Human activities in Antarctica. Modern exploration of Antarctica. Benefits of Antarctic icebergs

Antarctica is a mysterious, sparsely populated and coldest continent on our planet. Exploration of the southern continent began in the middle of the 19th century. But modern scientists do not bypass this reserve the size of a whole continent.

In 1959, an international convention on Antarctica was signed. It spelled out the rules governing the use of the cold continent.

• In the 20th and 21st century, the territory continues to be a protected area.
• Any production is prohibited, only research activities are allowed.
• Antarctica has a nuclear-free status - even a nuclear-powered icebreaker cannot come close to the coast.

Main areas of research

The most exciting scientific discoveries were made in the 19th and 20th century, but exploration of the continent continues today.

Antarctica is the mainland is a mystery. Both modern and future generations of mankind still have a lot of research work to do.

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Exploration of Antarctica

Antarctica (the opposite of the Arctic) is a continent located in the very south of the Earth, the center of Antarctica approximately coincides with the geographic south pole. Antarctica is washed by the waters of the Southern Ocean (in Russia this ocean is often considered as the southern parts of the Indian, Pacific and Atlantic oceans).

The area of ​​the continent is 12.4 million km² (another 1.6 million km² are ice shelves). Antarctica was discovered on January 16 (January 28), 1820 by a Russian expedition led by Thaddeus Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev, who approached it at the point 69°21′ S. sh. 2°14′ W (G) (area of ​​the modern Bellingshausen Ice Shelf). The first to enter the continental part on January 24, 1895 were the captain of the Norwegian ship "Antarctic" Christensen and the teacher of natural sciences Karlsten Borchgrövink.

Antarctica is the coldest of all continents.

In terms of territory, Antarctica occupies far from the last place among other parts of the world. Its area - about 1400 million km 2 - is almost twice the area of ​​Australia and one and a half times the area of ​​Europe. With its outlines, Antarctica slightly resembles the Arctic Ocean. Antarctica is very different from all other continents. A thick layer of ice covers almost the entire continent. Thanks to the colossal glaciation, Antarctica is the highest continent on earth, its average height exceeds 2000 m, over 1/4 of its surface is at an altitude of more than 3000 m.

Antarctica is the only continent on which there is not a single permanent river, and yet it contains 62% of the earth's fresh waters in the form of ice.

Fig.1. Antarctica (satellite image)

If the ice sheet of this continent began to melt, it could feed the rivers of our planet, with the water content that they have for more than 500 years, and the level of the World Ocean, from the water that entered it, would rise by more than 60 meters.

The magnitude of glaciation can be judged, if only because this ice is enough to cover the entire globe with a layer about 50 meters thick.

If you remove the entire ice sheet from Antarctica, it will be similar to all other continents with complex terrain - mountain structures, plains and deep depressions. An important difference from other continents is the complete absence of state borders and permanent population. Antarctica does not belong to any state, no one lives there permanently.

Antarctica is a continent of peace and cooperation. Within its limits, any military preparations are prohibited. None of the countries can declare it their land. Legally, this is enshrined in an international treaty, which was signed on December 1, 1959. and entered into force on June 23, 1961, Antarctica does not belong to any state.

Only scientific activities are allowed.

The deployment of military installations, as well as the entry of warships and armed vessels south of the 60th degree of latitude, are prohibited.

In the 80s of the XX century, Antarctica was also declared a nuclear-free zone, which excluded the appearance of nuclear-powered ships in its waters, and nuclear power units on the mainland.

Now the parties to the treaty are 28 states (with the right to vote) and dozens of observer countries. However, the existence of a treaty does not mean that the states that acceded to it have renounced their territorial claims to the continent and adjacent space. On the contrary, the territorial claims of some countries are formidable. For example, Norway claims a territory ten times larger than its own (including the island of Peter I, discovered by the Bellingshausen-Lazarev expedition).

Great territories declared their Great Britain.

Australia considers almost half of Antarctica to be its own, into which, however, the “French” Adélie Land is wedged. Presented territorial claims and New Zealand.

Great Britain, Chile and Argentina claim practically the same territory, including the Antarctic Peninsula and the South Shetland Islands. The United States and Russia took a special position, declaring that they could, in principle, put forward their territorial claims in Antarctica, although so far they have not done so. At the same time, both states do not recognize the claims of other countries.

History of the study of the continent

The first existence in the cold south of the continent was suggested by James Cook.

However, a very difficult ice situation did not allow him to reach the shores of the continent. This was done on January 16 (January 28), 1820, by a Russian expedition led by Thaddeus Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev. After that, the study of the coast of the continent and its interior began. Numerous studies were done by English expeditions led by Ernest Shackleton (he wrote the book The Most Terrible Campaign about them).

In 1911-1912, a real race to conquer the South Pole unfolded between the expeditions of the Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen and the Englishman Robert Scott. Amundsen was the first to reach the South Pole, a month after him, the party of Robert Scott arrived at the coveted point and died on the way back.

Fig.2. Ice of Antarctica

From the middle of the 20th century, the study of Antarctica began on an industrial basis. Numerous permanent bases are being created on the continent by various countries, conducting meteorological, glaciological and geological research all year round.

There are about 45 year-round scientific stations in Antarctica. Currently, Russia has five operating stations and one field base in Antarctica: Mirny, Vostok, Novolazarevskaya, Progress, Bellingshausen, Druzhnaya-4 (base). Three stations are in a mothballed state: Molodyozhnaya, Russkaya, Leningradskaya. The rest no longer exist: Pionerskaya, Komsomolskaya, Sovietskaya, Vostok-1, Lazarev, the Pole of Inaccessibility.

From 1957 to 1959, the International Geophysical Year was held, 65 countries agreed to send their expeditions to Antarctica, build scientific stations and conduct various studies.

More than 60 research stations have been built in Antarctica. Scientists from many countries of the world work there. In 1959, an international treaty was signed on Antarctica, according to which it is forbidden to build industrial and military facilities there. The entire continent is provided to scientists for research, which is why Antarctica is called the continent of scientists.

The first Soviet expedition to Antarctica was led by Hero of the Soviet Union M. M. Somov. In early January 1956, the flagship of the expedition diesel-electric ship "Ob" under the command of Captain I.

A. Mana approached the Helen Glacier in dense fog and passed through a narrow passage between icebergs to the east of the glacier mouth to the Depot Bay of the Davis Sea. The search for a site for the construction of a scientific station began. A suitable site was found in the area of ​​Haswell Island.

In mid-February 1956, the grand opening of the first Soviet observatory on the coast of Antarctica took place.

The observatory was named "Mirny" - in honor of one of the ships of the First Russian Antarctic expedition of Belingshausen - Lazarev. From the first days of the existence of the Soviet base, scientific research began in all the planned areas.

The coast where the expedition settled was called the Shore of Truth.

Scientists have proven that Antarctica used to be a green city. And under the ice are mountains, valleys, plains, channels of former rivers, bowls of former lakes. Millions of years ago there was no eternal winter on this earth. Here the forests murmured warmly and greenly, tall grasses swayed under the warm winds, animals gathered on the banks of rivers and lakes to drink, birds fluttered in the sky.

Scientists suggest that Antarctica was once part of a giant continent called Gondwana. A few months later, the expedition undertook a sledge-caterpillar traverse into the depths of the “white spot” of East Antarctica and organized the Pionerskaya inland station 370 km from the coast, at an altitude of 2700 m above sea level.

On this slope of the glacial dome, even in the best weather, a smoky wind blows, sweeping the snow.

Fig.3. Station "Vostok" (Russia)

The second Soviet Antarctic expedition led by A.F. Treshnikov advanced even further inland. The researchers came to the South geomagnetic pole and at a distance of 1400 km from the coast, at an altitude of 3500 m above sea level, built a permanent research station "Vostok".

Everything necessary for the life and work of polar explorers is delivered from their homeland by several ships, in addition, winterers have tractors, tractors, airplanes, and helicopters.

Thanks to the AN-2 light aircraft and the MI-4 helicopter, which helped to quickly get to any points on the coast, geologists in a short time studied dozens of rocky mountains - nunataks protruding from the ice sheet, surveyed the Mirny rocks and the Bunger Hills oasis and its surroundings.

Biologists have flown by plane over many offshore islands, producing descriptions of the flora and fauna of these areas. The vegetation here is lichens, mosses and blue-green algae.

There are no land mammals, winged insects and freshwater fish in Antarctica. Over 100,000 birds nest near Mirny.

penguins, many petrels, skuas, seals and sea leopards live in the waters.

The third Soviet Antarctic expedition worked during the International Geophysical Year. By this time, two more stations had been built - "Komsomolskaya" and in the area of ​​relative inaccessibility - "Soviet". Round-the-clock observations of the atmosphere were organized at the stations. The Pole of Cold of our planet was discovered. It is located near the Vostok station. Here, the average monthly temperature of August is 71 C and the minimum temperature is recorded - 88.3 C.

At such temperatures, the metal becomes brittle, diesel fuel turns into a pasty mass, kerosene does not flare up, even if a burning torch is lowered into it. During the work of the Fourth Soviet Antarctic Expedition, the new Lazareva station was also operating on the coast of the Queen Maud Land, but later it was rewritten 80 km inland and named Novolazarevskaya.

The members of this expedition made a sledge-caterpillar traverse from Vostok station to the Geographical South Pole. In October 1958, Soviet pilots on an IL-12 aircraft made a transcontinental flight from Mirny, across the South Pole, to the American McMurdo base located off Ross Island. It was the first Soviet aircraft over the South Pole.

Fig.4.

Aerial view of Beardmore Glacier in 1956

At the end of 1959, during the Fourth Soviet Antarctic Expedition, researchers made an outstanding trip on all-terrain vehicles. This trip took place in the most difficult sector of Antarctica along the route Mirny-Komsomolskaya-East-South Pole. On December 26, 1959, a Soviet train from all-terrain vehicles arrived at the Amundsen-Scott station, where the Soviet polar explorers were warmly welcomed by the Americans. The participants of the campaign made a traditional round-the-world trip around the earth's axis, which took only a few minutes.

During this trip, our scientists measured the thickness of the ice sheet using the seismoacoustic method. It turned out that under the station "Vostok" the thickness of the glacier is 3700, and the South Pole - 2810 m, from the station "Pionerskaya" to the South Pole extends a vast subglacial plain lying at sea level.

It was named the Schmidt plain - in honor of the famous Soviet polar explorer - Otto Yulievich Schmidt. The results of research by scientists from different countries of the world were combined into one common system. Based on them, maps of the under-ice relief and the thickness of the ice sheet of Antarctica were compiled.

International cooperation makes it possible to combine the work of scientists and contributes to a better study of the nature of Antarctica.

At the American Amundsen-Scott station, for example, Soviet scientists often visit and work, while American scientists spend the winter and work at the Soviet Vostok station, located at the South geomagnetic pole. Now reaching the South Pole is a relatively simple matter. American researchers are always here, dozens of planes fly here every year, correspondents, congressmen and even tourists arrive here.

Soviet expeditions go to Antarctica every year.

New stations were built - Molodezhnaya, Bellingshausen in West Antarctica, Leningradskaya on Victoria Land, not far from the Ross Sea. The richest scientific materials are collected. So, for example, seismic observations made it possible to register earthquakes on the Antarctic continent, albeit very weak ones.

Geological structure

Geologists have established that the bowels of Antarctica contain significant minerals - iron ores, coal, traces of copper, nickel, lead, zinc, molybdenum ores have been found, rock crystal, mica, and graphite have been found.

The Transantarctic Mountains, crossing almost the entire continent, divide Antarctica into two parts - West Antarctica and East Antarctica - having a different origin and geological structure.

In the east there is a high (the highest elevation of the ice surface is ~4100 m above sea level), an ice-covered plateau. The western part consists of a group of mountainous islands connected by ice. On the Pacific coast are the Antarctic Andes, whose height exceeds 4000 m; the highest point of the continent - 4892 m above sea level - the Vinson Massif of the Sentinel Range.

In West Antarctica there is also the deepest depression of the continent - the Bentley depression, probably of rift origin. The depth of the Bentley depression, filled with ice, reaches 2555 m below sea level.

West Antarctica is a younger and more dissected region, formed over the past 500 million years by the addition of small continental microplate fragments to the Antarctic plate. The largest are the Ellsworth Mountains, the Antarctic Peninsula and Mary Bird Land.

The collision of these microplates with the Antarctic plate led to the formation of the mountains of western Antarctica.

ice sheet

The Antarctic Ice Sheet is the largest ice sheet on the planet and is approximately 10 times larger than the nearest Greenland Ice Sheet. It contains ~30 million km³ of ice, that is, 90% of all land ice. The ice sheet is shaped like a dome with an increase in the steepness of the surface towards the coast, where it passes into ice ledges or ice shelves.

The average thickness of the ice layer is 2500-2800 m, reaching a maximum value in some areas of East Antarctica - 4800 m. The accumulation of ice on the ice sheet leads, as in the case of other glaciers, to the flow of ice into the ablation (destruction) zone, which is the coast continent; ice breaks off in the form of icebergs. The annual volume of ablation is estimated at 2500 km³.

Fig.5.

Ice sheet of Antarctica

A feature of Antarctica is a large area of ​​ice shelves, low (blue) areas of West Antarctica), which is ~ 10% of the area that rises above sea level; these glaciers are the source of icebergs of record size, much larger than those of the fjord glaciers in Greenland; For example, in 2000

the largest known so far (2005) iceberg B-15 with an area of ​​over 10,000 km² broke away from the Ross Ice Shelf. In summer (winter in the southern hemisphere), the area of ​​the ice sheet of Antarctica increases by 3-4 million km² due to the growth of ice shelves, primarily around the Antarctic Peninsula and in the Ross Sea.

The modern ice sheet of Antarctica was formed several million years ago, which was apparently facilitated by the rupture of the bridge connecting South America and the Antarctic Peninsula, which, in turn, led to the formation of the Antarctic circumpolar current (Western Winds current) and the isolation of Antarctic waters from the World Ocean - these waters make up the so-called Southern Ocean.

Lemaire Canal

East Antarctica is an ancient Precambrian continental platform (craton) similar to those of India, Brazil, Africa, and Australia.

All these cratons were formed during the breakup of the Gondwana supercontinent. The age of the rocks of the crystalline basement is 2.5-2.8 billion years, the most ancient rocks of Enderby Earth are more than 3 billion years old.

Fig.6. Lemaire Canal

The basement is covered by a younger sedimentary cover formed 350-190 million years ago, mainly of marine origin. In layers with an age of 320-280 million years

years, glacial deposits are present, but younger ones contain fossil remains of plants and animals, including ichthyosaurs and dinosaurs, which indicates a strong difference in the climate of that time from the modern one. Findings of heat-loving reptiles and fern flora were made by the first explorers of Antarctica, and served as one of the strongest evidence of large-scale horizontal plate movements, confirming the concept of plate tectonics.

seismic activity.

Volcanism

Antarctica is a tectonically calm continent with low seismic activity; manifestations of volcanism are concentrated in western Antarctica and are associated with the Antarctic Peninsula, which arose during the Andean period of mountain building.

Some of the volcanoes, especially island ones, have erupted in the last 200 years. The most active volcano in Antarctica is Erebus. It is called "the volcano guarding the way to the South Pole".

Essay

Discovery of Antarctica

I've done the work:

full-time 1st year student

forms of education

Ignatovsky V.P.

Scientific adviser:

Fedorov G.M.

Kaliningrad

ANTARCTICA, the mainland in the center of Antarctica. 13975 thousand km2 (including 1582 thousand km2 - ice shelves and islands attached to Antarctica by glaciers).

There is no permanent population. The average height is 2040 m (the highest continent on Earth), the highest is 5140 m (Vinson Massif in the Ellsworth Mountains).

Very strong winds are frequent.

From plants there are flowering, fern (on the Antarctic Peninsula), lichens, fungi, bacteria, algae (in oases).

Seals and penguins live on the coast.

Minerals: coal, iron ore, mica, copper, lead, zinc, graphite, etc. Antarctica was discovered in January 1820 by the Russian expedition of F. F. Bellingshausen - M. P. Lazarev. In the beginning. 20th century R. Scott, E. Shackleton, R. Amundsen, D.

Mawson and others. In 1911 the expedition of R. Amundsen and in 1912 R. Scott reached the South Pole. In connection with the International Geophysical Year (1957-58) and in the subsequent period, polar scientific stations were created in various countries of the world; 48 stations in 1991.

(16th c.

early 19th century)

In 1768-71 J.

Cook led an expedition that was heading in search of the southern mainland. Having examined New Zealand, the expedition discovered the strait between its North and South Islands (later named after Cook) and found that New Zealand is not a protrusion of the southern mainland, as previously thought, but an archipelago of two islands.

In 1772-75, Cook, on the second expedition dedicated to the search for the southern mainland, was the first of the navigators to cross the Antarctic Circle, but he did not find the mainland and stated that it was impossible to find it at all because of the ice that made the land inaccessible.

During this voyage in the south Atlantic Ocean, he approached the island of St. George, discovered the South Sandwich Islands, mistakenly believing that this was a ledge of the mainland land and therefore calling them Sandwich Land (after the first Lord of the Admiralty). A group of islands off the northwestern coast of the Antarctic Peninsula (South Shetland Islands) was discovered in 1819 by the Englishman W.

The discovery of Antarctica as a continent was carried out on January 28, 1820 by the Russian expedition of F. F. Bellingshausen, which on two ships (Vostok, under the command of Bellingshausen, and Mirny, under the command of M. P. Lazarev) passed along the Pacific coast, discovering the islands of Peter I, Shishkov, Mordvinov, Alexander I Land and specifying the coordinates of some previously discovered islands.

Bellingshausen crossed the Antarctic Circle six times, proving the possibility of sailing in Antarctic waters.

In 1820-21, American and British fishing vessels were approaching the Antarctic Peninsula. In 1831-33, the English navigator J. Biscoe sailed around Antarctica on the ships Thule and Lively. The French oceanographer J. Dumont-Durville in 1837-40 led an expedition to the southern polar latitudes, during which Adélie Land, Joinville Island and Louis Philippe Land were discovered.

In 1838-42, C. Wilks led a complex expedition to the South Pacific Ocean, during which part of the coast of East Antarctica, Wilkes Land, was discovered. J. Ross, who went to Antarctica in 1840-43 on the ships "Erebus" and "Terror", discovered the sea and a huge ice barrier with a height of approx. 50 m, stretching from west to east for a distance of 600 km, later named after him, Victoria Land, the volcanoes Erebus and Terror.

Expeditions visited the shores of the ice continent: the Scottish one, which discovered the land of Oscar II (on the ship Balena, 1893), the Norwegian one, which discovered the Larsen coast (the ships Yazon and Antarctica, 1893-94), and the Belgian (led by A. Gerlache), who wintered in Antarctica in 1897-99 on the drifting ship Belgica.

In 1898-99, K. Borchgrevink spent the first wintering on the mainland at Cape Ader, during which he conducted systematic observations of the weather, then explored the Ross Sea, climbed the barrier of the same name and advanced on a sleigh to a record latitude of 78 ° 50.

(first half of 20th century)

Scott, who in 1901-04 on the ship Discovery approached the shores of the continent, explored the coast of the Ross Sea, discovered the Edward VII Peninsula, the Ross Glacier, along the western edge of which he reached 82 ° 17S. sh. During this expedition, one of the most productive for its time, extensive material was collected on the geology of Antarctica, its flora, fauna and minerals.

In 1902, E. Drygalsky discovered and explored the territory called Wilhelm II Land. Based on the collected material, he developed the theory of moving ice.

The Scottish navigator and physician W. Bruce in 1892-93 and 1902-04 conducted oceanological research in the Wedell Sea, discovered Coates Land.

He developed a project for the transantarctic transition, which was completed half a century later. French expedition under the command of J.

The English traveler E. Shackleton in 1907-09 led a sleigh expedition to the South Pole, discovering one of the largest glaciers on the planet, the Beardmore Glacier, along the way. Due to a lack of provisions and the death of mounts (dogs and ponies), Shackleton turned back before reaching the pole 178 km. The first to reach the South Pole was the Norwegian polar traveler and explorer R.

Amundsen, who in January 1911 landed on the Ross ice barrier and reached the South Pole on December 14, 1911 with four satellites, discovering the Queen Maud Mountains along the way.

A month later (January 18, 1912) a group headed by R. Scott reached the Pole. On the way back, 18 km from the base camp, Scott and his companions died. Their bodies, as well as notes and diaries, were found eight months later.

Two Antarctic expeditions: in 1911-14 and 1929-31 were carried out by the Australian geologist and traveler D.

Mawson, who explored part of the coast of the mainland and mapped over 200 geographical objects (including Queen Mary Land, Princess Elizabeth Land and MacRobertson Land).

Baird. In November 1929 he reached the South Pole by plane. In 1928-47, under his leadership, four major expeditions to Antarctica were carried out (more than 4 thousand people took part in the largest, fourth expedition), seismological, geological and other studies were carried out, and the presence of large coal deposits in Antarctica was confirmed. Baird flew over the continent about 180,000 years ago.

km. The first transantarctic flight was made in 1935 by the American mining engineer and pilot L. Ellsworth, who discovered a number of geographical features on the mainland, including the mountains he named after his father.

Christensen, following the coast on the ship "Torshavn", discovered the Prince Harald Coast, the Leopold Coast and Astrid. D. Rimilla in 1934-37 crossed the Antarctic Peninsula for the first time.

In the 40-50s. in Antarctica, scientific bases and stations are being created for regular research of coastal areas.

(second half of the 20th century)

From the end of the 50s.

in the seas surrounding the continent, oceanographic work is carried out, regular geophysical research is carried out at stationary continental stations; expeditions are also undertaken into the interior of the continent. Soviet scientists carried out a sledge-tractor trip to the Geomagnetic Pole (1957), the Pole of Relative Inaccessibility (1958), and the South Pole (1959).

American explorers traveled on cross-country vehicles from Little America station to Byrd station and further to Sentinel station (1957), in 1958 - 59 from Ellsworth station through the Dufek massif to Byrd station; In 1957-58 British and New Zealand scientists on tractors crossed Antarctica through the South Pole from the Wedell Sea to the Ross Sea. Australian, Belgian and French scientists also worked in the interior of Antarctica. In 1959, an international treaty on Antarctica was concluded, which promoted the development of cooperation in the exploration of the ice continent.

Literature

• Discovery of Antarctica.

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History of the exploration of Antarctica (Antarctica)

Essay

Discovery of Antarctica

I've done the work:

full-time 1st year student

forms of education

Ignatovsky V.P.

Scientific adviser:

Fedorov G.M.

Kaliningrad

ANTARCTICA, the mainland in the center of Antarctica.

13975 thousand km2 (including 1582 thousand km2 - ice shelves and islands attached to Antarctica by glaciers). There is no permanent population. The average height is 2040 m (the highest continent on Earth), the highest is 5140 m (Vinson Massif in the Ellsworth Mountains).

Eastern and most of the West. Antarctica - the Precambrian Antarctic platform, bordered by later folded structures.

Territory of the West Antarctica is occupied by the Caledonian plate and the Andean folded belt (Antarctic Peninsula and adjacent regions).

St. 99% of the territory is covered with ice (average thickness is 1720 m, the largest is over 4300 m; volume is 24 million km3); ice-free areas are found in the form of oases of mountain ranges, nunataks.

In Vost. Antarctica, the cold pole of the Earth (-89.2 °С at Vostok station); average temperatures of winter months from -60 to -70 °С, summer months from -30 to -50 °С; on the coast in winter from -8 to -35 °С, in summer 0-5 °С.

Very strong winds are frequent.

From plants there are flowering, fern (on the Antarctic Peninsula), lichens, fungi, bacteria, algae (in oases). Seals and penguins live on the coast.

Minerals: coal, iron ore, mica, copper, lead, zinc, graphite, etc. Antarctica was discovered in January 1820 by the Russian expedition of F. F. Bellingshausen - M. P. Lazarev. In the beginning. 20th century R. Scott, E. Shackleton, R. Amundsen, D. Mawson, and others visited Antarctica. In 1911, the expedition of R.

Amundsen and in 1912 R. Scott reached the South Pole. In connection with the International Geophysical Year (1957-58) and in the subsequent period, polar scientific stations were created in various countries of the world; 48 stations in 1991.

History of exploration of Antarctica (Antarctica).

The initial stage is the discovery of islands around Antarctica and the search for the mainland
(16th c.

early 19th century)

Long before the discovery of the mainland, various assumptions were made about the existence of a hypothetical Southern land, in search of which expeditions were sent to discover large islands around Antarctica.

The French expedition of Bouvet de Lozier in 1739 discovered an island in the southern part of the Atlantic Ocean, which was named Bouvet. In 1772, the French navigator J. J. Kerguelen discovered a large archipelago in the southern part of the Indian Ocean, consisting of one large island (Kerguelen) and 300 small ones.

In 1768-71, J. Cook led an expedition that was heading in search of the southern mainland. Having examined New Zealand, the expedition discovered the strait between its North and South Islands (later named after Cook) and found that New Zealand is not a protrusion of the southern mainland, as previously thought, but an archipelago of two islands.

In 1772-75, Cook, on the second expedition dedicated to the search for the southern mainland, was the first of the navigators to cross the Antarctic Circle, but he did not find the mainland and stated that it was impossible to find it at all because of the ice that made the land inaccessible. During this voyage in the south Atlantic Ocean, he approached the island of St.

George, discovered the South Sandwich Islands, mistakenly believing that this was a ledge of the mainland land and therefore calling them Sandwich Land (after the first Lord of the Admiralty). A group of islands off the northwestern coast of the Antarctic Peninsula (South Shetland Islands) was discovered in 1819 by the Englishman W.

The second stage - the discovery of Antarctica and the first scientific research (19th century)

The discovery of Antarctica as a continent was carried out on January 28, 1820 by the Russian expedition of F.F. Bellingshausen, which, on two ships ("Vostok", under the command of Bellingshausen, and "Mirny" - M.

P. Lazareva) passed along the Pacific coast, discovering the islands of Peter I, Shishkov, Mordvinov, Alexander I Land and specifying the coordinates of some previously discovered islands. Bellingshausen crossed the Antarctic Circle six times, proving the possibility of sailing in Antarctic waters.

In 1820-21, American and British fishing vessels were approaching the Antarctic Peninsula.

In 1831-33, the English navigator J. Biscoe sailed around Antarctica on the ships Thule and Lively. The French oceanographer J. Dumont-Durville in 1837-40 led an expedition to the southern polar latitudes, during which Adélie Land, Joinville Island and Louis Philippe Land were discovered. In 1838-42, C. Wilks led a complex expedition to the South Pacific Ocean, during which part of the coast of East Antarctica, Wilkes Land, was discovered.

J. Ross, who went to Antarctica in 1840-43 on the ships "Erebus" and "Terror", discovered the sea and a huge ice barrier with a height of approx. 50 m, stretching from west to east for a distance of 600 km, later named after him, Victoria Land, the volcanoes Erebus and Terror.

Sailing to Antarctica, after a long break, resumed at the end of the 19th century due to the growing needs of whaling.

Expeditions visited the shores of the ice continent: the Scottish one, which discovered the land of Oscar II (on the ship Balena, 1893), the Norwegian one, which discovered the Larsen coast (the ships Yazon and Antarctica, 1893-94), and the Belgian (led by A. Gerlache), who wintered in Antarctica in 1897-99 on the drifting ship Belgica. In 1898-99, K. Borchgrevink spent the first wintering on the mainland at Cape Ader, during which he conducted systematic observations of the weather, then explored the Ross Sea, climbed the barrier of the same name and advanced on a sleigh to a record latitude of 78 ° 50.

The third stage is the study of the coast and inland regions of Antarctica
(first half of 20th century)

The first trip to Antarctica in the 20th century was made by R.

Scott, who in 1901-04 on the ship Discovery approached the shores of the continent, explored the coast of the Ross Sea, discovered the Edward VII Peninsula, the Ross Glacier, along the western edge of which he reached 82 ° 17S. sh. During this expedition, one of the most productive for its time, extensive material was collected on the geology of Antarctica, its flora, fauna and minerals. In 1902, E. Drygalsky discovered and explored the territory called Wilhelm II Land. Based on the collected material, he developed the theory of moving ice.

The Scottish navigator and physician W. Bruce in 1892-93 and 1902-04 conducted oceanological research in the Wedell Sea, discovered Coates Land. He developed a project for the transantarctic transition, which was completed half a century later. French expedition under the command of J.

Charcot in 1903-05, who was conducting research off the western coast of the Antarctic Peninsula, dug up Lube Land.

The English traveler E. Shackleton in 1907-09 led a sleigh expedition to the South Pole, discovering one of the largest glaciers on the planet, the Beardmore Glacier, along the way.

Due to a lack of provisions and the death of mounts (dogs and ponies), Shackleton turned back before reaching the pole 178 km. The first to reach the South Pole was the Norwegian polar explorer and explorer R. Amundsen, who in January 1911 landed on the Ross ice barrier and on December 14, 1911 with four satellites reached the South Pole, discovering Queen Maud mountains along the way. A month later (January 18, 1912), a group led by R.

Scott. On the way back, 18 km from the base camp, Scott and his companions died. Their bodies, as well as notes and diaries, were found eight months later.

Two Antarctic expeditions: in 1911-14 and 1929-31, were carried out by the Australian geologist and traveler D. Mawson, who explored part of the coast of the mainland and mapped over 200 geographical objects (including

including Queen Mary Land, Princess Elizabeth Land and MacRobertson Land).

The first flight of an aircraft over Antarctica was made in 1928 by the American polar explorer, admiral and pilot R.

Baird. In November 1929 he reached the South Pole by plane.

In 1928-47, under his leadership, four major expeditions to Antarctica were carried out (more than 4 thousand people took part in the largest, fourth expedition).

people), seismological, geological and other studies have been carried out, the presence of large coal deposits in Antarctica has been confirmed. Baird flew over the continent for about 180 thousand km. The first transantarctic flight was made in 1935 by the American mining engineer and pilot L. Ellsworth, who discovered a number of geographical features on the mainland, including the mountains he named after his father.

In 1933-37, L. Christensen, following the coast on the ship "Torshavn", discovered the Prince Harald Coast, the Leopold Coast and Astrid.

D. Rimilla in 1934-37 crossed the Antarctic Peninsula for the first time. In the 40-50s. in Antarctica, scientific bases and stations are being created for regular research of coastal areas.

Fourth stage - international systematic research of Antarctica
(second half of the 20th century)

In preparation for the International Geophysical Year, about 60 bases and stations belonging to 11 states (including

including Soviet ones - Mirny Observatory, Oasis, Pionerskaya, Vostok-1, Komsomolskaya and Vostok stations, American ones - Amundsen-Scott at the South Pole, Baird, Hulett, Wilkes and McMurdo).

From the end of the 50s. in the seas surrounding the continent, oceanographic work is carried out, regular geophysical research is carried out at stationary continental stations; expeditions are also undertaken into the interior of the continent.

Soviet scientists carried out a sledge-tractor trip to the Geomagnetic Pole (1957), the Pole of Relative Inaccessibility (1958), and the South Pole (1959). American explorers traveled on cross-country vehicles from Little America station to Byrd station and further to Sentinel station (1957), in 1958 - 59 from Ellsworth station through the Dufek massif to Byrd station; In 1957-58 British and New Zealand scientists on tractors crossed Antarctica through the South Pole from the Wedell Sea to the Ross Sea.

Australian, Belgian and French scientists also worked in the interior of Antarctica. In 1959, an international treaty on Antarctica was concluded, which promoted the development of cooperation in the exploration of the ice continent.

Literature

• Discovery of Antarctica.

Access mode: URL: http://geo-tur.narod.ru/Antarctic/Antarctic.htm

• Discovery of Antarctica. Access mode: URL: http://www.mir-ant.ru/istoriyia.html

The most remote, cold and mysterious of all the continents of our planet, which holds many secrets, is Antarctica. Who is the discoverer? What is the flora and fauna on the continent? All this and more will be discussed in the article.

general description

Antarctica is a large desert, a deserted continent that does not belong to any of the existing states. In 1959, an agreement was signed, according to which citizens of any state have the right to access the mainland to study any of its points and only for peaceful purposes. In this connection, more than 16 scientific stations were built in Antarctica to study the mainland. Moreover, the information obtained there becomes the property of all mankind.

Antarctica is the fifth largest continent, with a total area of ​​over 14 million square kilometers. It is characterized by low temperatures. The lowest recorded was 89.2 degrees below zero. The weather on the mainland is changeable and unevenly distributed. On the outskirts it is one, and in the center it is completely different.

Climatic features of the mainland

A distinctive feature of the climate of the continent is not only low temperatures, but also dryness. Here you can find dry valleys that form in the upper ten-centimeter layer of falling snow. The continent has not seen precipitation in the form of rain for more than 2 million years. On the continent, the combination of cold and dryness is at its peak. Despite this, the mainland contains more than 70% of fresh water, but only in the form of ice. The peculiarity of the climate is similar to the climate on the planet Mars. In Antarctica, strong and continuous winds are concentrated, which reach up to 90 meters per second, and powerful solar radiation.

Flora of the continent

Features of the climatic zone of Antarctica affect the scarcity of plant and animal diversity. The mainland is practically devoid of vegetation, however, some species of mosses and lichens can still be found along the edge of the mainland and on areas of land that have thawed from snow and ice, the so-called oasis islands. These representatives of the plant species often form peat bogs. Lichens are represented in a wide variety of more than three hundred species. In the lakes formed due to the melting of the earth, lower algae can be found. During the summer, Antarctica is beautiful and in places is represented by colorful spots of red, green and yellow, where you can see the lawns. This is the result of the accumulation of protozoan algae.

Flowering plants are rare and not found everywhere, there are more than two hundred of them, among them Kerguelen cabbage stands out, which is not only a nutritious vegetable, but also a good remedy for preventing the appearance of scurvy, due to the high content of vitamins. It is found on the Kerguelen Islands, from where it got its name, and South Georgia. Due to the absence of insects, pollination of flowering plants occurs by wind, which causes the absence of pigment in the leaves of herbaceous plants, they are colorless. Scientists note that once Antarctica was the center of flora formation, however, changing conditions on the continent led to a change in its flora and fauna.

Fauna of Antarctica

The fauna in Antarctica is scarce, especially for terrestrial species. There are some species of worms, lower crustaceans and insects. Of the latter, you can meet flies, but they are all wingless, and indeed, there are no winged insects on the continent due to constant strong winds. But in addition to wingless flies, wingless butterflies, some species of beetles, spiders and freshwater mollusks are also found in Antarctica.

In contrast to the poor terrestrial fauna, the Antarctic continent is rich in marine and semi-terrestrial animals, which are represented by numerous pinnipeds and cetaceans. These are fur seals, whales, seals, whose favorite place is floating ice. The most famous marine animals of Antarctica are penguins - birds that are excellent swimmers and divers, but do not fly because of their short, flipper-like wings. The main food ingredients of penguins are fish, but they do not disdain to eat mollusks and crustaceans.

The Importance of Exploring Antarctica

For a long time, navigation on the seas after the voyage of the navigator Cook was stopped. For half a century, not a single ship managed to do what the sailors of England did. The history of the study of Antarctica began in the late 18th - early 19th century. It was the Russian navigators who managed to do what Cook failed to do, and the door to Antarctica that they once closed opened. It was possible to accomplish this during the period of intensive construction of capitalism in Russia, during a period of special attention to geographical discoveries, since the formation of capitalism required development in the industrial industry and trade, which, in turn, required the development of scientific activity, the study of natural resources and the establishment of trade routes. It all started with the development of Siberia, its vast expanse, then the shores of the Pacific Ocean and, finally, North America. The interests of politics and navigators diverged. The purpose of travel researchers set the discovery of unknown continents, the knowledge of something new. For politicians, the significance of the study of Antarctica was reduced to expanding the market in the international arena, strengthening colonial influence and raising the level of prestige of their state.

The history of the discovery of Antarctica

In 1803-1806, Russian travelers I. F. Kruzenshtern and Yu. F. Lisyansky made the first trip around the world, which was equipped with two companies - Russian and American. Already in 1807-1809, V. M. Golovin was sent to sail on a military boat.

The defeat of Napoleon in 1812 inspired many naval officers to long voyages and exploratory trips. This coincided with the desire of the king to annex and secure separate lands for Russia. Research during a sea voyage led to the designation of the boundaries of all continents, in addition, the boundaries of the three oceans - the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific, were studied, but the spaces at the Earth's poles have not yet been explored.

Who are the discoverers of Antarctica?

F. F. Bellingshausen and M. P. Lazarev became the first explorers of Antarctica, representatives of the Russian expedition led by I. F. Krusenstern. The expedition consisted mainly of young people who wanted to go to the continent - military personnel. A team of 205 people was placed on two boats "Vostok" and "Mirny". The expedition leadership received the following instructions:

• Strict adherence to assigned tasks.
• Full compliance with the rules of navigation and full supply of the crew.
• Comprehensive surveillance and ongoing travel journaling.

Bellingshausen and Lazarev were inspired by the belief in the existence of new lands. The discovery of new lands is the new main goal of inspired sailors. The presence of such in the region of the south pole could be found in the works of M. V. Lomonosov and Johann Forster, who believed that icebergs formed in the ocean are of continental origin. During the expedition, Bellingshausen and Lazarev made corrections in Cook's notes. They succeeded in giving a description of the shores towards Sandwich Land, which Cook failed to do.

Discovery of the continent

During the expedition, approaching the South Pole, well-known researchers of Antarctica first encountered one large iceberg, and then with a group of mountainous islands made of snow and ice. Moving between the snowy peaks, Russian sailors for the first time approached the Antarctic continent. A snowy shore opened up before the eyes of the travelers, but the mountains and rocks were not covered in snow. It seemed to them that the coast was endless, however, having decided to make sure that this was the southern continent, they traveled around it along the coast. It turned out that this is an island. The result of the expedition, which lasted 751 days, was the discovery of a new continent - Antarctica. The navigators managed to map the islands, bays, capes, etc., encountered on the way. During the expedition, some species of animals, plants, rock samples were obtained.

damage to fauna

The discovery of Antarctica brought great damage to the fauna of this continent, some species of marine animals were completely exterminated. In the 19th century, when Antarctica became the center of whaling, many species of marine life were significantly affected. The fauna of the continent today is under the protection of the international association.

Scientific delights

Scientific research of Antarctica boiled down to the fact that researchers from different countries, in addition to catching whales and other representatives of the animal world, discovered new territories, studied the climate. They also measured the depth of the sea.

Already in 1901, the modern explorer of Antarctica, Robert Scott, traveled to the shores of the southern continent, where he made many important discoveries and collected a lot of information about both the flora and fauna, and minerals. Since the 1930s, not only the water and land parts of Antarctica, but also its air spaces have been explored on a full scale, and since the 1950s, oceanic and geological work has been carried out.

Russian explorers in Antarctica

Our compatriots have done a lot to explore these lands. Russian researchers opened a scientific station in Antarctica and founded the village of Mirny. Today, people know much more about the continent than a hundred years ago. There is information about the weather conditions of the mainland, its flora and fauna, geological features, but the ice itself has not been fully studied, the study of which continues today. Today, scientists are concerned about the movement of Antarctic ice, their density, speed and composition.

Our days

One of the main values ​​of the study of Antarctica is the search for minerals in the bowels of the endless snowy desert. As established, the continent contains coal, iron ore, non-ferrous metals, as well as precious metals and stones. Of no small importance in modern research is the reconstruction of a complete picture of the old period of ice melting. It is already known that the Antarctic ice was formed earlier than the ice sheets of the Northern Hemisphere. The researchers came to the conclusion that the geostructure of Antarctica is similar to that of South Africa. The once uninhabited expanses are the source of research by polar explorers, who today are the only inhabitants of Antarctica. They include biologists, geologists and other scientists from different countries. They are the modern explorers of Antarctica.

The impact of human intervention on the integrity of the mainland

Modern opportunities and technologies allow wealthy tourists to visit Antarctica. Each new visit to the continent has a negative impact on the ecological background as a whole. The biggest danger appears to be global warming affecting the entire planet. This can lead to the melting of ice, to changes not only in the ecosystem of the mainland, but also in the entire World Ocean. That is why any scientific research of the continent is under the control of the world scientific community. A reasonable and cautious approach to the development of the mainland is important in order to allow it to be preserved in its original form.

The activities of modern polar explorers on the mainland

Scientists are increasingly interested in the question of the survival of microorganisms in extreme environmental conditions, for which a proposal was made to bring certain types of microbial communities to the mainland. This is necessary to breed the most resistant to cold, low humidity and solar radiation species for its further use in the pharmaceutical industry. Scientists are trying to study data on the course of modification of living organisms and the impact on them of a prolonged absence of contact with the atmosphere.

Living on a cold continent is not easy, climatic features are considered difficult for a person, even though the expedition members spend most of their time indoors, where comfortable conditions are created. In preparation, the polar explorers are subjected to special testing by medical workers in order to select the psychologically stable from among the applicants. The modern life of polar explorers is due to the presence of fully equipped stations. There is a satellite dish, electronic communications, devices that measure the temperature of air, water, snow and ice.

The main directions of the use of Antarctica for economic purposes, namely scientific and military, are concentrated in the field of fishing and tourism. Builders of mines for the extraction of coal, diamonds and rare earth elements are completely zaprgin| under the Antarctic Environmental Protocol. The main economy of any activity in Antarctica is the use of bioresources. Until recently, whaling occupied a significant place, but it noticeably reduced in the late 1960s. During the same period, seal hunting was mainly carried out on the subantarctic oi tsnsh. Some species have been almost completely wiped out! At present, seal hunting is not carried out, and the number of individual species l "1 i ■ of the initial level or even exceeded it.

Fishing began to develop intensively in the late 1960s, catches (>m< i достигли 400 тыс. т в год, но вскоре рыбные ресурсы сократились и улов упал пример до 100 тыс. т в год. Рыбный промысел и промысел криля регулируются положении Конвенции по охране морских биоресурсов Антарктики. В начале 1990-х годои sch the krill fishery was endorsed and was the most significant economic branch!!

^mm , .................... s................. ■ ........ Food i n ................. m sh shtshtm ................................................... I ...................... ■ ........................ " ■■ ..... - " ■" .......... " "■ ........................... ■ ■ "

Liiii| i x and C1MY Large ii world. ", >team industry I hire those and wasps ionic Russians, 11 hsh> Kis And Japanese fishing boats.

Problems of climate warming and ice melting

And in Antarctica, the rate of ice melting is increasing every year and has already acquired

■ ■ i irreversible. During the comparative analysis, it turned out that

| swarm half of the last century, the height of glaciers on average annually decreased there

and chpelno half a meter. Since 2000, however, the rate of human melting has increased.

\ h< n.ipe раза и, к сожалению, продолжает стремительно возростать. Подобные темпы

a big surprise for researchers, since it was previously assumed that

^i.i the process is more moderate.

Problems of Antarctic tourism

I

A tourist trip to Antarctica from Russia is an expensive journey. Only
I "child costs at least 1700-2000 USD. The main type of tourist programs on the spot
1 cruise trips to accessible coasts and islands. For example, on
The rugged Shetland Islands, which lie parallel to the Antarctic
\uo< грову, отделяясь от него глубоководным течением Бренсфилд шириной 150 км.
Ai then go along the narrow Aemer canal, surrounded by mountains and glaciers, unloved
to the immensity of swimming for some species of whales that prefer inland channels
and the Arctic Peninsula. Some tourist cruise routes provide
......... t visiting the Falkland (Malvinas) Islands, South Georgia,
■ Shilag of the South Orkney Islands, the South Sandwich Islands and remote
Grove Buvet.
It gets noisy, there are no berths for ships and all excursions to fast ice or the edge
l "" i; i are possible only from boats and inflatable boats. Tourists get acquainted with the huge
en populations of penguins, birds, seal rookeries, dugongs, whale watching,
The logical requirements are very strict. Isolated ecosystem of Antarctica
pime is sensitive to external interference, and the flora and fauna of the harsh southern
| Mouth requires a very careful attitude. Birds and penguins, especially their eggs,
L1.1M kill and injure, catch, pick up, touch, scare, push, feed, loudly
Start and perform all other anti-environmental actions. All the same with regard to
tourists staying on the rookeries of seals and other marine animals. You can't leave
... i with rubbish, dig up the soil. 57

A typical trip to the Antarctic, for example, is offered by the Moscow company |"L|1kadia-tour". At a cost of 3500 to 6500 USD, the duration of the tour is 10 days, and. i no stage of air transportation (and not included in the cost of the tour). The cruise journey begins in the Argentine city of Ushuaia - through the Beagle Channel, the Drake Channel to the Arctic Islands and back to the port of Ushuaia. 11th arrival - accommodation for one night in Ushuaia in a 1st class hotel with breakfast For a group - transfer with luggage delivery to the port, accommodation on the ship in (■ iota of the selected category, during the cruise meals - full board, beer and wine hi monet for lunch and dinner. All excursions are paid, including those on inflatable boats Landing ashore, scientific lectures, a special expedition jacket. Extra pay. flight, insurance, visa, tips, transfers for individuals, separate unscheduled

The Lystrali authorities, seriously concerned about the ecology of the sixth continent, have recently announced that they intend to launch an operation to clean up the Antarctic territory adjacent to the boundaries of the Australian research base. In addition, they made a proposal to the governments of all countries using Antarctic bases for scientific and other research, "to make sure that the icy continent remains clean." According to calculations by Australian "green" experts, over the entire period of human activity in Antarctica, about M)() tons of trash. Moreover, a significant contribution to these tons was made by the tourists who visited Ice Koi i ipgp g m for the last two years.

IIIII/U NI1 II IVI-I IV1

excursions. Excursions to the shore or ice to view the colony of penguins are very interesting. Icebergs, snow-white ice floes, glaciers sliding into the sea, everything I m leaves an unforgettable impression on tourists. There are few Russian tourists, and. and not only the expensive cruise itself, but also the tiresome flight.

At present, attempts are being made to establish a tourist traffic< из эпизодических поездок на крузерах и судах ледового класса. Рассматривают! и росы - совместимо ли развитие туризма на территории Антарктики с принцК Конвенции по охране окружающей среды этого региона. Есть проекты строим | отелей и казино в антарктическом регионе - пока туристских приютов нет, возможностей научных экспедиционных станций. Подавляющее большинство тур) прибывают на круизных судах. Как выясняется, туристские экспедиции в Антар| не редки, поэтому сооружение несколько отелей и казино скрасит пребывание го(этом унылом месте и даст средства на проведение научных исследований. ЕдипстЙ проблема, способная возникнуть при реализации проекта, - экологическое вмеш I ство в охранную зону, объявленную Конвенцией заповедником. Поэтому уже 11 члены Конвенции пытаются ввести обязательные способы идентификации тури, i групп путем вывешивание национальных флагов, названий страны или штата, pel И ции экспедиции.

The representatives of iy|Hfl are the most active in terms of tourism

business of geographically nearby countries is Chile and Aprci.......................... > »|

South American continent, South Africa and also Australia. Periy* | - are in the most advantageous geographical position, since to the south SCH The roughness of the mainland practically adjoins the Antarctic mainland. Argentitan and the city of Ushuaia, the southernmost city on the planet - a collection center and transshipment push I

tourists traveling to Antarctica. This small town is located on (>i...................... I

Earth - on the shores of the Beagle Channel 58 in a very beautiful place at the foot of Mount A "......................

there is an airfield. It is here that scientists and tourists gather - all who, for example * SCH I to Antarctica, which is less than 1 thousand kilometers from here. Antarctic | I is very developed and up to ten thousand people a year or more arrive in Ushuaia.

Ushuaia is a relatively young city with only a few t i< >.■ ■ years. In 1869, the missionary Sterling arrived here to introduce Christianity and baptize! I

rigenov. In 1884 a prison appeared here. The heyday of the city is associated with the end of............... I

world war - in 1947 many immigrants from Italy arrived here, Khor., L Germany. Ushuaia practically lives off tourism - the city is considered the capital of the rapidly growing Antarctic tourism. There are large cruise liners in the port of Shnartun, including the Russian research vessels Akademik 11of1

"Academician Vavilov", "Grigory Mikheev", "Professor Multanovsky". Name......................

In the polar summer, ships, a significant part of which are Russian ships, make cruise voyages with tourists and give them the opportunity to enjoy .. N I honeycombs of the edge of Antarctica and unique penguins. In the port of Ushuaia, moor i yi 11 I 100 ships per season. Formally, you can buy a place on the ship right in the port. Except for him from the local airfield to the Argentinean military-scientific base Marambio in Antlr | ■■ Hercules-130 transport planes depart twice a week during the season.< ыш sch they were converted to carry 70 tourists. It is proposed to travel to the bottom of the continent for one day from 5 am to 11 pm. Departure in the morning, three hours flight, followed by the arrival of an excursion on a local all-terrain vehicle to the penguin colonies and the surrounding area for a hard lunch in the canteen, return back. Day trip bypasses herd || at 630 USD.

However, not only Ushuaia is involved in Antarctic tourism. Chile has mgs "TI

The Beagle Channel is named after the ship on which Charles Darwin made his sing w.shgshn! expedition.

IIIABA 11. SPECIAL ISSUES OF GORIS AND COIDEIT1 LNO< ил

Hi 1 Arsmns, OTK.< i.iiwki" совершаются перелеты и Антарктиду на станции" Icniente

li Station, Dale ....... OSAE VKSKursions On the ice continent, tourists on a comfortable

"1 cruiser "Grigory Mikheev" visit the islands King George Island, Hannah Point,

■ Ian Inland, Deception Island, Paradise Bay, Waterboat Point, Port Lockroy, Lemaire

\el, Petermann Island, Cuverville Island, Half Moon Island. Next they arrive at

, Uiwski Station and return by plane to Punta Arenas. Travel cost from

I ti.ii IISD. There are high mountain peaks in Antarctica, for example, Mount Vinson 4897 m.

stump walking route through Patriot Hills station (Antarctica) duration-

I 11 hi 17 days with a roundtrip flight from Punta Arenas will cost the participant

it", mi." 26 thousand USD.

1 Mitsaya estimate of tourist flows to Antarctica is about 15,000 people per year. This, \h" i i.ipaying the size of the continent, it does not constitute a catastrophic anthropogenic load - (but) there are problems of tourism. There is organized tourism, which ^||, slam. There is also an extreme, amateur, which brings the most POT to scientists from the USA, since it is at their stations, including Amundsen-m I, that most polar adventurers go. So, for example, Imo, due to lack of funds, a group of desperate tourists crossed the Ika Strait on an ordinary open rowboat. The passage of 500 nautical miles was over, and they became the first to reach Antarctica by rowboat. Not everyone is ready for difficulties and find themselves in difficult situations. Extreme pi.shizirovannaya tourism is a serious problem for the polar explorers-|teley. This problem affects all national Antarctic programs, Kolka, in case of need for rescue operations, they are carried out by the forces of the initial expeditions. Even if the tourist in distress had insurance, the costs would be reimbursed only later, which means to the detriment of scientific programs,

Rye have a clear budget and time frame. Given the high costs

hi. .1 gel operations, the United States advocates strict regulation of tourism, especially small scale tourism, to the sixth continent.

Information sources

I. Antarctic Treaty, Washington 1 December 1959 ! I. rockhouse and Efron. Encyclopedic Dictionary. I Vozgrin V. E. Greenland and the Greenlanders. - M., 1984. I www.astantour.ru/Antarctica

5, www.turist.ru

6. www.northpolevoyage.com.

7. www.polar.nm.ru

8, littp://travel.bask.ru/arctic

NO! D1 NO! TO TOURISM

11.13. lake tourism

Lakes form an important part of the natural heritage. 1 They play (><>play an independent role in the life of the human community to ensure the minity of the living world and human civilization. Mankind is nature, civilizations are rooted in nature, human life is pa

depends on the functioning of natural systems. Nature imposes sleep ..........

human culture, on his creations and scientific and technological progress, all are many! manifestations of life in harmony with nature.

Lakes are special water areas and territories that have been used by people since ancient times as sources of fresh water, food, transport routes, mi C visits and knowledge for the purpose of spiritual and physical improvement, about | D "| I niya and recreation, as well as attractions, cults and education. Together, these are the best opportunities for a person to realize genius, creative people, and leisure. The latter clearly defines lakes and lake-river systems as a primary object of tourism.

Localities and territories saturated with lakes and actively used for long \SCH tourism, collectively referred to as Lakeland 2- Lake District. Such extensive lake systems exist on all continents and in many countries, for example, in Great Canada, Finland 3 , Russia, France, China and other countries. In particular, sh n W thorium of the North-West of Russia, including the territories now occupied by the Novgorod and Leningrad regions, the Karelian Isthmus and the Oloitsy region, in the 19th century. called the Lake District.

In the present study of the natural phenomenon of 4 lakes and lake tourism, much attention has been devoted to this issue for more than a century, conferences and many scientists. Savonlinna (Lake Saimaa, University of Joensuu, Finland) regularly hosts a major international conference on ■■ I mu tourism and attracting scientists and specialists from all over the world.

In the tourist business of Russia, there is a popular slogan "Lakeland and niche paradise", invented and successfully promoted by Intermedius, in<н rai m to the extent that it illuminates the attractive aspects of the destination and is successfully used by MT 4 to promote the tourist product.

Physical and geographical characteristics

Lakes - natural reservoirs in land depressions (hollows), filling within the lake bowl (lake bed) with heterogeneous or homogeneous iidnmm masses, most often with fresh water, and not having a one-sided slope along the surface. Lake basins arise as a result of global and local relief (> r.mn .nn processes.Lakes occupy 1.8% of the earth's land area.The total area of ​​lakes SCH about 2.7 million sq. km, the volume of water is about 230 thousand cubic meters. km. Separate territories I

Nature must be respected and its basic processes not disturbed. World Charter of Ohrima |P

and natural heritage. Documents, comments, lists of objects. - M.: Heritage Institute, I

Lakeland- a common name for localities and even settlements. There is such a nip in the USA in the state of Florida, not far from the town of Tampa, near the American Saikt Pporv

12 lakes, balneological resort, population about 70 thousand people.

See Brusyanin VV In the country of lakes. Essays from Finnish life. - Petrograd, Ed I K I Knowledge, 1916.

Phenomenon (from the Greek. phainomenon- appearing) - (1) an unusual phenomenon, a rare fact, (2) a fancy concept, meaning a phenomenon comprehended in sensory experience. Aristotle used the GI "phenomenon" in the sense of "visible", "illusory". Almost any kind of lake among friends evokes a feeling of excitement, satisfaction and enthusiasm in a person.

CHAPTER 1 1. OCOII MHI.lt TOURISM ISSUES

II Igon abound<мг|ыми. В ФИНЛЯНДИИ находится около 187888 больших и малых.] "Ж()Г>0 islands, i under the space of lake-river systems, including 5100 rivers, sweat 10% of the territory (grans. Therefore, Finland is called the country of a thousand lakes i / .ui,l of the Thousand Lakes.

| The origin of the lake can be tectonic, glacial, riverine, lj..i Jurassic, sinkhole (subsidence-karst, thermokarst), eolian, volcanic R- i mi, dam-dammed. Due to the intensive use of water resources ■None of the regulated lakes-reservoirs. The shape and size of lacustrine ■ nor in change significantly with time as a result of the accumulation of bottom sediments and the formation of the coastal part. Also, tectonic processes can influence the shape of the bottom basin of the lake and the littoral areas. The shallow coastal area, subject to the action of waves, is called the littoral littoral (intertidal) zone. i "i.i gaya and, as a rule, the deeper part, where the waves do not affect

nrofundal. i and "ra are characterized by indicators of surface area (water mirror), cabbage soup, width, length and indentation of the coastline, volume of water, gsheme of islands and skerries, average and greatest depth, ratio of areas

Gmov, attributable to different depths. The volume of lake water and its changes during

I think they depend on the flow of water into the basin, its runoff, evaporation, and are very aware of local and global climate changes. The main components of 1 water sawing are surface and underground inflow from the area of ​​the water basin I | 1 yuspheric precipitation. In the consumable part, surface and underground i nor and, as well as evaporation from the water surface take place. By the nature of the water balance of the lake Ii.iiuicit sewage, endorheic and with intermittent flow. In the regime of a lake, an important role is played by geographic zoning, altitudinal location, size and shape of the lake, and the number of inflowing and outflowing rivers. The water level in lakes experiences seasonal and

....... "summer fluctuations. Seasonal fluctuations are usually up to 1 m, and long-term fluctuations

SCH\ v i reach 3-7 m. In arid regions, lakes can dry up and even dry up. Atmospheric movement of air over the water surface causes waves that ■M vi reach a height of 3-5 m. Waves in lake spaces are somewhat smaller than || Marine, but more steep in shape. They also have the phenomena of surge and surge of waters. Heating |»hm.i lakes (generally) is due to direct and scattered solar

■ P.1TSII. Heat is lost mainly through evaporation, heat transfer to the air, and radiation. The transfer of heat to the depth and its distribution in the water mass can also be carried out with the mixing of water layers and currents. In winter at high latitudes ii.hu The lakes are covered with ice. Freezing of the water surface and opening of the ice of tires NT from heat losses and gains. Large lakes, due to the large supply of heat and “the action of waves, freeze and open later than rivers. The ice mostly melts in lakes and is only partially carried out into rivers. The waters of salt lakes can not

■ k-rzat and even at negative air temperatures, and in summer heat up to 60 "C and more under the surface layer of fresh water. From the amount of mineral and w Anic suspensions depend on the color and transparency of water. The blue color and high transparency (up to 40 m deep in Lake Baikal) are characteristic of lakes with clear water, more

i nude large. With increasing turbidity, the color of the water becomes green, brown, brown.

■ niches, transparency drops to 1 m or less. The thickness of the layer depends on the transparency
1otosynthesis. Also, the color of water depends on the color range of the sky.

A special science is engaged in the study of lakes - lake science, or limnology (from the Greek. Inline- a pond, a lake and ... logy). This is the science of continental water bodies with slow water exchange (in lakes and reservoirs), which studies the whole complex of interrelated physical, chemical and biological processes occurring in them, and belongs to the Geographic Sciences. The main task is a comprehensive study of the development of water bodies,

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geological, physical, chemical and biological processes, n:tim(

which in reservoirs and on their watersheds is determined by a person ............... rush lakes and iodochr

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their mode. Lake science studies the origin, size, structure and prso(>| of basins and shores of reservoirs, the structure and composition of bottom sediments, the functional and chemical properties of water masses formed in the catchment area and in the structure and dynamics, water and heat balance of reservoirs, fluctuations in dropping water (waves, currents, surge phenomena, seiches 5 , convective mixing), thermal and ice regime, composition, KOHl regime and balance of suspended and dissolved mineral and organic substances, development cycles and interaction of aquatic organisms - plankton, ben-i the productivity of aquatic communities and their role in the transformation of organic matter in water bodies, as well as the influence of lakes and reservoirs on the runoff process.

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EMERGENCY BREATHING DEVICES (SELF-RESCUERS). PURPOSE, GENERAL DEVICE, RULES OF USE

Ever since explorers first appeared in Antarctica in the early 1800s, people have always wanted to know more about the mysterious frozen continent at the edge of the world. For more than two centuries, such questions as “what is under the ice”, “how can living beings exist in a place with such an extreme climate”, etc., have not given rest. Beginning in the late 1950s, scientists began to explore the mysteries of Antarctica more closely, and since then they have managed to make many important discoveries.

1. Dinosaurs once lived in Antarctica

In the mid-1980s and early 1990s, scientists discovered several fossilized reptiles that once ruled the planet. Thanks to this find, it was established that dinosaurs lived on the southern continent 200 - 70 million years ago. Scientists suggest that living things could survive there, because the temperature on the planet in those days was 50 degrees higher, and also because the Antarctic land was then in a different place, approximately in the southwest of the modern Pacific Ocean.

2 Mysterious Ancient Meteorite Found In Antarctica

Thanks to its vast, largely pristine expanse, Antarctica is a great place to look for meteorites. In 1996, scientists from NASA and Stanford University determined that a potato-sized meteorite that came from Mars and crashed in Antarctica 13,000 years ago contained fossilized samples of ancient microbes from the Red Planet.

3. Antarctica is the best place for seismic observations

In 2003, seismometers were installed at the Amundsen-Scott Antarctic station at the South Pole, which were placed in holes in the ice that go to a depth of 300 meters. Scientists have said that this is the best place on Earth (since there is no third-party interference) to detect vibrations that pass through the earth's crust and are caused by earthquakes.

4. Underwater volcano off the coast of Antarctica

In 2004, a research vessel set out to investigate the partial collapse of the Larsen B Ice Shelf. In the process, an unforeseen discovery was made. Near the Antarctic Peninsula, the continent's northernmost point, scientists have discovered a previously unknown 700-meter-high volcano rising from the seabed. The top of the volcano is separated from the surface by 270 meters of water. Temperature gauges have shown that the volcano has been active recently.

5. Antarctica + America = ?

In a paper published in Science in 2008, researchers outlined a theory that a lone granite boulder found atop an Antarctic ice sheet is evidence that parts of Antarctica were connected to North America in an ancient supercontinent dubbed Rodinia. Rodinia formed between 1 and 1.2 billion years ago and has existed for over 250 million years. Chemical and isotopic testing of the boulder showed that its composition was very similar to an igneous rock that had previously only been found in North America.

6 Benefits Of Antarctic Icebergs

In a study published in the journal Science in 2007, scientists showed that icebergs that break off the Antarctic ice sheets contain substances trapped in the soil, which they gradually release into the ocean. As a result, icebergs create a "halo" of nutrients around them, which supports the life of a variety of aquatic life.

7. Antarctica - an ancient refuge

In 2009, scientists identified a fossil found in Antarctica as belonging to the species Kombuisia, a cat-sized egg-laying animal that is a distant relative of modern mammals that lived about 250 million years ago. What is particularly interesting about this ancient species is that it appears to have survived a mass extinction that could be the result of global warming by migrating from southern Africa to cooler Antarctica. Then Antarctica was part of another supercontinent called Pangea, which formed between 272 and 299 million years ago and broke apart about 200 million years ago.

8. Antarctic glaciers and climate change

In 2014, scientists analyzed 40 years of data from six glaciers in Antarctica's Amundsen Bay. They concluded that glaciers are being eroded by warm ocean water, which is corroding their edges, and that this process is intensifying. One such glacier, Thwaites, could disappear completely in 200 to 500 years.

9. Record depth of the gorge in Antarctica

Scientists using radar to explore the ice of West Antarctica have made an amazing discovery. In an article published in 2014, they described this huge gorge 300 kilometers long, 5 meters wide and 3.5 kilometers deep. Thus, under the ice of West Antarctica there is a gorge deeper than the Grand Canyon.

10. There is life under the miles of ice in Antarctica.

Researchers drilled a 730-meter-deep hole in the Antarctic Ross Ice Shelf and sent a robotic probe down to explore an area that never receives sunlight. They expected that there would be no life in the water, except perhaps for a few microbes with slow metabolic rates. Instead, they made a startling discovery - tiny fish and other aquatic creatures lived under a thick layer of ice.