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Encyclopedia "Biology" (with illustrations). Encyclopedia of biology Biology encyclopedia for schoolchildren online

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T. V. Nikitinskaya

The publication contains brief reference material necessary for systematizing knowledge in biology. Basic theoretical information, terms, and concepts are presented. Visual tables are provided that are easy to remember. ... Further

The reference book will be useful in preparing for lessons, various forms of current and intermediate control, as well as the Unified State Exam and Unified State Exam. ... Further

U. G. Krishnamurti (Yuji)

U. G. Krishnamurti (1918–2007) is the most radical and shocking teacher who does not fit into any existing spiritual and secular frameworks and ideas. At the age of 49, a huge mutation occurred to him, which impressively changed his perception and the functioning of all his organs feelings and physiology of the body down to the level of cells and chromosomes. All accumulated knowledge was completely swept away from him, including the idea of an independent self and a society opposing it.... Further

Unlike later conversations, in these early conversations U.G. describes in some detail the process of entering the natural state, the vision that opened up, and the biological changes that his body underwent.

These conversations also include in-depth explanations of humanity's spiritual traditions. “I reveal all the secrets,” says U G. He never spoke about it again.

Among the participants in the conversations is the famous quantum physicist David Bohm. ... Further

E. A. Kozlova

G. I. Lerner

This reference book contains all the theoretical material on the biology course required to pass the Unified State Exam. It includes all elements of content, verified by test materials, and helps to generalize and systematize knowledge and skills for a secondary (high) school course. ... Further
Theoretical material is presented in a concise, accessible form. Each section is accompanied by examples of test tasks that allow you to test your knowledge and degree of preparedness for the certification exam. Practical tasks correspond to the Unified State Exam format. At the end of the manual, answers to tests are provided that will help schoolchildren and applicants test themselves and fill in existing gaps.
The manual is addressed to schoolchildren, applicants and teachers. ... Further

E. A. Kozlova

Lecture notes on general biology are intended for students of medical universities or colleges. It covers issues of cell structure, gives the characteristics of all its components, describes the main classes of pathogens, and examines environmental problems. Using this notes in preparation for the exam, students will be able to systematize knowledge on this subject in a short time and formulate a plan for answering the examiner’s questions.... Further

Evgeny Krasnodembsky

Biology, being at the intersection of the natural and human sciences, occupies a special place. The manual, written by a teacher at St. Petersburg State University, will allow you to prepare for entrance exams in the shortest possible time. Brevity and accessibility of presentation program questions, the clarity of figures and tables will ensure easy memorization of complex topics and help you feel confident in your knowledge.... Further
For high school students and applicants. ... Further

B. V. Kabelchuk

The features of the biology and ecology of ungulates (wild boar, roe deer, sika and red deer) living on the territory of the Stavropol Territory are considered. An analysis of the current state of ungulates in the Stavropol region was carried out, data on the number and distribution of the territory were presented region, practical recommendations were given on the maintenance and breeding of ungulates in semi-free and free conditions, and an assessment of their impact on ecosystems was made.... Further
For hunters, game managers, rangers, zoologists, ecologists, local historians, specialists in the field of nature conservation, students and undergraduates studying in the direction 022000.62 - Ecology and environmental management, graduate students and teachers of higher educational institutions and everyone interested in the nature of the Stavropol Territory. ... Further

Dmitry Zhukov

Man belongs to a biological species, therefore he is subject to the same laws as other representatives of the animal kingdom. This is true not only of the processes occurring in our cells, tissues and organs, but also of our behavior - how individual as well as social. It is studied not only by biologists and doctors, but also by sociologists, psychologists, and representatives of other humanities disciplines. Using extensive material, supporting it with examples from medicine, history, literature and painting, the author analyzes issues at the intersection of biology, endocrinology and psychology, and shows that human behavior is based on biological mechanisms, including hormonal ones. The book examines topics such as stress, depression, rhythms of life, psychological types and sex differences, hormones and the sense of smell in social behavior, nutrition and the psyche, homosexuality, types of parental behavior, etc. Thanks to the rich illustrative material, the author’s ability to speak simply about complex things and his humor, the book is read with unflagging interest.... Further
The book “Wait, who’s leading? Biology of human and other animal behavior” was awarded the “Enlightener” prize in the “Natural and Exact Sciences” category. ... Further
We live in an era of a real revolution in microbiology. The latest technologies have allowed scientists to immerse themselves in the world of microscopic creatures that inhabit our bodies and make amazing discoveries in this world. It turns out that microbes, living in incredible quantities in almost every corner of our body, play a much more important role than we previously thought: not only our physical health depends on them, they determine our mood, our tastes and our very personality. We learn about these scientific breakthroughs first-hand: the author of the book, Rob Knight, is one of the leading modern microbiologists, creating the science of the future before our eyes.... Further

Evgeniy Kunin

In this ambitious book, Evgeny Kunin illuminates the intertwining of the random and the natural that underlie the very essence of life. In an attempt to achieve a deeper understanding of the mutual influence of chance and necessity that drives biological evolution forward, Kunin brings together bringing together new data and concepts, while charting a path leading beyond the synthetic theory of evolution. He interprets evolution as a stochastic process based on contingency, limited by the need to maintain cellular organization, and guided by a process of adaptation. He brings together a variety of conceptual ideas to support his conclusions: comparative genomics, which sheds light on ancestral forms; new understanding of the patterns, modes and unpredictability of the evolutionary process; advances in the study of gene expression, protein abundance, and other phenotypic molecular characteristics; the application of statistical physics methods to the study of genes and genomes and a new look at the probability of the spontaneous emergence of life generated by modern cosmology.... Further

The logic of the case demonstrates that the understanding of evolution that has been developed by 20th-century science is outdated and incomplete, and outlines a fundamentally new approach - challenging, sometimes controversial, but always based on solid scientific knowledge. ... Further

A. A. Kamensky

The series is intended for students of higher educational institutions, as well as applicants. The books in this series were written by leading specialists from Moscow State University. M. V. Lomonosov. ... Further

Vadim Dzhameev

The reference book briefly presents the 100 most important topics in biology. All materials are presented in accordance with the school curriculum and are presented in a concise and clear form, allowing you to quickly find the necessary information. ... Further

The reference book will help you systematize the knowledge acquired in the process of studying biology, focus your attention on basic concepts, terms, definitions, and prepare for lessons and tests, as well as for the State Exam and the Unified State Exam. ... Further

E. V. Sitnikova

The popular science encyclopedia “Animal World” is a treasure trove of entertaining and surprising facts. The book contains answers to many questions in various fields of knowledge, is distinguished by the originality of the presentation of the material presented and a large number of interesting illustrations. The publication is intended for a wide range of readers.... Further

This book briefly outlines the material necessary for mastering modern methods of confocal laser microscopy. Some of the practical techniques described in the text were developed and improved by the authors of the publication. A distinctive feature of this book is a combination of key points from the theory of modern microscopy methods with examples of the use of various techniques of confocal microscopy and immunocytochemistry in practice. The appendices provide the necessary information about the spectral characteristics of fluorochromes and protocols for immunocytochemical reactions used by the authors to obtain images of preparations and construct three-dimensional reconstructions of microscopic objects.... Further
This manual can be a reference tool for specialists who use fluorescence methods and confocal microscopy in their work, and will also be useful for students of biological and medical faculties studying morphological and neurobiological disciplines. ... Further

Vadim Dzhameev

The book presents in a concise and visual form the mandatory minimum school course in chemistry and biology. The presentation of theoretical material in related subjects will allow students to most effectively prepare for passing the Unified State Exam for admission to a university of their chosen profile. ... Further

The manual implements an integrated approach to learning, which is a necessary condition for the modern educational process.

The publication will be useful when completing individual and homework assignments, as well as in preparing for independent work and tests. ... Further

S. I. Kolesnikov

All main sections of general biology are considered: genetics and selection; the doctrine of the cell; evolution theory; bionics and biotechnology; reproduction and individual development of organisms; ecology and the doctrine of the biosphere. Contains biology problems with solutions and takes into account modern achievements of biological sciences.... Further

Corresponds to the current Federal State Educational Standard for secondary vocational education of the new generation.

For students of secondary vocational educational institutions, as well as for students of schools, lyceums, gymnasiums, applicants, biology teachers. ... Further

Wilf Stout

The next edition of the world-famous textbook, one of the most complete and authoritative publications on general biology, created by leading scientists from different countries. The contents of this manual reflect the latest evidence from modern science. Simplicity and good arrangement of the material make making it accessible to a wider range of readers.... Further

The first volume includes topics devoted to the diversity of forms of life on Earth, the basics of biochemistry, histology, nutrition and energy use by living organisms, and ecology.

The second volume examines issues of practical ecology, mechanisms of internal transport and methods of coordination and regulation of life processes.

The third volume is devoted to issues of excretion and osmoregulation, reproduction, growth and development of plants and animals. The problems of classical and applied genetics are outlined. The processes of evolution on Earth and the mechanisms of speciation are considered.

For biology students, school biology teachers, applicants and biologists of all specialties.

V. G. Veresov

The monograph examines the molecular mechanisms of programmed cell death - apoptosis, based on the structure and physical principles of functioning of proteins of the Bcl-2 family (anti-apoptotic, pro-apoptotic Bax-like and pro-apoptotic BH3-only), caspases, inhibitor proteins and apoptosis inhibitors. The structural mechanisms of the occurrence of pathologies associated with defects in apoptosis were analyzed. The principles of structure-based drug design are outlined, with an emphasis on anticancer drugs and drugs against mass cell death in neurodegenerative disorders.... Further

Designed for specialists working in the fields of molecular and structural biology, cell and protein biophysics, biochemistry, oncology, neurobiology, medicinal chemistry, pharmacology. Can be used when giving lectures on biophysics, biochemistry and medicinal chemistry at universities. ... Further

A. V. Pimenov

The manual has been prepared in accordance with the mandatory minimum content of basic general and secondary (complete) general education in biology, a codifier of content elements in biology for the compilation of control measurement materials of the unified state exam and contains all the material necessary for a student to independently prepare for the Unified State Exam.... Further

Scientific consultant:

G. A. Belyakova, E. L. Bogatyreva, T. A. Vershinina, T. V. Voronina, B. N. Golovkin, V. G. Grebtsova, L. V. Denisova, E. V. Dubrovkina, M. V. Komogortseva, I. A. Kondratyeva, I. L. Kostina, E. N. Kurochkin, B. G. Lisyansky, E. A. Lysogorskaya, T. V. Nagorskaya, N. Yu. Nikonyuk, E. Yu. Pavlova, S. L. Pereshkolnik, N. A. Rubinshtein, L. S. Sergeeva, A. V. Simolin, V. B. Slepov, M. A. Tarkhanova, I. O. Shapovalova

Artists:

V. V. Bastrykin, O. V. Zhidkov, E. P. Zolotussky, A. V. Kazmina, V. D. Kolganov, E. M. Kolchina, E. A. Komrakova, A. A. Mosalov, A. N. Pozinenko, O. I. Runovskaya, A. N. Sichkar, K. A. Tsarev

From the publisher

The school encyclopedia "Biology" is a scientific reference publication intended for high school students, applicants, biology teachers, as well as for all nature lovers. The book contains articles on general biology, botany, zoology, human anatomy and physiology, the basics of medical knowledge, as well as on the biological sciences and scientists who made a significant contribution to their development. The information contained in the encyclopedia meets the requirements of the school curriculum, and in some cases exceeds them. Thus, the species composition of flora and fauna is more fully presented, issues related to modern trends in the development of biology (cytology, molecular biology, biochemistry, genetics, etc.), as well as the foundations of medical knowledge, are more widely covered; There is information about pets (cats, dogs, aquarium fish).

In total, the encyclopedia contains more than two thousand articles. They differ both in volume (some phenomena and processes are explained briefly, others that require detailed consideration are covered in more detail) and in the form of presentation of the material (in most cases it is unified, but sometimes the author’s style of presentation is preserved). The presented reference and information material can be successfully used for preparing homework in biology, writing essays and reports, and in preparation for exams.

To make it easier to find the necessary articles, at the end of the volume there are alphabetical and thematic indexes, as well as a list of rare, declining and endangered animals and plants of our country. Literature recommended for additional reading is also provided at the end of the book.

The publisher thanks readers in advance for their feedback and criticism, which will be taken into account in the next editions of the encyclopedia.

To the readers

Here is one of the volumes "Modern illustrated encyclopedia". This publication is unique in its own way. It is intended for both smart schoolchildren and their caring parents, students, teachers and, in general, all those who want to remember their school knowledge, and perhaps acquire new ones.

The volumes of the encyclopedia in a condensed form cover all the main areas of human knowledge: science, technology, culture, art, religion. They include a description of all the countries on our planet, their history and geography. The main feature of the “Modern Illustrated Encyclopedia” is that it is not a collection of books with funny pictures, entertaining stories about world civilization, science or art, but scientific reference publication. Reference books are usually not read in succession; they are used only when necessary. And there are a great many of these cases. Clarify the mathematical formula, the names of the first apostles, the year of birth of the writer or actor, the date of the battle or the founding of the city, the height of the mountain peak or the pyramid of Cheops, what the “Divine Comedy” or “Optimistic Tragedy” tells about, what is the difference between amphibrachium and anapest or ethyl alcohol from methyl alcohol , what the “Red Book” is, how the internal combustion engine works and how it differs from a jet engine - all this and much more can be done by the materials contained in the volumes of the “Modern Illustrated Encyclopedia”.

The articles in each volume are arranged in alphabetical order. Their names are typed bold font; Synonyms of these names, if any, are given nearby (in parentheses). To obtain more complete information, a system of links to other terms and concepts given in separate articles is used. Their names are highlighted in the text in a special font - italics. A system of word abbreviations is used, the list of which, given in each volume, also includes abbreviations.

The volumes of the “Modern Illustrated Encyclopedia” are not numbered, they are independent reference publications, and each reader can choose individual books that interest him. However, we must remember that “encyclopedia” translated from Greek means “circle of knowledge.” Therefore, do not limit yourself to individual “sectors”, keep a complete “circle” on your bookshelves - a lifeline “knowledge circle”.

Chief editor of the encyclopedia A. P. Gorkin

Conventions and abbreviations

AN – Academy of Sciences

English - English

ATP – adenosinite triphosphate

century, century - century, centuries

high - height

g – gram

g., years - year, years

ha – hectare

depth - depth

Ch. arr. - mainly

Greek – Greek

dia. – diameter

dl. - length

DNA – deoxyribonucleic acid

BC. - BC

others - others

ed. – edition (in bibliography)

ill. – illustration

kg – kilogram

kJ – kilojoule

km – kilometer

con. - end

L. - Leningrad (in the bibliography)

lat. – Latin

M. - Moscow (in the bibliography)

months - month

mg – milligram

min – minute

mcg – microgram

µm – micrometer

million – million

billion – billion

mm – millimeter

IUCN – International Union for Conservation of Nature

eg - For example

beginning - Start

nm – nanometer

O. - island

OK. - near

neg. – squad (in biology)

lane – translation (in bibliography)

floor. – half

etc. - others

R. - river, born

rice. - drawing

RNA – ribonucleic acid

grew up – Russian

rt. Art. – mercury column

rus. - Russian

s – second

St. - from above

family – family (in biology)

ser. – middle

cm – centimeter

see - look

St. Petersburg - St. Petersburg (in the bibliography)

Art. - article

day - day

agricultural – agricultural

t – ton

those. - that is

because - because

so-called - so-called

table - table

thousand - thousand

mind. - sea level

ts – centner

CNS - central nervous system

lat. - width

PC. - thing

A

ABACUS, a perennial herbaceous plant of the genus banana; Abaca is used to produce a strong fiber called Manila hemp.

ABIOTIC ENVIRONMENT, a set of inorganic conditions for the existence of organisms. These conditions influence the distribution of all life on the planet. The abiotic environment is determined by various factors, including chemical (composition of atmospheric air, rocks, soil, water, etc.) and physical (temperature of air, water, substrate, direction and strength of wind, frequency, intensity and nature of precipitation , duration and frequency of illumination, background radiation, etc.). Each type of organism has its own necessary set of abiotic environmental factors that ensure its normal functioning. Factors that limit the distribution of organisms are called limiting (for example, oxygen content in the sea). By changing the abiotic environment, humans sometimes indirectly influence the composition and distribution of living organisms. Compare Biotic environment.

APRICOT, a genus of trees and shrubs of the family. Rosaceae. Includes 10 species growing wild mainly in Asia. In culture for more than 5 thousand years. Common apricots are mainly grown. Tree high up to 8 m, durable, light-loving, heat-resistant, drought-resistant, grows quickly, bears fruit in the 3-4th year after planting. The flowers are white or pink and bloom before the leaves. The fruits are drupes, juicy, aromatic, velvety-fluffy, spherical or ovoid, with a longitudinal groove, yellow or orange, often reddish on one side. Contains up to 20% sugars.

Propagated by grafting. Apricot, cherry plum, almond, and peach seedlings are used as rootstocks. In Russia, apricots are grown mainly in the southern regions and the Far East. The fruits are used in fresh, processed (jam, jam, etc.) and dried form. Dried fruits without seeds are called dried apricots, with seeds - apricots. Apricot wood has a beautiful texture; musical instruments and souvenirs are made from it. Honey plant.

AVICENNA, cm. Ibn Sina.

AVOCADO(Persea americana), evergreen tree of the family. laurel, fruit crop. Its homeland is Central and South America, where it has been grown for a long time. Also cultivated in Australia and Cuba. In Russia - on the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus. Trunk high 10-15 m, leathery leaves. The fruits are large (weight 300-400 g), berry-shaped, with shiny dark green skin, shaped like a pear. Inside is a large round seed (inedible), surrounded by pulp, which is edible. The pulp contains a lot of high-quality fats and virtually no carbohydrates.

Australopithecines, fossil representatives of Neg. primates that walked on two legs. They have common features both with monkeys (for example, the primitive structure of the skull) and with humans (for example, a more developed brain than that of a monkey, upright posture).

The first skeletal remains of Australopithecines were discovered in 1924 in southern Africa, which is reflected in the name (from the Latin “australis” - southern and the Greek “pithekos” - monkey). This was followed by numerous finds in East Africa (Olduvai Gorge, Afar Desert, etc.). Until recently, the oldest (age 3.5 million years) skeleton of an upright human ancestor was considered to be a female skeleton, which is known throughout the world as “Lucy” (found in Afar in the 1970s). Recent findings indicate that the age of ancient australopithecines reaches 6.5 million years. In many respects, Australopithecus can be considered a transitional link between fossils. pongids and early hominids.

The height of different australopithecines is from 105 to 180 cm (most are 120-130 cm), brain volume is from 380-450 cm 3 up to 500-550 cm 3 , among progressives, or prezinjanthropes, - approx. 680 cm 3 . Australopithecines widely used sticks and stones as tools. Prezinjanthropes knew how to make primitive stone tools and are considered the creators of the Olduvai, or pebble, culture. In this regard, they are classified as belonging to the genus man (“Homo”) and the species Homo habilis (“Homo habilis”). They are considered predecessors archanthropes, i.e. considered as the first stage in human evolution. Some scientists continue to classify it as a progressive australopithecine.

AUTOTROPHES, organisms that synthesize the organic substances they need from inorganic compounds. Autotrophs include terrestrial green plants (they form organic substances from carbon dioxide and water in the process photosynthesis), algae, photo- and chemosynthetic bacteria (see. Chemosynthesis). Being the main producers of organic matter in the biosphere, they ensure the existence of all other organisms.

AGAVE, a genus of perennial plants of the family. agave Includes St. 300 species. Homeland: Central America and the Caribbean islands. Succulents. Many species (American agave, agave, etc.) are grown as houseplants. The stems are short or absent, the leaves are hard, tough, fibrous or fleshy, with spines along the edges and an awl-shaped apex, bright to dark green or bluish green, often with variegated stripes. Peduncle high up to 10-12 cm, the inflorescence (panicle or raceme) contains from several hundred to several thousand funnel-shaped yellowish flowers. It is demanding of light and requires large containers when grown indoors. The soil mixture is heavy, clay-turf, fertile, drainage is required. Propagated by seeds, suckers and stem tips.

ADAPTATION, adaptation of an organism, population or biological species to environmental conditions. Includes morphological, physiological, behavioral and other changes (or a combination of them) that ensure survival under given conditions. Adaptations are divided into reversible and irreversible. The first are more short-term and do not affect the process of natural selection (for example, a temporary increase in the intensity of contraction of the heart of a person or animal during running, withering of a leaf when there is a lack of moisture and returning it to its previous state when saturated with it). The second, hereditary, fixed by natural selection, become a species or population characteristic (for example, the saiga trunk, which filters dust when running quickly, a modified cactus leaf - a thorn, which reduces transpiration in desert conditions). Hereditary adaptations also include various types of coloration - protective, warning, etc.

ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE(ATP), a nucleotide, a universal battery and carrier of chemical energy in living cells. The ATP molecule consists of the nitrogenous base adenine, the carbohydrate ribose and three phosphoric acid residues (phosphates). The chemical energy of ATP is contained in the so-called. high-energy (macroergic) bonds between the first (closest to the carbohydrate) and second and between the second and third phosphate groups. The bond between the second and third (terminal) phosphates is the most energy-intensive - its hydrolysis releases 40 kJ. The energy released during the enzymatic cleavage of this bond is used by cells to perform various work: biosynthesis of necessary substances, active transport through biological membranes of both organic and inorganic compounds, muscle contraction, osmotic processes, generation of electrical discharges by some fish, etc. That is, all types of chemical, mechanical, osmotic, electrical work are performed in cells due to the energy of ATP hydrolysis to adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate.

ATP is synthesized (stores energy) from ADP and inorganic phosphate due to the energy released during the oxidation of substances supplied with food into mitochondria, at photosynthesis in plants, as well as in other ADP phosphorylation reactions. Thus, ATP is the main link that connects the processes of energy release and the processes of its consumption into a single whole. The energy stored in the form of ATP is used by cells where it is needed, and when it is needed.

ATP is also one of the nucleotides involved in the construction of RNA chains.

ADENOIDS, enlargement of the pharyngeal (nasopharyngeal) tonsil due to the proliferation of its lymphoid tissue. Causes: allergies, childhood infections. Adenoids cause impaired nasal breathing, decreased hearing, and nasal voice. Join often angina, sinusitis, chronic runny nose, rheumatism. Treatment is removal of the adenoids. Prevention – hardening.

ADONIS, a genus of plants in the ranunculaceae family. 20 types. Most are known as Adonis.

ADRENALIN, a hormone in animals and humans produced by the adrenal glands. Adrenaline is the hormone of “mobilization” of the body’s forces: its entry into the blood increases with emotional tension, stress, increased muscle work, etc. As a result, adaptive changes occur in the body - oxygen consumption, blood glucose concentration, blood pressure increase, blood flow in the liver increases, and metabolism is stimulated.

ASIAN PIKES(aplocheyls, aplocheilyus), a genus of fish of the family. carp-toothed animals, objects of aquarium fish farming. 6 species live in Southeast Asia. They inhabit small fresh water bodies, irrigation canals and mountain streams. All species are bred in aquariums. The fish look like miniature pikes and stay near the surface of the water. The largest of them (up to 10 cm long) is Lineatus (homeland - water bodies of the Hindustan Peninsula and the island of Sri Lanka). Females are larger than males, less brightly colored, and have a dark spot on the dorsal fin. By the time of reproduction, fish of both sexes have dark transverse stripes on the back half of the body. Available in gold and green forms.

They keep pike (as they are called by amateurs) in aquariums with a capacity of 25-30 liters, with a large water surface area. The top of the aquarium is covered with glass, because fish can jump out of the water. The water temperature is 20-25 °C, its chemical composition does not play a big role, but old, peat water is preferable. Aeration and filtration are weak. The soil is river sand mixed with peat chips. The plants are floating, with a highly developed root system, but they can also take root (for shelters). The lighting is bright. Lineatus are kept separately from fish of other species or together with larger species, because they are aggressive and can eat small fish. The main food in the aquarium is bloodworms, small insects, and large plankton. Pike live 1.5-2 years.

NITROGEN FIXING BACTERIA(nitrogen fixers), bacteria that have the ability to absorb molecular nitrogen from the air and convert it into forms accessible to plants. They play an important role in the nitrogen cycle in nature. Every year, 150-180 million tons of nitrogen are involved in the nitrogen fund of the planet’s soil. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria can be aerobes or anaerobes, living freely in the soil (Azotobacter, Clostridia, Cyanobacteria) and living in symbiosis with plants (see. Nodule bacteria). For the first time, an anaerobic microorganism (clostridium) was isolated from soil by the Russian scientist S.N. Winogradsky in 1893. In 1901, the Dutchman M. Beijerinck discovered an aerobic nitrogen-fixing bacterium - Azotobacter.

The energy source for nitrogen reduction in aerobic bacteria is the processes breathing, in anaerobic - fermentation. The activity of free-living nitrogen fixers is influenced by the content of organic matter, macro- and microelements in the soil, its acidity, temperature and humidity.

AIR, genus of plants of the family. aronnikov. Includes 2 species of rhizomatous perennials, common in extratropical regions of the Northern Hemisphere. In Russia there is 1 species - common calamus, native to East Asia, found in the European part, Siberia and the Far East. It grows along the banks of lakes and rivers, in swamps. The xiphoid leaves are collected in a rosette. Stem triangular, high. 50-70 cm, bears an inflorescence-cob of small light green flowers. In central Russia it does not bear fruit, reproducing by rhizomes. They contain essential oil, starch, resin, and are used for medicinal purposes (to improve digestion, increase appetite); essential oil is used to flavor drinks and fragrance soaps.

STORKS, family of birds neg. storks. Includes 17 species of large (body length 76-152 cm, weight up to 6 kg) birds living in temperate and hot latitudes of all continents except Antarctica. There are 3 types in Russia. The white stork is widespread and enjoys human patronage almost everywhere.

The beak of storks is long, straight and sharp. There are small membranes between the bases of the front toes, and the claws are blunt. There is an air sac located under the skin on the neck. Most species do not have vocal muscles of the lower larynx, so they do not have a voice and produce sounds only by clicking their beaks. They feed on a variety of animal foods: amphibians, reptiles, mollusks, worms, large insects and their larvae, fish, small rodents. They search for food by slowly wandering through forest clearings, swamps, meadows, and the banks of reservoirs. Some (for example, marabou) feed mainly on carrion.

They usually nest in separate pairs on rocks, trees, and roofs. Nests are large, loose structures made from branches. There are 3-8 white eggs in a clutch. Both parents incubate for 4-6 weeks. The chicks hatch sighted, covered with sparse down. In many species, the primary downy plumage is soon complemented by a secondary, longer and thicker one. The chicks remain in the nest for 2-3.5 months until they acquire the ability to fly.

The Far Eastern and black storks are rare species and are included in the Red Book of Russia.

QUINCE, a genus of trees and shrubs of the family. Rosaceae. Includes a single species - the common or oblong quince. It grows wildly in the east of Asia Minor, Iran, and Central Asia. In culture (Anterior Asia) for more than 4 thousand years. They are grown in the countries of North and South America, Southern Europe, and Central Asia. In Russia - on the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus. Tree or shrub tall. up to 8 m. The crown is dense, spherical. The leaves are white-tomentose underneath. The flowers are white or slightly pink. Fruits weighing 100-400 g (sometimes up to 1 kg or more), lemon-yellow, pubescent before ripening, often ribbed; tart-sweet, contain a lot of pectin and tannins. They are consumed fresh and processed (jam, marmalade, candied fruits).

Quince is undemanding to soils, thermophilic, drought- and heat-resistant. Lives 50-60 years. It begins to bear fruit in the 2-3rd year and bears fruit annually. Propagated by layering, root shoots, cuttings, grafting, seeds - for breeding purposes. In the south it serves as a dwarf pear rootstock. Honey plant. The wood is light yellow, sometimes with a pinkish tint, and is used for small crafts. Quince-apple hybrids have been obtained.

AQUARIUM, 1) a vessel with water for keeping and breeding aquatic animals and plants, having transparent walls through which you can observe the life of its inhabitants. Keeping fish in artificial reservoirs has a long history. Special pools for displaying fish were used back in Ancient Egypt by St. 3 thousand years ago. The first glass aquarium was made in England in 1841, and in 1856 the first manual on aquarium fish farming in Europe, “Lake in Glass” (E.A. Rossmesler), was published. In Russia, the aquarium method of keeping fish was promoted by biology teacher N.F. Zolotnitsky (1851-1920). According to their intended purpose, aquariums are divided into decorative, general and special. Decorative aquariums are used to decorate rooms. Decorative aquariums also include the Dutch aquarium, in which the main thing is harmoniously selected plants and a unique underwater landscape. A general aquarium contains various fish, taking into account their biological characteristics, requirements for environmental conditions and aesthetic factors. When selecting fish, you should avoid keeping aggressive, large and small fish together. The upper, middle and lower layers of the aquarium should be evenly populated. It is better to purchase an aquarium with a larger capacity, because... it is easier to care for. Special aquariums (spawning, nursery, quarantine, etc.) are intended for breeding fish, their treatment, for growing ciliates, brine shrimp, rotifers and other animals used as live food. It is recommended to feed aquarium inhabitants once a day. Adult fish - bloodworms, tubifex, coretra, daphnia, dry food, etc. The best food for fry is “live dust” - the smallest living creatures caught in a reservoir;

2) a building (institution) where visitors are shown representatives of freshwater and marine fauna and flora. The first public aquarium opened in 1849 in London. In Moscow, a similar aquarium began operating in 1882.

AQUARIUM FISH, fish that are kept and bred in aquariums. Most aquarium fish are freshwater. Marine aquariums have also gained popularity, marine aquariums are rapidly developing, and hobbyists have begun to keep marine fish. Among freshwater aquarium fish there are warm-water (inhabitants of reservoirs in the tropics and subtropics) and cold-water (inhabit waters of the temperate zone). When keeping them, an appropriate temperature regime of water, a certain chemical composition, etc. are required. Aquarium fish include fish from various families (cyprinids, loaches, macropods, characins, poeciliids, cichlids, lebiasines, creepers, melanothenians, half-snouts, etc.). The small size of these fish makes it possible to breed them in an aquarium.

Aquarium fish are attractive due to their bright colors, bizarre body shape, and behavioral and reproductive characteristics. In some species, sex change can occur (for example, female swordtails can turn into males with age). The number of eggs (eggs) in a female depends on her age and size (the older and larger the fish, the more eggs), as well as on biological characteristics (the more caring for the offspring, the less fertility). The fertility of aquarium fish varies from a few eggs to several thousand eggs. According to the method of reproduction, aquarium fish are divided into spawning and viviparous. Egg layers scatter eggs or lay them on plants, stones, bury them in the ground, place them in nests, etc. The eggs are usually small. Fertilization in most fish occurs outside the female's body (in water). The embryo develops on a nutritious yolk, part of which remains as reserve material in the form of a yolk sac in the larva. Viviparous aquarium fish spawn fully formed, active fry into the water, which immediately begin to swim and feed. Males of viviparous fish have special external copulatory organs for internal fertilization of females (for example, gonopodium in poeciliids). Successful breeding of aquarium fish is facilitated by the correct selection of producers and proper preparation of spawning grounds.

A decorative aquarium usually contains several species of fish, taking into account compatibility in behavior (aggressiveness) and similarity of keeping conditions (temperature and water hardness, lighting, etc.), etc. The more different species are kept in an aquarium, the more difficult it is to create optimal conditions for every type of fish. When temperature, gas and other conditions are violated, the well-being of fish worsens, and sometimes they die. A change in the behavior of fish under optimal conditions (optimal water temperature, good aeration, etc.) indicates a disease. Pathogens are often introduced into an aquarium with new fish, so fish are placed in a community aquarium after a 30-day quarantine.

ACCLIMATIZATION, the process of adaptation of organisms to new or changed environmental conditions, as a result of which they acquire the ability to develop normally and produce viable offspring. Usually occurs during the natural or artificial relocation of plants and animals to new areas or to places where they once lived, but then disappeared (reacclimatization). To facilitate acclimatization, plants are usually provided with conditions (temperature and humidity, light conditions, etc.) that are as similar as possible to those in which they lived. When acclimatizing animals, in addition to climatic factors, such factors as the presence of natural enemies, food competitors, etc. are of great importance. Thanks to successful acclimatization, white acacia and chestnut began to grow in Europe, the American mink appeared in Russia, and the original natural habitats of beaver and sable were restored.

ACONITE(fighter), genus of plants of the family. Ranunculaceae. Includes approx. 300 species of perennial grasses common in temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere. There are 77 species in Russia - in the European part, in Siberia and the Far East. They grow in meadows, thickets of bushes and along the edges of deciduous forests, in steppes, forest-steppes and mountain tundra. The most common is aconite. Its stems are tall. up to 2 m bear heart-shaped, rounded, coarsely toothed leaves and dirty purple flowers with a characteristic curved upper petal - a “helmet”, forming a loose raceme. The fruits are dry leaflets, collected in groups of 3. All types of aconite are poisonous.

ACCELERATION, acceleration of growth and puberty in humans compared to previous generations. Anthropometric data indicate that in the 1940s. Among the indigenous inhabitants of Europe and North America, the average height was 160 cm for girls aged 17 years, 170 cm for boys of the same age, and at the end. 1990s - 168-170 cm and 177-180 cm, respectively. Puberty occurs at an earlier age: for boys - at 15-16 years old (50 years ago - at 17-18 years old), for girls - at 12-13 years old (previously - at 14-15 years old). The acceleration phenomenon is more often observed in countries with a high standard of living and a favorable state of the environment.

ACTINIDIA, genus of liana family. actinidia. Includes approx. 40 species, growing wild mainly in East Asia. In Russia there are 5 species in the Far East. In the Ussuri forests they reach lengths. 35 m, climbing high up tree trunks. In cultivated varieties, length. 3-7 m. The most common cultivated species is Actinidia kolomikta, or Amur gooseberry. The plant is dioecious. Blooms at the end. May - beginning June. The flowers are white, on long drooping stalks. Females are located singly, males - 2-3 in an inflorescence. The fruits are berries, green or greenish-yellow, with darker longitudinal stripes. Ripen at the end. August - beginning September. They taste like gooseberries and contain sugars, organic acids, pectin, and vitamins. They are consumed in fresh and processed form (jam, “raisins”).

Actinidia is photophilous, cold-resistant, and undemanding to soils. Propagated by seeds and vegetatively - green and lignified cuttings, grafting, root suckers. Seedlings begin to bear fruit in the 4th-5th year. Lives up to 80-100 years.

sea anemone(sea anemones), an order of marine coelenterates of the class of coral polyps. Includes approx. 1500 species live in all seas (in Russia they are absent in the Aral and Caspian Seas) - from the littoral zone (the zone of the seabed that is flooded during high tide and drained at low tide) to the deep. 8 thousand m. These six-rayed polyps do not have a skeleton and live alone. They are capable of slowly crawling along the bottom on their wide soles; there are forms that burrow into the ground and swim. Body dia. from a few millimeters to 1.5 m and height. up to 1 m (tropical species), with a corolla of burning tentacles, brightly colored. In humans, touching the tentacles can cause a burn. Sea anemones feed on invertebrates and small fish. If the prey does not fit into the mouth, the sea anemone turns out the front part of the digestive cavity and pulls it over the victim. Many sea anemones cohabitate with hermit crabs ( symbiosis), using them as a means of transportation and taking advantage of the leftover food of the crayfish. In turn, the cancer receives protection from the sea anemone, supplied stinging cells. Sea anemones reproduce sexually and asexually – by longitudinal and transverse division.

Gorkin A.P., Ch. editor.

Encyclopedia "Biology" (with illustrations)

Scientific consultant:

Artists:

V. V. Bastrykin, O. V. Zhidkov, E. P. Zolotussky, A. V. Kazmina, V. D. Kolganov, E. M. Kolchina, E. A. Komrakova, A. A. Mosalov, A. N. Pozinenko, O. I. Runovskaya, A. N. Sichkar, K. A. Tsarev

From the publisher

The publisher thanks readers in advance for their feedback and criticism, which will be taken into account in the next editions of the encyclopedia.

To the readers

The volumes of the encyclopedia in a condensed form cover all the main areas of human knowledge: science, technology, culture, art, religion.

They include a description of all the countries on our planet, their history and geography. The main feature of the “Modern Illustrated Encyclopedia” is that it is not a collection of books with funny pictures, entertaining stories about world civilization, science or art, but scientific reference publication. Reference books are usually not read in succession; they are used only when necessary. And there are a great many of these cases. Clarify the mathematical formula, the names of the first apostles, the year of birth of the writer or actor, the date of the battle or the founding of the city, the height of the mountain peak or the pyramid of Cheops, what the “Divine Comedy” or “Optimistic Tragedy” tells about, what is the difference between amphibrachium and anapest or ethyl alcohol from methyl alcohol , what the “Red Book” is, how the internal combustion engine works and how it differs from a jet engine - all this and much more can be done by the materials contained in the volumes of the “Modern Illustrated Encyclopedia”.

Chief editor of the encyclopedia A. P. Gorkin

Conventions and abbreviations

AN – Academy of Sciences

English - English

ATP – adenosinite triphosphate

century, century - century, centuries

high - height

g – gram

g., years - year, years

ha – hectare

depth - depth

Ch. arr. - mainly

Greek – Greek

dia. – diameter

dl. - length

DNA – deoxyribonucleic acid

BC. - BC

others - others

ed. – edition (in bibliography)

ill. – illustration

kg – kilogram

kJ – kilojoule

km – kilometer

con. - end

L. - Leningrad (in the bibliography)

lat. – Latin

M. - Moscow (in the bibliography)

months - month

mg – milligram

min – minute

mcg – microgram

µm – micrometer

million – million

billion – billion

mm – millimeter

IUCN – International Union for Conservation of Nature

eg - For example

beginning - Start

nm – nanometer

O. - island

OK. - near

neg. – squad (in biology)

lane – translation (in bibliography)

floor. – half

etc. - others

R. - river, born

rice. - drawing

RNA – ribonucleic acid

grew up – Russian

rt. Art. – mercury column

rus. - Russian

s – second

St. - from above

family – family (in biology)

ser. – middle

cm – centimeter

see - look

St. Petersburg - St. Petersburg (in the bibliography)

Art. - article

day - day

agricultural – agricultural

t – ton

those. - that is

because - because

so-called - so-called

table - table

thousand - thousand

mind. - sea level

ts – centner

CNS - central nervous system

lat. - width

PC. - thing

A

ABACUS?, a perennial herbaceous plant of the genus banana; Abaca is used to produce a strong fiber called Manila hemp.

ABIOTI?CHIC ENVIRONMENT?, a set of inorganic conditions for the existence of organisms. These conditions influence the distribution of all life on the planet. The abiotic environment is determined by various factors, including chemical (composition of atmospheric air, rocks, soil, water, etc.) and physical (temperature of air, water, substrate, direction and strength of wind, frequency, intensity and nature of precipitation , duration and frequency of illumination, background radiation, etc.). Each type of organism has its own necessary set of abiotic environmental factors that ensure its normal functioning. Factors that limit the distribution of organisms are called limiting (for example, oxygen content in the sea). By changing the abiotic environment, humans sometimes indirectly influence the composition and distribution of living organisms. Compare Biotic environment.

AVICE?NNA, cm. Ibn Sina.

AUSTRALOPITES, fossil representatives of Neg. primates that walked on two legs. They have common features both with monkeys (for example, the primitive structure of the skull) and with humans (for example, a more developed brain than that of a monkey, upright posture).

AUTOTRO?FY, organisms that synthesize the organic substances they need from inorganic compounds. Autotrophs include terrestrial green plants (they form organic substances from carbon dioxide and water in the process photosynthesis), algae, photo- and chemosynthetic bacteria (see. Chemosynthesis). Being the main producers of organic matter in the biosphere, they ensure the existence of all other organisms.

ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPH?T(ATP), a nucleotide, a universal battery and carrier of chemical energy in living cells. The ATP molecule consists of the nitrogenous base adenine, the carbohydrate ribose and three phosphoric acid residues (phosphates). The chemical energy of ATP is contained in the so-called. high-energy (macroergic) bonds between the first (closest to the carbohydrate) and second and between the second and third phosphate groups. The bond between the second and third (terminal) phosphates is the most energy-intensive - its hydrolysis releases 40 kJ. The energy released during the enzymatic cleavage of this bond is used by cells to perform various work: biosynthesis of necessary substances, active transport through biological membranes of both organic and inorganic compounds, muscle contraction, osmotic processes, generation of electrical discharges by some fish, etc. That is, all types of chemical, mechanical, osmotic, electrical work are performed in cells due to the energy of ATP hydrolysis to adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate.

ATP is also one of the nucleotides involved in the construction of RNA chains.

ADONIS, a genus of plants in the ranunculaceae family. 20 types. Most are known as Adonis.

NITROGEN-FIXING BACTERIUMS(nitrogen fixers), bacteria that have the ability to absorb molecular nitrogen from the air and convert it into forms accessible to plants. They play an important role in the nitrogen cycle in nature. Every year, 150-180 million tons of nitrogen are involved in the nitrogen fund of the planet’s soil. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria can be aerobes or anaerobes, living freely in the soil (Azotobacter, Clostridia, Cyanobacteria) and living in symbiosis with plants (see. Nodule bacteria). For the first time, an anaerobic microorganism (clostridium) was isolated from soil by the Russian scientist S.N. Winogradsky in 1893. In 1901, the Dutchman M. Beijerinck discovered an aerobic nitrogen-fixing bacterium - Azotobacter.

AI?R, genus of plants of the family. aronnikov. Includes 2 species of rhizomatous perennials, common in extratropical regions of the Northern Hemisphere. In Russia there is 1 species - common calamus, native to East Asia, found in the European part, Siberia and the Far East. It grows along the banks of lakes and rivers, in swamps. The xiphoid leaves are collected in a rosette. Stem triangular, high. 50-70 cm, bears an inflorescence-cob of small light green flowers. In central Russia it does not bear fruit, reproducing by rhizomes. They contain essential oil, starch, resin, and are used for medicinal purposes (to improve digestion, increase appetite); essential oil is used to flavor drinks and fragrance soaps.

EXTREMELY, family of birds neg. storks. Includes 17 species of large (body length 76-152 cm, weight up to 6 kg) birds living in temperate and hot latitudes of all continents except Antarctica. There are 3 types in Russia. The white stork is widespread and enjoys human patronage almost everywhere.

The Far Eastern and black storks are rare species and are included in the Red Book of Russia.

QUINCE?, a genus of trees and shrubs of the family. Rosaceae. Includes a single species - the common or oblong quince. It grows wildly in the east of Asia Minor, Iran, and Central Asia. In culture (Anterior Asia) for more than 4 thousand years. They are grown in the countries of North and South America, Southern Europe, and Central Asia. In Russia - on the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus. Tree or shrub tall. up to 8 m. The crown is dense, spherical. The leaves are white-tomentose underneath. The flowers are white or slightly pink. Fruits weighing 100-400 g (sometimes up to 1 kg or more), lemon-yellow, pubescent before ripening, often ribbed; tart-sweet, contain a lot of pectin and tannins. They are consumed fresh and processed (jam, marmalade, candied fruits).

Scientific consultant:

Artists:

V. V. Bastrykin, O. V. Zhidkov, E. P. Zolotussky, A. V. Kazmina, V. D. Kolganov, E. M. Kolchina, E. A. Komrakova, A. A. Mosalov, A. N. Pozinenko, O. I. Runovskaya, A. N. Sichkar, K. A. Tsarev

From the publisher

The publisher thanks readers in advance for their feedback and criticism, which will be taken into account in the next editions of the encyclopedia.

To the readers

Chief editor of the encyclopedia A. P. Gorkin

Conventions and abbreviations

AN – Academy of Sciences

English - English

ATP – adenosinite triphosphate

century, century - century, centuries

high - height

g – gram

g., years - year, years

ha – hectare

depth - depth

Ch. arr. - mainly

Greek – Greek

dia. – diameter

dl. - length

DNA – deoxyribonucleic acid

BC e. - BC

others - others

ed. – edition (in bibliography)

ill. – illustration

kg – kilogram

kJ – kilojoule

km – kilometer

con. - end

L. - Leningrad (in the bibliography)

lat. – Latin

M. - Moscow (in the bibliography)

months - month

mg – milligram

min – minute

mcg – microgram

µm – micrometer

million – million

billion – billion

mm – millimeter

IUCN – International Union for Conservation of Nature

eg - For example

beginning - Start

nm – nanometer

O. - island

OK. - near

neg. – squad (in biology)

lane – translation (in bibliography)

floor. – half

etc. - others

R. - river, born

rice. - drawing

RNA – ribonucleic acid

grew up – Russian

rt. Art. – mercury column

rus. - Russian

s – second

St. - from above

family – family (in biology)

ser. – middle

cm – centimeter

see - look

St. Petersburg - St. Petersburg (in the bibliography)

Art. - article

day - day

agricultural – agricultural

t – ton

i.e. – that is

since - since

so-called - so-called

table - table

thousand - thousand

u. m. – sea level

ts – centner

CNS - central nervous system

lat. - width

PC. - thing

A

ABACUS, a perennial herbaceous plant of the genus banana; Abaca is used to produce a strong fiber called Manila hemp.

AVICENNA, cm. Ibn Sina.

AVOCADO(Persea americana), evergreen tree of the family. laurel, fruit crop. Its homeland is Central and South America, where it has been grown for a long time. Also cultivated in Australia and Cuba. In Russia - on the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus. Trunk high 10–15 m, leathery leaves. The fruits are large (weight 300–400 g), berry-shaped, with a shiny dark green skin, shaped like a pear. Inside is a large round seed (inedible), surrounded by pulp, which is edible. The pulp contains a lot of high-quality fats and virtually no carbohydrates.

The height of different australopithecines is from 105 to 180 cm (most are 120–130 cm), brain volume is from 380–450 cm 3 up to 500–550 cm 3 , among progressives, or prezinjanthropes, - approx. 680 cm 3 . Australopithecines widely used sticks and stones as tools. Prezinjanthropes knew how to make primitive stone tools and are considered the creators of the Olduvai, or pebble, culture. In this regard, they are classified as belonging to the genus man (“Homo”) and the species Homo habilis (“Homo habilis”). They are considered predecessors archanthropes, i.e. are considered as the first stage in human evolution. Some scientists continue to classify it as a progressive australopithecine.

AGAVE, a genus of perennial plants of the family. agave Includes St. 300 species. Homeland: Central America and the Caribbean islands. Succulents. Many species (American agave, agave, etc.) are grown as houseplants. The stems are short or absent, the leaves are hard, tough, fibrous or fleshy, with spines along the edges and an awl-shaped apex, bright to dark green or bluish green, often with variegated stripes. Peduncle high up to 10–12 cm, the inflorescence (panicle or raceme) contains from several hundred to several thousand funnel-shaped yellowish flowers. It is demanding of light and requires large containers when grown indoors. The soil mixture is heavy, clay-turf, fertile, drainage is required. Propagated by seeds, suckers and stem tips.

ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE(ATP), a nucleotide, a universal battery and carrier of chemical energy in living cells. The ATP molecule consists of the nitrogenous base adenine, the carbohydrate ribose and three phosphoric acid residues (phosphates). The chemical energy of ATP is contained in the so-called. high-energy (macroergic) bonds between the first (closest to the carbohydrate) and second and between the second and third phosphate groups. The bond between the second and third (terminal) phosphates is the most energy-intensive - its hydrolysis releases 40 kJ. The energy released during the enzymatic cleavage of this bond is used by cells to perform various work: biosynthesis of necessary substances, active transport through biological membranes of both organic and inorganic compounds, muscle contraction, osmotic processes, generation of electrical discharges by some fish, etc. Then there are all types of chemical, mechanical, osmotic, electrical work performed in cells due to the energy of ATP hydrolysis to adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate.

ATP is also one of the nucleotides involved in the construction of RNA chains.

ADENOIDS, enlargement of the pharyngeal (nasopharyngeal) tonsil due to the proliferation of its lymphoid tissue. Causes: allergies, childhood infections. Adenoids cause impaired nasal breathing, decreased hearing, and nasal voice. Join often sore throat, sinusitis, chronic runny nose, rheumatism. Treatment is removal of the adenoids. Prevention – hardening.

ADONIS, a genus of plants in the ranunculaceae family. 20 types. Most are known as Adonis.

ADRENALIN, a hormone in animals and humans produced by the adrenal glands. Adrenaline is the hormone of “mobilization” of the body’s forces: its entry into the blood increases during emotional tension, stress, increased muscle work, etc. As a result, adaptive changes occur in the body - oxygen consumption, blood glucose concentration, blood pressure increase, blood flow increases in the liver, metabolism is stimulated.

They keep pike (as they are called by amateurs) in aquariums with a capacity of 25–30 liters, with a large water surface area. The top of the aquarium is covered with glass, because fish can jump out of the water. The water temperature is 20–25 °C, its chemical composition does not play a big role, but old, peat water is preferable. Aeration and filtration are weak. The soil is river sand mixed with peat chips. The plants are floating, with a highly developed root system, but they can also take root (for shelters). The lighting is bright. Lineatus are kept separately from fish of other species or together with larger species, because they are aggressive and can eat small fish. The main food in the aquarium is bloodworms, small insects, and large plankton. Pike live 1.5–2 years.

NITROGEN FIXING BACTERIA(nitrogen fixers), bacteria that have the ability to absorb molecular nitrogen from the air and convert it into forms accessible to plants. They play an important role in the nitrogen cycle in nature. Every year, 150–180 million tons of nitrogen are involved in the nitrogen fund of the planet’s soil. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria can be aerobes or anaerobes, living freely in the soil (Azotobacter, Clostridia, Cyanobacteria) and living in symbiosis with plants (see. Nodule bacteria). For the first time, an anaerobic microorganism (clostridium) was isolated from soil by the Russian scientist S.N. Winogradsky in 1893. In 1901, the Dutchman M. Beijerinck discovered an aerobic nitrogen-fixing bacterium - Azotobacter.

AIR, genus of plants of the family. aronnikov. Includes 2 species of rhizomatous perennials, common in extratropical regions of the Northern Hemisphere. In Russia there is 1 species - common calamus, native to East Asia, found in the European part, Siberia and the Far East. It grows along the banks of lakes and rivers, in swamps. The xiphoid leaves are collected in a rosette. Stem triangular, high. 50–70 cm, bears an inflorescence-cob of small light green flowers. In central Russia it does not bear fruit, reproducing by rhizomes. They contain essential oil, starch, resin, and are used for medicinal purposes (to improve digestion, increase appetite); essential oil is used to flavor drinks and fragrance soaps.

They usually nest in separate pairs on rocks, trees, and roofs. Nests are large, loose structures made from branches. There are 3–8 white eggs in a clutch. Both parents incubate for 4–6 weeks. The chicks hatch sighted, covered with sparse down. In many species, the primary downy plumage is soon complemented by a secondary, longer and thicker one. The chicks remain in the nest for 2–3.5 months until they acquire the ability to fly.

The Far Eastern and black storks are rare species and are included in the Red Book of Russia.

QUINCE, a genus of trees and shrubs of the family. Rosaceae. Includes a single species - the common or oblong quince. It grows wildly in the east of Asia Minor, Iran, and Central Asia. In culture (Anterior Asia) for more than 4 thousand years. They are grown in the countries of North and South America, Southern Europe, and Central Asia. In Russia - on the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus. Tree or shrub tall. up to 8 m. The crown is dense, spherical. The leaves are white-tomentose underneath. The flowers are white or slightly pink. Fruits weighing 100–400 g (sometimes up to 1 kg or more), lemon-yellow, pubescent before ripening, often ribbed; tart-sweet, contain a lot of pectin and tannins. They are consumed fresh and processed (jam, marmalade, candied fruits).

Quince is undemanding to soils, thermophilic, drought- and heat-resistant. Lives 50–60 years. It begins to bear fruit in the 2-3rd year and bears fruit annually. Propagated by layering, root shoots, cuttings, grafting, seeds - for breeding purposes. In the south it serves as a dwarf pear rootstock. Honey plant. The wood is light yellow, sometimes with a pinkish tint, and is used for small crafts. Quince-apple hybrids have been obtained.

AQUARIUM, 1) a vessel with water for keeping and breeding aquatic animals and plants, having transparent walls through which you can observe the life of its inhabitants. Keeping fish in artificial reservoirs has a long history. Special pools for displaying fish were used back in Ancient Egypt by St. 3 thousand years ago. The first glass aquarium was made in England in 1841, and in 1856 the first manual on aquarium fish farming in Europe, “Lake in Glass” (E.A. Rossmesler), was published. In Russia, the aquarium method of keeping fish was promoted by biology teacher N.F. Zolotnitsky (1851–1920). According to their intended purpose, aquariums are divided into decorative, general and special. Decorative aquariums are used to decorate rooms. Decorative aquariums also include the Dutch aquarium, in which the main thing is harmoniously selected plants and a unique underwater landscape. A general aquarium contains various fish, taking into account their biological characteristics, requirements for environmental conditions and aesthetic factors. When selecting fish, you should avoid keeping aggressive, large and small fish together. The upper, middle and lower layers of the aquarium should be evenly populated. It is better to purchase an aquarium with a larger capacity, because caring for it is easier. Special aquariums (spawning, nursery, quarantine, etc.) are intended for breeding fish, their treatment, for growing ciliates, brine shrimp, rotifers and other animals used as live food. It is recommended to feed aquarium inhabitants once a day. Adult fish - bloodworms, tubifex, coretra, daphnia, dry food, etc. The best food for fry is “live dust” - the smallest living creatures caught in a reservoir;

Aquarium fish are attractive due to their bright colors, bizarre body shape, and behavioral and reproductive characteristics. In some species, sex change can occur (for example, female swordtails can turn into males with age). The number of eggs (eggs) in a female depends on her age and size (the older and larger the fish, the more eggs), as well as on biological characteristics (the more caring for the offspring, the less fertility). The fertility of aquarium fish varies from a few eggs to several thousand eggs. According to the method of reproduction, aquarium fish are divided into spawning and viviparous. Egg spawners scatter eggs or lay them on plants, stones, bury them in the ground, place them in nests, etc. The eggs are usually small. Fertilization in most fish occurs outside the female's body (in water). The embryo develops on a nutritious yolk, part of which remains as reserve material in the form of a yolk sac in the larva. Viviparous aquarium fish spawn fully formed, active fry into the water, which immediately begin to swim and feed. Males of viviparous fish have special external copulatory organs for internal fertilization of females (for example, gonopodium in poeciliids). Successful breeding of aquarium fish is facilitated by the correct selection of producers and proper preparation of spawning grounds.

ACCELERATION, acceleration of growth and puberty in humans compared to previous generations. Anthropometric data indicate that in the 1940s. Among the indigenous inhabitants of Europe and North America, the average height was 160 cm for girls aged 17 years, 170 cm for boys of the same age, and at the end. 1990s - 168–170 cm and 177–180 cm, respectively. Puberty occurs at an earlier age: for boys – at 15–16 years (50 years ago – at 17–18 years), for girls – at 12–13 years (previously – at 14–15 years old). The acceleration phenomenon is more often observed in countries with a high standard of living and a favorable state of the environment.

ACTINIDIA, genus of liana family. actinidia. Includes approx. 40 species, growing wild mainly in East Asia. In Russia there are 5 species in the Far East. In the Ussuri forests they reach lengths. 35 m, climbing high up tree trunks. In cultivated varieties, length. 3–7 m. The most common cultivated species is Actinidia kolomikta, or Amur gooseberry. The plant is dioecious. Blooms at the end. May - beginning June. The flowers are white, on long drooping stalks. Females are located singly, males - 2-3 in an inflorescence. The fruits are berries, green or greenish-yellow, with darker longitudinal stripes. Ripen at the end. August - beginning September. They taste like gooseberries and contain sugars, organic acids, pectin, and vitamins. They are consumed in fresh and processed form (jam, “raisins”).

sea anemone(sea anemones), an order of marine coelenterates of the class of coral polyps. Includes approx. 1500 species live in all seas (in Russia they are absent in the Aral and Caspian Seas) - from the littoral zone (the zone of the seabed that is flooded during high tide and drained at low tide) to the deep. 8 thousand m. These six-rayed polyps do not have a skeleton and live alone. They are capable of slowly crawling along the bottom on their wide soles; there are forms that burrow into the ground and swim. Body dia. from a few millimeters to 1.5 m and height. up to 1 m (tropical species), with a corolla of burning tentacles, brightly colored. In humans, touching the tentacles can cause a burn. Sea anemones feed on invertebrates and small fish. If the prey does not fit into the mouth, the sea anemone turns out the front part of the digestive cavity and pulls it over the victim. Many sea anemones cohabitate with hermit crabs ( symbiosis), using them as a means of transportation and taking advantage of the leftover food of the crayfish. In turn, the cancer receives protection from the sea anemone, supplied stinging cells 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72

In a popular form, the authors talk about all types of birds living in Russia. For each species, the most important identifying characteristics, information on biology, as well as maps of nesting areas and main wintering areas in the country are provided.
The book contains 56 color tables depicting most Russian birds. The publication is addressed to a wide range of nature lovers and is recommended as a textbook.

This publication includes almost all plant species cultivated in Russia, as well as many edible wild plants.
The directory contains 56 color tables with images of the given plants and 27 maps of distribution areas. In addition to botanical descriptions, presented in accessible language, the book tells about the history of the introduction of food plants into culture, their ecology, peculiarities of cultivation and use, nutritional and medicinal properties. The publication is addressed to a wide range of readers and, first of all, biology teachers, agronomists, students and schoolchildren.

Download and read Encyclopedia of Russian nature, Food plants, Gubanov I.A., 1996

The author of the book has been teaching the theory and practice of cultivation and use of medicinal plants at the Moscow Medical Academy for more than 15 years. The book provides comprehensive information about growing conditions, ecology, pharmacopoeial and other beneficial properties of plants, according to their chemical composition. For each plant, information is provided that is difficult to find in traditional reference books on medicinal plants. Recommendations are given for the preparation of decoctions, alcohol tinctures, ointments and bath additives. Many medicinal herbs are recommended for cultivation as culinary seasonings, insecticides or honey plants. The publication is addressed to the widest range of readers.

Download and read Medicinal plants, Encyclopedia of Russian Nature, Zamyatina N.G., 1998

The book includes all types of animals living in Russia. For each species, the most important identifying characteristics, information on biology, as well as maps of habitats within the country are provided. The reference book contains 64 color tables and 14 sheets of black and white drawings. The publication is addressed not only to professional biologists, but also to a wide range of readers, including students and schoolchildren.

Download and read Animals, Encyclopedia of Russian Nature, Dinets V.L., Rothschild E.V., 1996

The author of the book is Candidate of Biological Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of Entomology, Faculty of Biology, Moscow State University. M.V. Lomonosov. The book introduces the remarkable diversity of the insect world in Russia, providing the opportunity to identify the most noticeable, widespread and widespread species using color or black and white images. The book contains simplified tables for identifying orders and families and brief information on the biology, economic importance and geographic distribution of 955 species, which represent all 32 orders and about 30% of the insect families of the Russian fauna. The book is intended for a wide range of nature lovers - from young naturalists and local historians to biology students and zoology teachers, but may also be useful to an entomologist.

Download and read Insects, Encyclopedia of Russian Nature, Gornostaev G.N., 1998

The authors of the book are doctors of biological sciences, professors, employees of the Faculty of Biology of Moscow State University. M.V. Lomonosov. The introductory chapters provide detailed information about mushrooms common in Russia: their morphology, principles of classification and collecting, and economic significance. Keys for identification and detailed species descriptions of representatives of the classes of marsupial and basidiomycetes are given. The book contains 72 tables with color illustrations. The publication is addressed to a wide range of readers: from schoolchildren to mycologists.