. Honorary member of the Academy of Arts of the USSR (1967). Studied at … Art Encyclopedia
Siqueiros, actually Alfaro Siqueiros (Alfaro Siqueiros) José David (12/29/1898, Chihuahua, ‒ 1/6/1974, Cuernavaca), Mexican painter and graphic artist, one of the founders of the Mexican school of monumental painting; public figure. Studied at… … Great Soviet Encyclopedia
SIKEIROS (Alfaro Siqueiros) (Alfaro Siqueiros) David (1896 1974) Mexican painter, honorary member of the Academy of Arts of the USSR (1967). Since 1924 One of the leaders of the Mexican CP. In 1937 39 officer of the Republican army in Spain; in 1940 organized a failed ... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary
Siqueiros Xoce David- D. Siqueiros. Siqueiros Xoce David, Alfaro Siqueiros (Alfaro Siqueiros) (18961974), Mexican painter, graphic artist and public figure. One of the founders and major masters of the Mexican school of monumental painting. In 1911 ... ... Encyclopedic reference book "Latin America"
Siqueiros, David- D. Siqueiros. Polyforum in Mexico City. 1971 SIKEIROS (Alfaro Siqueiros) (Alfaro Siqueiros) David (1896 - 1974), painter. One of the founders of the Mexican school of monumental painting. To express the pathos of the struggle for freedom and peace, he used bright ... ... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary
Alfaro Siqueiros (1896-1974), Mexican painter, honorary member of the USSR Academy of Arts (1967). Since 1924 one of the leaders of the Mexican CP. In 1937 39 officer of the Republican army in Spain; in 1940 organized a failed assassination attempt on ... ... encyclopedic Dictionary
Alfaro Siqueiros is a famous Mexican artist of the 20th century.
He was a painter, graphic artist, member of the communist movement in Mexico.
Full name of the artist - Jose David Alfaro Siqueiros.
From the biography
D. A. Siqueiros. Self-portrait. Pyroxylin (1943). Museum of Fine Arts (Mexico City)
The future artist was born in Chihuahua in 1896. From a young age (from the age of 13) he became interested in politics and until the end of his life he combined political activity with professional painting.
He studied at the San Carlos Academy (1911) and at the Santa Anita School (1913). Already while studying at the San Carlos Art Academy, he becomes one of the student leaders and raises the youth to protest and strike against the academic routine. But demands of an economic nature were also made, for example, the nationalization of railways. Siqueiros himself wrote about this in his memoirs: “The whole of Mexico laughed at us ... Frankly, I am deeply convinced that it was on that day that an artist-citizen was born in the soul of each of us, an artist living in public interests ... ".
In 1914-1918. he participated in the Mexican Revolution, was an officer in the army of President Venustiano Carranza. From 1919 to 1922 traveled and studied in Europe (France, Spain). Upon returning to Mexico, along with D. Rivera and J.K. Orozco founded the Syndicate of Revolutionary Painters, Sculptors and Engravers, which enjoyed the support of the state. At the same time, he completed the wall paintings at the National Preparatory School in Mexico City (1922-1923).
A. Siqueiros "Elements". Encaustic (painting technique in which the binder of paints is wax). Small courtyard of the National preparatory school(Mexico City)
In 1924, Siqueiros became one of the leaders of the Mexican Communist Party. He helped organize trade unions, contributed to workers' newspapers, and participated in international congresses of trade union and communist organizations in Moscow, Buenos Aires, Montevideo, and New York.
In 1930 he was arrested, in 1931 he was sent into exile in Taxco. The link turned out to be very fruitful in terms of creativity: he created many paintings, lithographs and woodcuts here.
In 1932-1934 and 1935-1936. Siqueiros worked in the USA: he painted the facades of the buildings of the Chouinard Art School and the Plaza Art Center in Los Angeles (1932), founded an experimental workshop.
He was expelled from the USA for the "Tropical America" mural in Los Angeles. The fresco was destroyed.
The artist himself, describing his work, said that Tropical America is usually represented as “a paradise where people lead a carefree existence among palm trees and parrots and where ripe fruits themselves fall into the mouths of blissful mortals. And I depicted on my fresco a man crucified on a cross ... on which an eagle triumphantly sits on top, the same as on the American dollar ... ".
A. Siqueiros "Tropical America" (fragment of uni painted mural in Los Angeles)
Siqueiros gave lectures and arranged exhibitions of his works in a number of cities in South America, worked with a group of artists in Buenos Aires on the composition "Plastic Study" (1933).
In 1937-1939. Siqueiros fought in Spain on the side of the Republicans. In 1940, he participated in organizing the assassination attempt on Leon Trotsky, who was then living in Mexico. For organizing student unrest in Mexico City 1960-1964. he spent in prison.
In October 1940, Siqueiros was again arrested in connection with the frightening action of L. Trotsky, who was then in Mexico. The purpose of the action is to force Trotsky to leave Mexico. The action was unsuccessful, and Siqueiros was first arrested and then deported from Mexico to Chile.
In the 1950s, Siqueiros worked on the creation of mosaics on the facades of buildings on the university campus and monumental pictorial compositions for the La Raza hospital and the Chapultepec castle in Mexico City.
Alfaro Siqueiros (center) and Zurab Tsereteli (left)
Siqueiros visited Moscow several times (the last time was in 1974). He was an honorary member of the Academy of Arts of the USSR (1967), laureate of the International Lenin Prize "For the strengthening of peace between peoples" (1967).
Siqueiros died in Cuernavaca (Mexico) on January 6, 1974.
Tomb of David Alfaro Siqueiros at the Pantheon Cemetery in Mexico City
Creation
In the work of Siqueiros, the predominance of bright colors, dynamism and fixing the attention of the audience on their hands are noticeable. Siqueiros considered human hands to be a real force, and in paintings - the ideological meaning of the work.
A. Siqueiros "Sobbing". Pyroxylin (1939)
In this painting, the artist depicted the tragedy of the Spanish people during the almost 40-year era of Franco's dictatorship. Siqueiros experienced this tragedy as a personal drama. The painting "Sobbing" symbolizes sorrow, this is a requiem painting.
A. Siqueiros "The Image of Our Century" (1947)
On many works of Siqueiros, the name of the material is indicated - pyroxylin. What it is?
At first, Alfaro Siqueiros used pyroxylin-based paint (1920-1940) for his work, which is based on synthetic polyvinyl chloride resins. By that time, pyroxylin was quite widely used in industry; cars were painted with it. But before Siqueiros, it never occurred to anyone to use pyroxylin in painting. It was the work with pyroxylin that led to the invention of modern acrylic paints. Siqueiros later also switched completely to acrylic paints.
A. Siqueiros worked in various genres of painting, including portraiture. But his portraits always had a psychological depth, and sometimes even departed from the traditional genre. Such, for example, is the portrait of the American composer and pianist George Gershwin. It's more like a genre scene.
A. Siqueiros. Portrait of D. Gershwin
Here is another unusual portrait. The history of its creation is known.
Once Siqueiros was asked to make a portrait of a deceased little girl, whose relatives believed that the artist was a photographer. But when the truth came out, the girl's father still insisted that the portrait be made, and even better if it was a picturesque portrait.
The deceased girl was dressed in her best dress and seated on a chair. And so that she would not fall, the elder sister wrapped her arms around her. Siqueiros later admitted that he never felt more responsible for his painting than when he painted a portrait of two girls, one of whom was alive and the other dead.
There are many buildings of historical value in Mexico City, but one of them occupies a very special place. This unusual structure resembles a large sparkling ring, each facet of which is a separate work of art, made by the hand of a brilliant craftsman. Mexico, and with it the whole world, has the greatest creation - the "Polyforum" by David Alfaro Siqueiros.
Mexican artist D.A. Siqueiros lived a stormy life. He was a revolutionary in art and politics, a participant in the Mexican Revolution and the national liberation war in Spain, an active figure in the peace movement. Art and political struggle for D.A. The Siqueiros were never separated. Of course, the artist could give his strength to art and not directly participate in the struggle, while remaining deeply social and revolutionary in his work. However, D. Siqueiros thought his life differently. He was a communist, a member of the Mexican Communist Party in his beliefs and deeds, which is why his art is as vibrant as the era that gave birth to it.
Communist D.A. Siqueiros was imprisoned for many months and even years, and, of course, during this time he could not do much as an artist. But when D. Siqueiros was released, his brush acquired a new powerful force. No prison could shake his conviction in the rightness of his cause, and the art of the Mexican artist was always inspired by this conviction.
YES. Siqueiros has always dreamed of muralism - monumental wall painting. Even "Guernica" by P. Picasso did not impress the Mexican, since he saw only huge frescoes that should shake the huge masses of the people. And not only shock, but also awaken in them an irresistible desire to act, fight, fight for social justice and against fascism. The artist believed that frescoes should affect a person even when he passes by them.
The immediate impetus for the creation of the "Polyforum" was the whim of one customer who could finance the work. Manuel Suarez planned to build a building that would become the headquarters of the administration of large Mexican and international industrial syndicates. He dreamed of decorating the walls of this building with one huge, almost limitless fresco. The famous by that time artist D.A. Siqueiros was offered a universal theme for painting - "History of Humanity". The artist, who himself dreamed of such an all-encompassing theme, decided to limit it at the first stage of his work. This clarification was agreed upon, an agreement was drawn up with the customer, and the future building was named the Siqueiros Chapel.
D. Siqueiros believed that monumental painting could not be created by a single artist, and he attracted many masters to the creation of the "Polyforum" - much more than for any other of his works. The team was selected motley and many-sided. Along with veteran artists, D.A. Siqueiros included artists either who had never worked with a great master, or simply very young, still beginning. They came from all parts of Mexico and from Latin America, from Egypt, Italy, France, Israel, Japan. "Noah's Ark," the artists themselves joked. "World International", - D. Siqueiros corrected them with all seriousness.
Before proceeding with the creation of the Chapel, it was necessary to organize spacious workshops where it would be possible to create a building design and prepare dozens of panels covered with paintings. The scope of the forthcoming artistic work was so enormous that these workshops eventually turned into a small factory with specialized workshops - welding, foundry, chemical, electrical, etc. In addition, they also provided for art studios, in which each of the painters or sculptors could work on his sketches or the part of the painting entrusted to him. All these workshops were located in a remote, but very large building located in the Colonial Square of the city of Cuernavaca - "the edge of eternal spring."
D. Siqueiros divided his creative team into four sections, each of which was assigned a very specific creative task. One, for example, developed general model building; the other investigated the materials suitable for the basis for painting and the paint layer itself, etc.; the third, under the direct supervision of D. Siqueiros himself, worked on the compositional and color scheme of the first painting. In the fourth section, they were engaged in the coordination of individual parts of the complex and solving the problems of optical perception of frescoes from different points of view.
At this stage of work great help photography provided the creative team. As soon as any idea acquired at least a sketch embodiment, it was immediately fixed on photographic film. Then the image was enlarged, reduced, compared with other fragments, and, thus, the photograph made it possible to select from a huge number of options the “only one” that satisfied everyone.
By January 1967, the first model of the "Siqueiros Chapel" was made - a model of a large rectangular building, which was to be located on Insurgentes Avenue (Rebel Street) in Mexico City. At the same time, sketches of the grandiose mural "March of Humanity in Latin America" were presented. But the analysis of these works showed that the rectangular shape chosen for the "Capella" is not the best spatial solution: in right angles between the walls and between the walls and the ceiling, the painting practically "did not work". D. Siqueiros, in his recent works, always transferred fresco painting from the walls directly to the ceiling, and from it to opposite walls. The artist argued that such painting should freely “splash” in space, and neat rectangular walls fettered this heroic “splash”. After a long search, it was decided to build walls along the sides of a 12-sided polygon, which would gravitate not to a circle, but to an ellipse. In this case, the dynamism of the viewer's perception of painting will acquire even greater tension and multidimensionality, and the viewer himself, in his desire to see the frescoes as best as possible, will constantly move inside the hall.
While architectural issues were being resolved, no less intense work was going on for painters. D. Siqueiros himself identified main topic"Polyforum" as "the victorious march of mankind, which began at the dawn of civilization and directed through the Present to the Future." This huge historical period, according to D. Siqueiros, should be “compressed” into one long day, lasting from morning to night. Dozens of “events of this day” will symbolize the turning points in history and the highest points of the spiritual life of mankind, as well as its darkest, most painful failures.
Angelica Arenal de Siqueiros, the artist's wife, later recalled that D. Siqueiros considered the Poliforum to be his most important work. Working on the "Polyforum", the artist, as always, experimented a lot with new materials, solved the problems of the compositional combination of sculpture and painting; he thought a lot about how to make sure that wall paintings and multi-colored metal sculptures could be used to decorate streets and parks so that they could withstand any weather. To clarify this, D. Siqueiros even studied ways to protect aircraft and ships from the effects of bad weather, discussed these problems with chemists, and they conducted special studies for the artist. “Despite the fact that the artist had a contract with M. Suarez,” Angelica Siqueiros recalled, “he paid only the first two years, and Siqueiros took six years to complete this work. Suárez stated that he was unwilling to pay for Siqueiros' experiments with metal sculptors. Moreover, he began to appropriate the drawings, sketches and models that Siqueiros made in preparing the paintings. And yet Siqueiros continued to work like a man possessed, having spent his own funds on this.
The first fresco, called "The March of Mankind towards the Bourgeois-Democratic Revolution", begins on the south side of the "Polyforum". On it, the viewer sees the tragic episodes of history: the scourging of blacks, the torture of the hero by fire, the mother with a hungry child in her arms, the grotesque figures of demagogues, symbolizing the bourgeois-democratic revolution. Another fresco, located on the opposite wall and part of the ceiling, is called "The march of mankind towards the revolution of the future." It also consists of a number of symbolic episodes, which in the mind of the viewer must merge into a complete picture of the struggle and victory of mankind. The culmination of the pictorial narrative here are the figures of martyrs and heroes of the revolution painted on the ceiling. The third fresco of the cycle occupies the central part of the ceiling and two sections of the central wall. It plastically combines the two previous frescoes, and it is in it that the victorious March of Humanity is embodied.
When the viewer enters the "Polyforum", then, lifted by a pneumatic elevator, he falls on a rotating floor. The floor carries him along the walls, now moving away from them, now bringing him closer. And on the walls and on the ceiling in front of the viewer are depicted representatives of the peoples - heroes and criminals, who then go into the depths, then advance directly at him. Then the floor takes the viewer into a new space, forcing them to feel like a particle of this erupting stream, to dissolve in millions of their own kind - making the eternal journey to the Future.
In everything, D. Siqueiros was furious. He knew everything: glory and persecution, hatred and love, loyalty and betrayal, in prison they mocked and laughed at him. But others at the same time bought his paintings, paying big money, which the great master gave to those who fought against the black forces of the world. They called him Prometheus, and he himself titled the book of his memoirs "They called me the Dashing Colonel." D. Siqueiros is buried in the Pantheon of the Great Mexicans in Mexico City, and a five-meter metal sculpture of Prometheus is installed above his grave.
