New discoveries of antiquity. The most important achievements of antiquity. Antiquity and modern society
In all its diversity of historical forms.
General periodization of antiquity
In general, the general periodization of antiquity is as follows.
- Early antiquity (VIII century BC - II century BC) The birth of the Greek state.
- Classical antiquity (I century BC - II century AD), golden age, the time of the unity of the Greco-Roman civilization.
- Late Antiquity (III-V centuries AD). The collapse of the Roman Empire. The collapse of the Western Roman Empire marked the beginning of a new era - the Middle Ages.
Time periods may vary somewhat in the geopolitical context. Thus, the golden age of antiquity in Ancient Greece was marked earlier than in the Roman Empire. In addition, ancient civilization in the Eastern Roman Empire originated earlier and died out later than in the western part, where it was destroyed by the invading Germans. Nevertheless, the ancient cultural heritage (mostly in late antique form) is quite well preserved in the life, culture, language and traditions of most modern Romance peoples, and from them it was transferred to other peoples of the Mediterranean (South Slavs, Arabs, Turks, Berbers, Jews).
It should also be noted that many elements of classical antiquity (traditions, laws, customs, etc.) were well preserved in the Asia Minor core of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire until the 11th century, before the advent of the Seljuk Turks.
Periodization of Antiquity and Protoantiquity
Crete-Mycenaean period - prehistory of antiquity
Characteristics
- The Minoan civilization was a state ruled by a king.
- The Minoans traded with Ancient Egypt, exported copper from Cyprus. The architecture is characterized by rethought Egyptian borrowings (eg, the use of columns).
- The Minoan army was armed with slings and bows. The characteristic armament of the Minoans was also the double-sided ax labrys.
- Like other peoples of Old Europe, the bull cult was widespread among the Minoans (see taurocatapsia).
- The Minoans smelted bronze, produced ceramics and built palace complexes from the middle of the 20th century BC. e. (Knossos, Festus, Mallia).
- Like other pre-Indo-European religions in Europe, the Minos religion is not alien to remnants of matriarchy. In particular, the Goddess with snakes was revered (possibly an analogue of Astarte).
Cultural connections
The genetic affiliation of the Minoan (Eteocretan) language has not been established. Partial decipherment of the Cretan script made it possible to identify some morphological indicators. The Phaistos disc cannot be deciphered.
Sunset
The Minoan civilization suffered greatly as a result of a natural disaster in the 15th century. BC e. - a volcanic explosion on the island of Thira (Santorini), which generated a catastrophic tsunami. This volcanic eruption may have provided the basis for the Atlantis myth.
Previously, it was assumed that the volcanic eruption destroyed the Minoan civilization, however, archaeological excavations in Crete have shown that the Minoan civilization existed for at least about 100 years after the eruption (a layer of volcanic ash was found under the buildings of the Minoan culture).
After the eruption, the Achaeans seized power on the island. The Mycenaean culture (Crete and mainland Greece) arose, combining Minoan and Greek elements. In the XII century. The Mycenaean culture was destroyed by the Dorians, who eventually settled Crete as well. The Dorians' invasion led to a sharp cultural decline, and the Cretan script fell into disuse.
All settlements of the Middle Helladic period were located, as a rule, on elevated areas and were fortified, an example of such a settlement is the ancient settlement of Malti Dorion in Messenia. In the center of this settlement there was a palace, workshops of artisans adjoined it, the rest were houses of ordinary people and warehouses.
By the end of the Middle Helladic period, a cultural upsurge in the development of the civilization of mainland Greece began to be felt, the first state formations arose, a process of class formation took place, manifested in the allocation of a stratum of the nobility, there was a significant increase in the population associated with the success of agriculture. The number of both small settlements and large cities has grown. Period in Greek history between the 16th and 16th centuries. BC e. It is customary to call the Mycenaean era, after the name of the largest political and economic center of continental Greece - Mycenae, located in Argolis.
Questions about the ethnic origin of the carriers of the Mycenaean civilization for a long time remained one of the most difficult, only after the scientists deciphered the linear script, the opinion was established that they were Achaeans. Achaeans who moved to Crete and the islands of Asia Minor around the 16th century. BC e., apparently descended from the northern, Thessalian Achaeans.
The first city-states formed in the XVII-XVI centuries. BC e. - Mycenae, Tiryns, Pylos - had close cultural and trade ties with Crete, Mycenaean culture borrowed a lot from the Minoan civilization, the influence of which is felt in religious rites, secular life, artistic monuments; undoubtedly, the art of building ships was perceived from the Cretans. But the Mycenaean culture was characterized only by its own traditions, rooted in ancient times (according to A. Evans, the Mycenaean culture is only an offshoot of the Cretan and is devoid of any individuality), its own development path. A few words can be said about the development of Mycenaean trade and foreign relations with other states. Thus, a number of objects found in Egypt and previously considered to have been brought from Crete are now identified as products of Mycenaean artisans. There is a hypothesis according to which the Mycenaeans helped the pharaoh Ahmose (XVI century BC) in his fight against the Hyksos, and during the time of Akhenaten (century BC), Mycenaean ceramics were distributed in his new capital Akhetaten.
In the XV-XIII centuries. BC e. the Achaeans conquered Crete and the Cyclades, colonized many islands in the Aegean Sea, founded a number of settlements in the depths of Greece, on the site of which the famous ancient city-states later grew up - Corinth, Athens, Delphi, Thebes. This period is considered the heyday of the Mycenaean civilization.
The Achaeans maintain not only the old Cretan trade relations, but also lay new sea routes to the Caucasus, Sicily, and North Africa.
The main centers, as in Crete, were palaces, but their important difference from the Cretan ones is that they were fortified and were citadels. The monumental dimensions of the citadels are striking, the walls of which are built from untreated blocks, reaching in some cases a weight of up to 12 tons. Perhaps the most prominent citadel is Tiryns, whose entire defensive system was thought out with great care to prevent all unexpected disastrous situations.
Return of the Heraclides
The formation of an urban community in the form it is depicted in the Iliad and the Odyssey, with a heterogeneous population in a certain territory, with all the features of the state system, was facilitated by the movement of the Hellenic tribes, known as the return of the Heraclids or the resettlement of the Dorians in the Peloponnese. The mixture of tribes that took place at the same time and the unification of the conquerors and the conquered in a common political organization, the thirst for success and improvement in new places should have accelerated the transition from the tribal system to the territorial, state. The founding of colonies in Asia Minor and on the islands, which followed the movement of the Dorians, acted even more strongly in the same direction: new interests and new relations gave rise to new forms of social organization. The movement of the Hellenes, in which the main role belonged to the Dorians, dates back to the XII century (since 1104); it began with the invasion of the Epirusian people of the Thessalians through Pindus into that country, which in historical time was called Thessaly. The Aeolian natives were partly subjugated, partly fled south and gave their residence the name of Boeotia. The Dorians, who lived at the foot of Olympus, first moved to the area that was later called Dorida, and from there part of them, together with the Aetolians, crossed the Gulf of Corinth to the Peloponnese, until then occupied by the Achaeans and in the northern part by the Ionians. Only after a long struggle with the natives did the Dorians gradually establish themselves in Messenia, Laconia, Argolis, where they penetrated from the Gulf of Argos, and in Corinth. The Achaeans were forced either to submit to the newcomers in the position of incomplete inhabitants, or, having lost their tribal characteristics, to merge with the winners together, or, finally, to withdraw from their homes. Since that time, the name Achaia was given to the northern strip of the peninsula, from where the Ionians ran to their fellow tribesmen in Attica: the Achaeans escaping from the Dorians occupied the coastal region. Another part of the Achaeans left the Peloponnese and settled on the island of Lesbos. From the Isthmus of Corinth, the Dorians penetrated into central Greece and here took possession of Megaris. In the Peloponnese, the inhabitants of Arcadia stayed on their lands, in political independence from the Dorians, and Elida went to the allies of the Dorians, the Aetolians. The immediate consequences of the same conquest of the Peloponnese were the eviction of the Ionians from Attica and other regions to the islands and the Asia Minor coast, where the Ionian 12-grade arose (Miletus, Ephesus, Phocaea, Colophon, etc.), and the foundation by the Dorians, who came out mainly from Argolis, of six cities (Hexapolis) on the Carian coast and on the islands adjacent to it. With the return of the Heraclids and the foundation of the most ancient colonies, which, in turn, served as the metropolises of new settlements, the Hellenic people finally settled in Greece for permanent residence. This event constitutes the boundary beyond which lies the realm of legends and myths, and on the other side begins the historical existence of Greece as the country of the Hellenes.
Poetic sources
The state of Hellenic societies, closest to historical time, is depicted with remarkable brightness and completeness in the so-called Homeric poems, the Iliad and the Odyssey, by the beginning of the 8th century BC. existed in its current form. The state of society depicted in them contains all the elements of the further development of Greece and constitutes, as it were, the starting point in the formation of various forms of government. The creation of the Iliad and the Odyssey dates back to the 10th-9th centuries. The events sung in the poems are separated from the time of the composition of the poems by the movement of tribes and peoples in mainland Greece, which resulted in the foundation of Asia Minor and island colonies. It is not possible to distribute the historical material contained in the poems by epochs and periods; the main part of it belongs to the times of the author himself. The individual type of the Hellenic, with its most permanent virtues and weaknesses, beliefs and inclinations, was already established in the society of the time of Homer. There are still no positive laws in this society, therefore deviations from the norm of relations in one direction or another are more often and less sensitive here; however, primordial customs and attitudes, protected by the gods themselves, as well as public opinion, have great power. Fragments of the tribal system still live in society, especially in family and private legal relations, but the urban community has already taken shape, its management is distributed among the individual leader, the council of elders and the people. The economic dependence of some leaders on the people, the power of the public word, the presence of orators, examples of criticism directed against the leaders, etc., testify that already at that time the people in urban communities were not a disenfranchised mass or an unrequited instrument of other authorities. If obedience to the leader is required of the people, then care for the people, justice in solving cases, courage in war, wisdom of advice and eloquence in peacetime are obligatory for the leader. The personal dignity of the leader is one of the necessary conditions for honor on the part of the people and the very obedience to its requirements. The further success of the public consisted in the fact that the mutual relations of the authorities acquired greater certainty: the concept of the common good in the state gained precedence over all other interests, personal merits and services to society were the main right to influence and significance in the state.
Homeric society is far from homogeneous in its composition: simple and noble people are distinguished in it, in addition to the free there are slaves, among the free there are differences in status and occupation, mutual relations between masters and slaves bear the stamp of patriarchal simplicity and closeness, more equality is seen in the relationship between men and women than it was in later historical times. The poems of Hesiod fill in the testimony of Homeric songs about the Hellenic society in that distant time.
Polis period
(XI-IV centuries BC) Ethnic consolidation of the Greek world. Formation, flourishing and crisis of polis structures with democratic and oligarchic forms of statehood. Highest cultural and scientific achievements of ancient Greek civilization.
Homeric (prepolis) period, "dark ages" (XI-IX centuries BC)
The final destruction of the remains of the Mycenaean (Achaean) civilization, the revival and dominance of tribal relations, their transformation into early class relations, the formation of unique prepolis social structures.
Archaic Greece (VIII-VI centuries BC)
First period of antiquity. It begins in parallel with the sunset of the Bronze Age. The beginning of the period of antiquity is considered to be the date of the establishment of the ancient Olympic Games in 776 BC. e.
Formation of polis structures. Great Greek colonization. Early Greek tyrannies. Ethnic consolidation of the Hellenic society. The introduction of iron in all spheres of production, economic recovery. Creation of the foundations of commodity production, distribution of elements of private property.
Classical Greece (V-IV centuries BC)
Athens. View of the Acropolis.
5th-4th centuries BC e. - the period of the highest heyday of the polis device. As a result of the victory of the Greeks in the Greco-Persian Wars (500-449 BC), Athens rises, the Delian League is created (led by Athens). The time of the highest power of Athens, the greatest democratization of political life and the flowering of culture falls on the reign of Pericles (443-429 BC). The struggle between Athens and Sparta for hegemony in Greece and the contradictions between Athens and Corinth related to the struggle for trade routes led to the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC), which ended in the defeat of Athens.
Characterized. The flourishing of the economy and culture of the Greek city-states. Reflection of the aggression of the Persian world power, the rise of national consciousness. The growing conflict between trade and craft types of policies with democratic forms of government and backward agrarian policies with an aristocratic system, the Peloponnesian War, which undermined the economic and political potential of Hellas. The beginning of the crisis of the polis system and the loss of independence as a result of the Macedonian aggression.
Hellenistic period
Heritage of antiquity
Antiquity and modern society
Antiquity has left a huge mark on modernity.
With the advent of the first states and the emergence of various economic forms of the state in economic life, society faced many problems. Their importance and relevance remains to this day. Over time, the influence of the ancient heritage grew stronger and stronger. Latin continued to be the language of scientists throughout the European world, and acquaintance with the Greek language and Greek thinkers deepened. In the 19th century, the theory of the "Greek miracle" was formed - the absolute perfection of the art of classical Greece, in comparison with which the art of Hellenism and Rome was a decline and epigonism. The development of printing stimulated the study of Greek and Latin authors and acquaintance with them. The Pythagorean theorem, the geometry of Euclid, the law of Archimedes became the basis of teaching at school. The works of ancient geographers, who proceeded from the sphericity of the Earth and calculated its volume, played a significant role in the great geographical discoveries. The philosophical systems of ancient thinkers inspired the philosophers of modern times.
In the 18th century, on the eve of the French Revolution, materialist philosophers turn to Lucretius. His teaching about the emergence of the world from atoms, about the evolution of nature and human society without divine providence, about a natural contract that unites people for a common good, about a law that not God, but people establish for the same benefit and cancel it when it ceases to satisfy this benefit, was in tune with the advanced theories of that time. And the ideas of democracy, equality, freedom, justice were just as consonant, although, having become the revolutionary slogans of the 18th century, they were understood much more broadly than in antiquity.
European theater and literature constantly turned to antiquity, and their connections with it became more and more diverse. Ancient plots were processed: "Antony and Cleopatra" and "Julius Caesar" by Shakespeare, "Andromache", "Phaedra", "Britanic" by Racine, "Medea", "Horace", "Pompey" by Corneille. Whole plays were played. For example, Shakespeare's "Comedy of Errors" repeated Plavt's "Menekhmov", and Moliere's "The Miser" - Plavt's "Cabin". The servants of Molière's comedies, Lope de Vega, Goldoni are like the dexterous, intelligent slaves of Plautus, who helped the masters arrange their love affairs. Ancient novels were translated and new ones were written in imitation of them. Many ancient images and plots - gods, goddesses, heroes, battles and festivities - served as themes for artists and sculptors, who interpreted them in accordance with the tastes of their time. Thus, an active participant in the Great French Revolution - the artist David - in contrast to the artists who catered to the tastes of the pampered nobility, painted ancient heroes full of patriotic and civic feelings: "The Oath of the Horatii", "Death of Socrates", "Leonidas at Thermopylae".
Roman law formed the basis of the law of other Western states.
In modern and recent times, the ancient world has retained its significance in various areas of spiritual and mental activity. Historians, sociologists, culturologists turn to him. The ancient world, as a kind of closed cycle, known from the beginning to the end, constantly serves as a standard for culturologists.
Adaptation of ancient culture in Russia
In ancient Rus', the first source of ancient influence was Orthodox literature, which came to Rus' along with Christianity from Byzantium and the southern Slavic lands. Ancient mythology lost its cultural content in Ancient Rus' and turned into a purely religious, pagan concept, the opposite of Christianity. Taken out of context, quotes from ancient philosophers appeared to be a confirmation of Christian ideas, ancient deities were mentioned as demons in denunciations of paganism, or were considered as historical figures. Ancient history itself was of interest to scribes in the context of sacred history and was perceived through the prism of church tradition. Some philosophical concepts of ancient authors, such as Plato, seemed to Orthodox writers to be Christian in their essence and therefore worthy of preservation. They ended up in the Old Russian literature (with indications of authorship or anonymously). . Information about the ancient past was also contained in historical writings: in the XI-XII centuries. translated "History of the Jewish War" by Josephus Flavius. She was known and used in their works by Joseph Volotsky, Ivan the Terrible, Archpriest Avvakum. Already in the XI century. Byzantine chronicles reflecting the history of the ancient world were known in Rus'. Later, novels about Alexander the Great and works about the Trojan War became available to the Russian reader. In the 17th century, the situation began to change, and starting from the reign of Peter I, the state purposefully disseminated knowledge about ancient culture. Antiquity has become an organic part of Russian culture. Without getting to know her, it is impossible to understand the numerous Greek and Roman reminiscences of the classics of Russian literature. in Russia in the 18th century. they translated ancient authors, and already Derzhavin wrote his "Monument" in imitation of Horace's "Monument". A. S. Pushkin knew Roman literature very well. His translations are unparalleled in their adequacy to the original. D. S. Merezhkovsky (“Julian the Apostate”), L. Andreev (the plays “The Rape of the Sabine Women” and “The Horse in the Senate”) turned to ancient subjects.
Central and Southern Italy
In Italy, a number of outstanding archaeological discoveries have been made in recent years. Let's dwell on the main ones.
IN Rome small, but interesting in terms of stratigraphic results, excavations are being carried out in the area of the Roman Forum. On the Palatine, in the area of the House of Libya, remains of buildings of the Republican period and an early Iron Age necropolis were found. Extensive work is being done on the restoration of ancient buildings; the restoration of the Circus Maximus has been completed, the walls of the Colosseum, the temple of Antoninus and Faustina, the arch of Constantine, etc. are being strengthened.
Near Via Latina, at some distance from Rome, a catacomb of an unusual type was discovered at a depth of 21 m from the ground level, it was built according to the correct plan: the main axes of the central room are about 50 m and 27 m long, rectangular and polygonal chambers depart from it. The walls of the cells are clattered and painted. Among the paintings on Christian themes, there are some pagan images (the exploits of Hercules, the history of Alkesta, etc.). This catacomb, dating from the second half of the 4th c. n. probably belonged to a wealthy family.
Important discoveries were made during the excavations of Hadrian's Villa in Tibur (Tivoli), resumed by Italian archaeologists in 1951. Work was carried out in the Kanop area in order to restore its original appearance. On the western side of the canal, four caryatids were found in 1952 (Fig. 1), which are excellent copies of the 2nd century BC. n. e. Erechtheion caryatids. Near them were found two large figures of Sileni with baskets on their heads. The discoveries of 1954 are even more interesting. At the northern end of Canopus, at the entrance to the canal, a semicircular structure with niches was found, in which statues of the river gods of the Nile and Tiber, depicted in traditional poses, reclining, with a cornucopia in their hands (the Nile leans on the statue of the sphinx, and the Tiber - on the figure of a she-wolf with Romulus and Remus), statues of Hermes, Ares and two am Azonok such as Polykleitos and Phidias. All the sculptures, except for the Nile and the Tiber, are excellent and fairly well-preserved copies of Hadrian's time from Greek classical originals. A large number of smaller sculptures, including good Roman portrait heads, have also been excavated in the area.
Excavations continue at Pompeii. After the war, an interesting site was discovered here: a Samnite city with a part of the defensive wall and a tower. Currently, excavations are being carried out in the southeastern sector of the city and in the vast necropolis adjacent to it, located outside the city walls.
Of great interest are the excavations that have unfolded since 1952 in Paestum, which are being conducted by Italian archaeologists under the leadership of P. Sestieri. The works are concentrated around three famous temples - "Basilica", "Temple of Poseidon" and "Temple of Ceres". A section of a Greek city has been excavated and the history of the sanctuary has been revealed. Initially, all three temples, located in the center of the city on its most elevated part, were within one large sacred area, surrounded by a wall. In addition to these temples, the foundations of several more temples, numerous altars, statue bases and other structures of the 6th-3rd centuries were found in this area. BC e. Numerous
votive offerings, including terracotta figurines depicting Hera, the goddess of fertility and women with flowers and fruits, as well as inscriptions on shards and a dedicatory inscription to Hera on a silver disk, made it possible to establish that two temples (conventionally called from the 18th century "Basilica" and "Temple of Poseidon") were actually dedicated to Hera.
Similarly, votive offerings show that the so-called "Temple of Ceres" was actually dedicated to Athena. A large altar of this temple was discovered. A votive Dorian column has been restored near it. Of the votive terracottas found in the area, a magnificent archaic polychrome statue of Zeus seated on a throne should be noted.
In Roman times, the area of the sanctuary was used for civil constructions, with the exception of the sacred sites of the temples.3 An urban area with a forum, a gymnasium, an amphitheater and houses appears here.
The most outstanding discovery was made in Paestum in 1954. At 130 m south of the temple of Athena, a rectangular fence of large limestone blocks measuring 15 X 18 m was opened. Inside it was a perfectly preserved small building (3.05 X 2.49 g), deepened into the rock so that only one eastern side of it was visible to its full height (2.25 m). The building is built of large limestone slabs; the gable roof is covered with well-preserved tiles. This building has no openings. On the eastern side, in the center, traces of a blocked entrance are visible. The roof of the building is 0.1 m below the level of the ancient surface - therefore, the building was deliberately covered with earth. To get inside the building, archaeologists had to dismantle part of the roof. Inside the walls were plastered with white knock, the floor was paved with limestone slabs. The roof was supported by wooden beams supported by two vertical pillars, of which nests have been preserved. In the center there was a stone elevation, on which the metal parts of the bed with fragments of woolen material adhering to them were preserved. Along the long walls stood two bronze amphorae and six bronze oinoha with relief and sculptural decorations in the form of figurines of lions, rams, horse heads, and various ornaments (Fig. 2). These vases were filled with honey. In addition to these vases, in the corner was a black-figure Attic amphora of the Andokis circle depicting the apotheosis of Hercules and Dionysus with satyrs and maenads.
Both black-figure and bronze vases date from 540-530 BC. BC e., as well as fragments found inside the fence and apparently belonged to vases that were thrown here in the form of sacrifices. On some of these fragments there are remnants of dedicatory inscriptions to Hera, on the basis of which P. Sestieri came to the conclusion that this monument is a peculiar, unique sanctuary of Hera, the goddess of the underworld, entering into a sacred marriage with Zeus-Hades. However, serious objections can be put forward against such a conclusion, and above all, the absence of a cult statue of the deity and the complete isolation of the sanctuary. It seems to us more plausible the assumption expressed by Picard that this building is a cenotaph - a heroon dedicated to some hero. This assumption is also supported by the purely funerary nature of the offerings found inside the underground structure (for example, honey).
North of Paestum, in the areas of Andrinolo and Laghetto, more than 400 burials of the Greek, Lucanian and Roman periods were discovered (burials in chambers or shafts, sometimes covered with tiles). The oldest of them, Greek, provide ceramic material of the 6th-5th centuries. BC e. Some Greek chamber tombs in the 4th c. BC e. were reused by the Lucans, who decorated the walls with paintings. This painting to a certain extent fills the gap that existed between Etruscan and Roman painting. In 1954-1955. several tombs with paintings were discovered. Short walls were usually decorated with images from the life of the dead - the return of a warrior, hunting, spinning women; on the long walls were placed scenes of burial and mourning of the dead, images of funeral games - chariot competitions, fist fights, dances of girls (Fig. 3). These paintings are distinguished by great liveliness of execution; the earlier ones are especially good, in which one feels a strong Greek influence. Several beautiful red-figure Gestum vases have been found in the Lucanian tombs (for example, a hydria depicting, apparently, the myth of Electra).
A necropolis similar to the northern one was also found south of Paestum, in the Tetra del Prete area. Greek burials of the 5th c. BC e., also reused by the Lucans in the 4th century. BC e. A large number of children's burials have been found here, similar to those of adults in terms of the shape of the grave, but differing in smaller sizes. Noteworthy are numerous children's toys made of terracotta (rattles, dolls with hanging arms and legs, animals). In 1955, a Lukan burial of a warrior in full dress was discovered in this area. The armament consists of a helmet, open at the top and decorated on the sides with an openwork ornament, a shell in the form of three convex discs connected by a triangle (similar shells of the Samnite type are depicted on the paintings of this time), a belt decorated with an engraved image of a winged griffin, a spear and a dagger. This burial is dated to the beginning of the second half of the 4th c. BC e.
6 km east of Paestum, in the region of Capodithium, a small necropolis of the 7th century BC was discovered. BC e. with clay ossuaries in the form of huts, and vessels with geometric painting.
South of Paestum, interesting excavations are underway in Velia, where a large section of the defensive wall has been discovered in the western part of the city. The walls, preserved to a considerable height (in their lower part, they belong to the 5th century BC), are made of large blocks of sandstone; on some of them there are signs and letters AE (indication of a single city standard). During the Hellenistic period, the walls were built on. In 1954, the clearing of the gate was completed, flanked by large square towers, also built of sandstone blocks.
In addition to a section of the city wall, an agora is being excavated in Velia, where several streets, fountains, wells and a large water supply system made of well-chosen stone blocks with a gable ceiling have been discovered (Fig. 4). A number of bronze statuettes from the time of Marcus Aurelius were found in this drain, depicting warriors, horsemen, and other figurines.
Traces of a Roman villa have been discovered near the city walls.
Less significant archaeological work is underway in other areas of southern Italy. B. Fratte di Salerno studies the acropolis of an Etruscan-Campanian settlement; discovered two streets and a large reservoir with a complex system of channels; This city ceased to exist in the III century. BC e.
In Kraton, the opening of the sanctuary of Hera Lacinia has begun; its plan was specified, the monumental entrance was cleared.
Two temples and an altar belonging to the Ionian temple were studied at Locri Epizephyra.
In the river valley Trionto, the fortifications of Castiglione di Paludi with the main gate are being studied; a fortified settlement was discovered near this place.
Northern Italy
A number of long-term excavations continue in Etruria, conducted both by Italian archaeologists and by representatives of the French and American archaeological schools in Rome.
IN veyah(Italian excavations) studied the roads of the Etruscan time, carefully built, equipped with bridges. In Pietra Pertusa, a tunnel was explored, about 180 m long, cut into the rock, which was later used by the Romans in the construction of the Via Flaminia. In Etruscan times, Veii was connected to Rome by the Via Veientana, repaved in Roman times. In the area north of Veii, an agricultural area was explored; a network of underground drainage channels carved into the rocks was discovered.
4 km south of the city of Bolsena (ancient Volcinia), in La Civita, French archaeologists are exploring an Etruscan settlement of the archaic period. A temple with a portico built of tuff blocks, a small altar with an Etruscan inscription and several rectangular houses also built of tuff were opened. They found a large number of fragments of ceramics of the 7th-6th centuries. BC e.
On a hill adjacent to La Civita, a necropolis from the period of the late culture of Villanova (about 700 BC) was discovered; most burials are shallow pits lined with pebbles and small stones and filled with earth after burial. They found a lot of iron knives, brooches, bronze bowls and ceramics with geometric patterns.
In Kose, where American archaeologists are excavating, a city of the 3rd-2nd centuries is being studied. BC e. A number of public buildings were found on the forum, including the buildings of the curia and comitia, originally wooden, and then stone. In the II century. n. e. in the lower floor of the curia, a sanctuary of Mithra was arranged. Next to this building, temple B, dating back to the 2nd century BC, was examined. BC e., and temple C, dated to the III century. BC e. A large drain and several small rectangular wells carved into the rock were also found at the forum (their purpose has not yet been clarified).
Sicily
Active archaeological work is underway in Sicily. Monuments are studied, starting from the pre-Greek period and ending with the late Roman.
Excavations in 1956 in Leontiny (Eastern Sicily) discovered a small settlement of Siculi - seven rectangular huts ranging in size from 3.5 X 4.10 m to 10 X 5.1 m. Holes for pillars were preserved along the walls of the dwellings; in some huts there are similar openings in the center, near the hearth: there were pillars that supported the roof. In one hut, the same pillars supported a canopy over the entrance. It is interesting that the design of these huts has the closest analogies in the construction of dwellings recently discovered on the Palatine, in Rome.
In the layer directly lying on the remains of the Siculi settlement, the foundations of an archaic temple, measuring 32 x 10.60 m, and Greek houses of the 6th century BC were found. BC e. The walls of the Greek city with gates and the necropolis of the 6th-5th centuries were discovered. BC e.
Siculian burials were also discovered in other centers of Sicily: in Butero (near Gela) (with interesting dishes from the 8th-7th centuries BC); near Piazza Armeria, in the center of the island (dating from Corinthian and Attic black-figure vases found with local ceramics of the 6th century BC); in the area of Ragusa (two Siculus necropolises with burials in sarcophagi and rock-cut tombs).
Excavations continue in some Greek colonies in Sicily. Layers from the Neolithic to the 4th century BC have been traced in Naxos. BC e. The defensive walls of the Greek city, the street, the remains of houses were found; in the vicinity of the ancient city, a building of the 5th century was opened. BC e. (maybe a temple).
The French Archaeological School in Rome has been excavating Megara of Hybele for several years now. The walls of the Hellenistic period, possibly the time of the 2nd Punic War, have been discovered. Gates flanked by square towers, each of which is divided into four rooms, have been cleared in the southwestern corner of the settlement. The walls in some places have been preserved to a height of up to 3 m. On the northern side, the line of the Hellenistic walls coincides with the direction of the archaic rampart. A number of architectural fragments have also survived from the archaic city, including two Dorian capitals and parts of a frieze with triglyphs, probably belonging to a large temple of the late 7th century BC. BC e.
The remains of an archaic city were also found in another center of Southern Sicily - in Gela. Foundations and a Dorian column of an archaic temple were found, as well as a complex of votive terracotta and pottery. In the central part of the city, the remains of a treasury with antefixes in the form of female heads were found. A number of finds belong to a later time: the city existed until the Middle Ages.
A small late archaic church from the beginning of the 5th c. BC e. excavated at Selinunte; it consisted of cella and pronaos, was decorated with a Dorian frieze with metopes; in front of the temple on a paved area there was an altar 22 m long. This temple existed from the archaic era to late Roman times.
The most significant discovery of recent years in Italy is the excavation of a late imperial villa in Piazza Armerina, which has been carried out since 1950.
The villa is very well preserved, especially the central part with the colonnade of the peristyle courtyard. The most valuable thing that these excavations have yielded are the luxurious mosaics that cover large floor areas in almost all rooms. Along with subtle ornamental motifs (for example, in the peristyle courtyard), there are numerous paintings with the most diverse content: mythological (mainly images of sea deities - Nereids, Tritons, Arion, who is being carried by dolphins along the waves); scenes from Homer (for example, Odysseus and Polyphemus); images of artists and singers; miniature images of child drivers, etc. The most interesting is the grandiose hunting scene, which consists of a number of episodes: driving animals in a net, catching a wild boar, hunters resting under trees, hunting lions, transporting wild animals, loading them onto a ship, etc. (Fig. 5). All these images occupy a large corridor measuring 60 X 5 m. Individual episodes are especially good and expressive, for example, a hunter on horseback, preparing to spear a hare hiding under a bush (Fig. 6). No less interesting are the mosaics with athletic scenes: chariot races, torchlight running, half-naked girls doing gymnastics. All these mosaics are distinguished by their extraordinary liveliness and perfection of execution. bright rich colors. The hunting scene is more perfect in style than the athletic scenes. It obviously belongs to a somewhat earlier time.
The villa itself dates from the end of the 3rd - beginning of the 4th century. n. e. It served as the residence of Emperor Maximian after his abdication, while the palace in Split was the seat of Diocletian. One of the mosaics depicts the owner of the villa, Emperor Maximian, with his family. Most of the mosaics, including the hunting scene, should be dated to the end of the 3rd century BC. n. e., and some, such as, for example, "Girl Athletes" - by the beginning of the 4th century AD. e.
Restoration of the mosaics made it possible to establish that in some places (in particular, under the mosaic depicting "Favsta"), under the upper layer of the mosaic, there are earlier mosaic images that are poorly preserved. Obviously, there have been repairs and alterations.
The mosaics of the Villa Piazza Armerina occupy a place of honor among the art monuments of the late Roman Empire.
France
In the town of Vix (Cote d'Or, Burgundy), where excavations of the Celtic settlement were carried out, in 1953 a rich burial of the late Hallstatt period was discovered. The burial is a square pit 3 m deep, which had a wooden ceiling. The grave mound has not been preserved at all. The grave goods were very rich; the burial rite is also interesting. A wooden funeral chariot was found in the burial, the wheels of which were removed and laid along the walls of the grave. The wheels had 10 spokes and were upholstered in bronze. The body of the chariot, decorated with bronze openwork plates, was probably covered with a leather cape. The skeleton was oriented with its head to the north. On the arms and legs there were bracelets made of bronze, colored stones and amber, on the body - a belt made of a bronze plate entwined with leather, three brooches with amber, on the chest - amber beads, on the head - a magnificent golden diadem over 500 g in weight. Diadem of Greek work; it is an open ring with hollow balls at the ends, obviously, images of poppy heads; next to them are small figures of galloping pegasi, which, like poppy heads, are funerary symbols.
The most interesting find is a huge bronze crater. A silver phial, three bronze bowls, an oinochoe and an Attic black-figure kylix were found together with it. Crater height 1.64 m, width 1.50 m, weight. 209 kg (Fig. 7). On the lid of the crater there is a female draped figurine of an archaic type: the body of the crater is smooth, the throat is decorated with relief images of repeating groups of warriors and chariots. The origin of this magnificent monument has caused much controversy, mainly in view of the fact that a series of letters are carved on its throat, apparently serving to indicate the place
relief attachments. Some scholars have been inclined to see in these letters patterns of the Etruscan alphabet. However, the whole style of execution of the krater testifies to its Greek origin. Perhaps it was made in Magna Graecia and came to Gaul through Etruria. The burial is dated by a black-figure kylix and brooches to the last quarter of the 6th century BC. BC e., with which the style of the crater is quite consistent.
Another rich burial of the early Celtic period was discovered in 1954 near the village. Reinheim in the Saar. The burial was made in a square chamber covered with wood. The deceased woman was adorned with luxurious items made of gold and other expensive materials. A gold twisted torc was found, ending at the ends with knobs with sculpted masks underneath (Fig. 8), and a bracelet decorated in the same way. In addition, they found: a second gold bracelet, gold rings and a pendant, bracelets made of glass and black slate, two bronze brooches in the form of a rooster and a fantastic animal, a necklace of amber, metal and glass beads, two bronze pendants in the form of human figures and other small items. Also of great interest are the bronze bowls and jugs that complement the grave goods. On the lid of the jug there is a figurine of a monster with the body of a horse and a human head; the handle of the jug is decorated with a sculptured head of a bearded man. All these things, in contrast to the monuments originating from the burial in Viks, were undoubtedly made by local craftsmen and are magnificent examples of Celtic toreutics. It is characteristic that not a single Greek
imported things; it is of a later time than the burial in Viks, and dates back to the 5th century. BC e.
England
The most interesting archaeological find in England in recent years, relating to the ancient period, was the discovery of Mithraeum of the 2nd century BC. n. e. in London, at Walbrook.
The architectural remains allow us to give an approximate reconstruction of this sanctuary. A large number of various votive offerings, pottery and other ritual items have been found. The heads of Mitra (from the cult statue of the temple) and Zeus-Serapis were found. Of interest is a silver pixida with relief decorations in the form of vulture figures, which apparently had a ritual purpose.
In the same area, layers of an earlier period (1st century AD) were discovered, in which a large number of various metal, mainly iron, tools were found, which were well preserved; interesting are various hooks, obviously, which were the tools of loaders; Many coins have been found, mainly from the 1st and early 2nd centuries. n. e. Some instruments are not finished; this indicates that they were produced locally. The finds give an idea of the life of the settlement that arose on the site of London after the conquest of Britain by the Romans.
Portugal
Unfortunately, we do not have information about archaeological activities in recent years on the Iberian Peninsula. Only about one outstanding discovery is there enough detailed information. Back in 1947 in Portugal, in Togre de Palma, the remains of a large villa of the 3rd century BC were discovered. n. e.. Findings testify to the existence of developed agriculture here; millstones were found, large cisterns, probably for olive oil, etc. But the most interesting was the discovery of beautiful multicolored mosaics. Among them, it should be noted a group of nine muses, remarkable in terms of subtlety of execution, a number of mythological plots - “The Triumph of Bacchus”, “Theseus and the Minotaur”, etc.; curious are the images of horses, which are distinguished by great liveliness and expressiveness of execution, next to each horse its name is written (Fig. 9). Around the villa, excavations have unearthed a whole village dating from the 3rd century BC. n. e.
↩ ↩ ↩Van Buren. News Letter…, AJA, 1955, vol. 59, no. 4, p. 311.
It is hard to imagine what modern Western civilization would have been like if it had not originated in the majestic world of antiquity. The word "antique" in Latin means "ancient", but it refers only to two cultures of the distant past - ancient Greek and ancient Roman. In their unity and interaction, these cultures largely determined the spirit and face of Europe.
The history of the ancient world covers thirteen centuries - from the VIII century. BC e. according to the 5th century n. e. During this time, one of the most highly developed civilizations of antiquity was created on its territory, glorifying itself with many great discoveries in the field of state building, jurisprudence, military affairs, science, art, and literature. The names of the great creators of ancient culture - philosophers, mathematicians, historians, artists, poets - are imprinted in golden letters in the memory of mankind. For many centuries, the works of ancient scientists were revered as the most authoritative sources of knowledge, and the monuments of ancient architecture, sculpture and literature served as the highest role models.
Unsurpassed masterpieces of world plastic art are considered, in particular, the ancient sculptural works "Nika of Samothrace", with amazing expression conveying the swift flight of the goddess of victory, "Venus de Milo", personifying the perfect harmony of physical and spiritual female beauty, as well as the Pergamon Altar of Zeus, which is a grandiose monumental structure depicting the fierce struggle of the Olympian gods and the titans. The best works of ancient literature - Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, Virgil's Aeneid, Ovid's Metamorphoses, the tragedies of Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides, the love lyrics of Sappho and Anacreon - entered the golden fund of world literary classics, and the heroes of the great ancient Greek tragedies gained immortality on the world stage.
Among the remarkable achievements of Hellas is the Museyon, the largest scientific and cultural center in the ancient world, created in Alexandria during the reign of Ptolemy. Its name, which gave life to the modern word "museum", in translation means "temple of the muses" (the muses in ancient Greece were considered the patroness of sciences and arts). Indeed, the Alexandrian Museion was built as a "temple" for intellectuals - with spacious lecture halls, a refectory, courtyards for walking and a luxurious library that contained a vast collection of ancient, often rare or even unique manuscripts. Ptolemy invited the best scholars to work in the Mouseion, among whom were specialists who selected, processed, commented on and interpreted texts. They became the forerunners of modern philologists.
It is noteworthy that it was the ancient Greeks who invented the word "philology" (from the Greek phileo - I love and logos - thought, word), which eventually became the general name of the "sciences of the word" - literary criticism and linguistics. True, the Greeks themselves, by philology, meant love for all kinds of scientific pursuits, including those that had nothing to do with literature. But there were actually philological (corresponding to modern understanding) studies in ancient Greece. The author of one of the literary treatises, called "Poetics", was the outstanding scientist of antiquity Aristotle. In this work, which, unfortunately, has been preserved only partially, an attempt was made for the first time to comprehend the laws of literary creativity and develop literary terminology. An important discovery of "Poetics" was the doctrine of the division of literary genres and genres, on which modern science relies to a large extent.
Europeans inherited from the ancient Greeks and Romans scientific and art terminology, the main types and genres of literature, architectural styles, the basics of theatrical art, the principles of depicting a person in painting and sculpture. But the main thing is that the European tradition has absorbed the ideal of man developed by antiquity, based on a harmonious combination of the development of his physical and spiritual forces, the balance between his inner freedom and the laws of life around him, between his individual will and public duty. On the basis of ancient ideas that "man is the measure of all things", humanism was formed, which became the key concept of European culture.
The first oral speech with semantic and phonetic structures appeared about ten thousand years ago.
Legislation
In the XVIII century BC. e. Hammurabi, the sixth Babylonian king, wrote his famous code, or collection of laws, according to which it was necessary to live in society. Other examples of ancient legislative texts are the Book of the Dead, the Ten Commandments, and the Book of Leviticus.
Steel alloys are rightfully considered the strongest. Steel was first used in Asia about four thousand years ago. The Greeks began to use these alloys in the 7th century BC. e., 250 years before China and Rome.
The first alphabet containing both vowels and consonants appeared among the Phoenicians in 1050 BC. e.
hydropower
The energy of flowing or falling water began to be used in the Mesopotamia region in the 2nd century BC. e.
Manual dialing with movable type
Although the invention of the printing press is due to Gutenberg (1436), the technology on which it is based comes from China. Movable type was invented by Bi Shen in 1040.
Pinhole camera
The forerunner of modern cameras and video cameras was the camera obscura (translated as dark room), which was an optical device used by artists to create quick sketches while traveling outside their studios. A hole in one of the walls of the device served to create an inverted image of what was happening outside the chamber. The picture was displayed on the screen (on the opposite wall of the dark box from the hole). These principles have been known for centuries, but in 1568 the Venetian Daniel Barbaro modified the camera obscura with converging lenses.
Electricity
In 1600, the Englishman William Gilbert first used the term "electricity". In 1752, Benjamin Franklin proved that lightning is electricity. The fateful discovery of electricity is credited to the English scientist Michael Faraday. Among his key discoveries, it is worth noting the principles of electromagnetic induction, diamagnetism and electrolysis. Faraday's experiments also led to the creation of the first generator, which became the forerunner of the huge generators that today produce the electricity we are used to in everyday life.
Electromagnet
William Sturgeon invented the first electromagnet in 1825. His invention consisted of an ordinary iron horseshoe around which a copper wire was wound.
Telegraph
Since 1753, many researchers have been conducting their experiments to establish communication at a distance using electricity, but a significant breakthrough did not come until a few decades later, when in 1835 Joseph Henry and Edward Davy (Joseph Henry, Edward Davy) invented the electrical relay. With this device, they created the first telegraph 2 years later.
Theory of evolution and natural selection
Inspired by his observations during his second exploratory journey in 1831-1836, Charles Darwin began to write his famous theory of evolution and natural selection, which, according to scientists from all over the world, has become a key description of the mechanism of development of all life on Earth.
Semiconductors
The first semiconductors were discovered in 1896. Silicon is the main semiconductor today. It was first used commercially by Jagadish Chandra Bose.
The quantum physics
The real beginning of quantum physics is considered to be 1900 and Planck's hypothesis. On its basis, Einstein built his theory about the particles of light, which were later dubbed photons.
steam engine
Everyone knows that modern civilization was forged in factories built during the Industrial Revolution, and that it was all done using steam engines. The steam-powered engine was invented a long time ago, but over the past century it has been significantly improved by three British inventors: Thomas Savery, Thomas Newcomen, and the most famous of them, James Watt (Thomas Savery, Thomas Newcomen, James Watt).
Nuclear magnetic resonance
Today, nuclear magnetic resonance is constantly used as an extremely accurate and efficient diagnostic tool in the field of medicine. This phenomenon was first described and calculated by the American physicist Isidor Rabi in 1938 while observing molecular beams. In 1944, the American scientist was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for this discovery.
Transistor
Switching and amplification of the electronic signal is carried out using a transistor - an invention that was created by Bill Shankly in 1947, and which first thought about the possibility of creating a global telecommunications network.
Polio vaccine
On March 26, 1953, American medical researcher Jonas Salk announced that he had successfully tested a vaccine against polio, a virus that causes severe chronic illness. In 1952, an epidemic of this disease diagnosed 58,000 people in the United States, and the disease claimed 3,000 innocent lives. This spurred Salk to seek salvation, and now the civilized world is safe at least from this disaster.
Integrated circuit
In 1959, through the efforts of several developers, inventors and corporations, the first integrated circuit was created - an arbitrary set of electronic components combined into one crystal or on one circuit. It was this invention that made it possible to create microchips and microprocessors.
Microprocessor
In 1971, the developer of the Intel company created an innovative integrated circuit, the size of which was ten times smaller. It was she who became the first microprocessor.
The material that keeps your frying pan from burning was actually invented completely by accident by American chemist Roy Plunkett when he was looking for a replacement for refrigerants to make your home safer. During one of his experiments, the scientist discovered a strange slippery resin, which later became better known as Teflon.
Stem cell reprogramming
Stem cells are amazing. They perform the same cellular functions as the rest of the cells of our body, but, unlike the latter, they have one amazing property - if necessary, they are able to change and acquire the function of absolutely any cells. This means that stem cells can be converted, for example, into erythrocytes (red blood cells) if your body lacks the latter. Or in white blood cells (leukocytes). Or muscle cells. Or neurons. Or ... in general, in almost all types of cells. Despite the fact that stem cells have been known to the general public since 1981 (although they were discovered much earlier, at the beginning of the 20th century), until 2006, science had no idea that any cells of a living organism could be reprogrammed and turned into stem cells. Moreover, the method of such transformation turned out to be relatively simple. The first person to explore this possibility was Japanese scientist Shinya Yamanaka, who turned skin cells into stem cells by adding four specific genes to them. Within two to three weeks, from the moment the skin cells turned into stem cells, they could be further transformed into any other type of cell in our body. For regenerative medicine, this discovery is one of the most important in recent history, as this field now has a virtually limitless source of cells needed to heal the damage our body has received.
Black hole in space
In 2009, a group of astronomers decided to find out the mass of the black hole S5 0014+81, which had just been discovered at that time. Imagine their surprise when scientists learned that its mass is 10,000 times that of the supermassive black hole at the center of our Milky Way, effectively making it the largest known black hole in the known universe so far. This ultra-massive black hole has the mass of 40 billion suns (meaning if you take the mass of the Sun and multiply it by 40 billion, you get the mass of a black hole). No less interesting is the fact that this black hole, according to scientists, formed during the earliest period in the history of the universe - just 1.6 billion years after the Big Bang. The discovery of this black hole contributed to the understanding that holes of this size and mass can increase these figures incredibly quickly.
Dark matter confirmation
According to scientists, this mysterious matter may contain answers to many as yet unexplained astronomical phenomena. For example, in front of us is a galaxy with a mass of thousands of planets. If we compare the actual mass of these planets and the mass of the entire galaxy, the numbers don't add up. Why? Because the answer goes much deeper than simply calculating the mass of matter that we can see. There is also matter that we cannot see. It is just what is called "dark matter". In 2009, several American laboratories announced the discovery of dark matter using sensors submerged in an iron mine to a depth of about 1 kilometer. Scientists were able to determine the presence of two particles whose characteristics match the previously proposed description of dark matter. There are many rechecks to be done, but everything points to the fact that these particles are actually particles of dark matter. This may be one of the most amazing and significant discoveries in physics in the last century.
Memory manipulation
It already sounds like a seed for some Nolan's Inception, but in 2014, scientists Steve Ramirez and Xu Liu manipulated the memory of a laboratory mouse, replacing negative memories with positive ones and vice versa. The researchers implanted special light-sensitive proteins into the mouse's brain and, as you might have guessed, simply shined a light into its eyes. As a result of the experiment, positive memories were completely replaced by negative ones, which were firmly entrenched in her brain. This opens the door to new types of treatment for those who suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder or who cannot cope with the emotions of losing loved ones. In the near future, this discovery promises to lead to even more surprising results.
Computer chip that mimics how the human brain works
This was seen as something fantastic a few years ago, but in 2014, IBM introduced the world to a computer chip that works on the principle of the human brain. With 5.4 billion transistors and 10,000 times less power to operate than conventional computer chips, the SyNAPSE chip is able to simulate your brain's synapse. 256 synapses, to be exact. They can be programmed to perform any computational task, which can make them extremely useful when used in supercomputers and various types of distributed sensors. Thanks to its unique architecture, the performance of the SyNAPSE chip is not limited to the performance that we are accustomed to assessing in conventional computers. It turns on only when it is needed, which allows you to significantly save on energy and maintain operating temperatures. This revolutionary technology could truly change the entire computer industry over time.
One step closer to robot domination
Also in 2014, 1,024 tiny "kilobot" robots were given the task of coalescing into a star shape. Without any further instructions, the robots independently and collectively set about the task.
Slowly, uncertainly, colliding with each other several times, but they nevertheless completed the task assigned to them. If one of the robots got stuck or “lost”, not knowing how to become, the neighboring robots came to the rescue, which helped the “losers” to orient themselves.
What is the achievement? Everything is very simple. Now imagine that the same robots, only thousands of times smaller, are introduced into your circulatory system and, united, are sent to fight some serious disease that has settled in your body. Larger robots, also united, are sent to some kind of search and rescue operation, and even larger ones are used to build fantastically fast new buildings.
Is there life on Mars?
Perhaps there is. In 2015, the NASA aerospace agency published photos of the Martian mountains with dark stripes at their base. They come and go depending on the season. The fact is that these bands are irrefutable proof of the presence of liquid water on Mars. Scientists cannot say with absolute certainty whether the planet had such features in the past, but the presence of water on the planet now opens up many prospects. For example, the presence of water on the planet can be of great help when humanity finally puts together a manned mission to Mars (sometime after 2024, according to the most optimistic forecasts). Astronauts in this case will have to carry with them much less resources, since everything you need is already on the Martian surface.
reusable rockets
The private aerospace company SpaceX, owned by billionaire Elon Musk, was able, after several attempts, to soft-land a spent rocket on a remotely controlled floating barge in the ocean. Everything went so smoothly that now landing spent rockets for SpaceX is considered a routine task. It also saves the company billions of dollars in missile production because they can now be simply sorted, refilled, and reused (and more than once, in theory) instead of just sinking somewhere in the Pacific Ocean. Thanks to these rockets, humanity has become several steps closer to manned flights to Mars.
Gravitational waves
Gravitational waves are ripples of space and time moving at the speed of light. They were predicted by Albert Einstein in his general theory of relativity, according to which mass is capable of bending space and time. Gravitational waves can be created by black holes, and they were detected in 2016 using the high-tech equipment of the Laser Interferometric Gravitational Wave Observatory, or simply LIGO, thus confirming Einstein's century-old theory. This is indeed a very important discovery for astronomy, as it proves much of Einstein's general theory of relativity and allows instruments such as LIGO to detect and monitor events of vast cosmic scales in the future.
TRAPPIST system
TRAPPIST-1 is a star system located approximately 39 light years from our solar system. What makes her special? Not much, except for its star, which has 12 times less mass than our Sun, as well as at least 7 planets wrapping around it and located in the so-called Goldilocks zone, where life could potentially exist. Around this discovery, as expected, there are now heated debates. It even goes so far as to say that the system may not be habitable at all and that its planets look more like unsightly vacant space rocks than our future interplanetary resorts. Nevertheless, the system deserves absolutely all the attention that is now riveted to it. Firstly, it is not so far from us - only some 39 light years from the solar system. On the scale of space - around the corner. Secondly, it has three Earth-like planets that are in the habitable zone and are perhaps the best targets for the search for extraterrestrial life today. Thirdly, all seven planets may have liquid water - the key to life. But the probability of its presence is highest precisely on the three planets that are closer to the star. Fourth, if there really is life there, then we can confirm this without even sending a space expedition there. Telescopes like JWST, which is set to launch next year, will help solve this problem.
photo from internet
Antiquity (from Latin antiquitas - antiquity, antiquity) - the civilization and culture of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome, considered as the initial era, the source, the basis of European and modern world civilization and culture in a number of eras: antiquity - the Middle Ages - modern times. This point of view is connected with the fact that antiquity formed a state structure that became a model for modern world civilization - democracy, democracy - and in the process of its formation it nurtured a culture that became one of the most essential and energetic forces of all subsequent world culture. Therefore, the heyday of classical (exemplary) Greek democracy is usually regarded as the center of Greco-Roman antiquity (5-4 centuries BC), as the era of classical Greece, or classical antiquity. The time of the formation of democracy (7-6 centuries BC) is called the archaic (i.e., initial, or ancient) period, and even earlier time of the beginning of the collapse of the tribal community, prehistoric, that is, from which written evidence did not reach (11-8 centuries BC), is called the dark ages or (according to the time the famous poems were created) the "Homeric" period. The Cretan-Mycenaean civilization (3-2 millennia BC) is already attributed to pre-antique times. The era of the decline of the Greek democratic states, but at the same time the spread of Greek civilization and culture as a result of the victories of Alexander the Great (see Alexander the Great) from the Mediterranean basin to India, is called the era of Hellenism (338-30 BC). The final era of antiquity is designated as Hellenistic-Roman, because after the conquest of the last Hellenistic monarchy - Egypt (30 BC) by Rome - the higher Greek civilization and culture continue to coexist with Roman culture, exerting a strong influence on it, and many Greek city-states and within the Roman Empire retain internal autonomy, as in the Hellenistic era.
Greek democracy contained features that are essential for the modern concept of democracy, but there were also some historically inevitable limitations. First of all, ancient classical democracy was seen as a form of government based on freedom. The guarantee of personal freedom of a citizen was the right of private ownership of the means of production (and, above all, the main of them - land) with the possibility of selling it or transferring it by inheritance, the right to freely dispose of the goods produced (i.e., the free market), the right to directly influence the formation of the domestic and foreign policy of the state and antimonopoly laws that prevented the concentration of economic and political power in the hands of one person, family, clan, estate, class. The disadvantage of classical ancient democracy was that freedom in each of the Greek states (and there were about 2 thousand of them) was possessed only by a full-fledged citizen of this particular state and only within the boundaries of his state. All other personally free residents of this state - immigrants and women - did not have civil rights and could not own private property (especially immovable). Not to mention the slaves, who did not even have personal freedom and were included in the very category of people only by individual free-thinking Greeks and Romans (see Slavery, the Slave trade).
Despite the indicated limitations, ancient democracy (and even aristocratic states) provided freedom of creative initiative to such a number of people that was unthinkable in contemporary Eastern despotisms (see Ancient East), where, as a rule, the only private owner was a despot, and all others were his subjects, tenants and slaves. It was civil rights that served as a good basis for the classical Greek's faith in his own strength, in his ability to improve his life as a result of his own efforts, his own labor. All this resulted in an unprecedented development in terms of dynamics and unconditional originality in various areas of material and spiritual culture.
One of the visible results of this development was ancient sculpture. Borrowed by the Greeks from the ancient and refined, but impersonal and uniform despotic civilization of Egypt, already in the archaic era, it differs from the rigid and schematic Egyptian figures in greater softness, liveliness and greater individualization of outlines. And with the beginning of the classical era, characterized by a massive growth in the self-consciousness of free citizens of democratic cities, the sculpture acquires specifically antique original features. It ceases to serve as a symbol of the inviolability of the privileges of the tribal nobility, frozen in a wooden pose, and begins to reflect the dynamics of relations between full-fledged citizens of the policy.
Greek architecture was also fused with dynamic social processes. Until the Hellenistic era, royal palaces were not built due to the lack of royal power. The main buildings of the cities at first were the houses of deities, the patrons of cities - temples. With the growth of prosperity and the development of democracy, the other most important center of the policy - the agora, the square where the people gathered to solve both political and economic problems (in particular, for the exchange of goods), began to be built up with buildings intended for various public needs - various kinds of government agencies, meetings, etc. This is the building of the city council - a bouleuterium, a theater, a gymnasium, a palestra, a stadium. Greek architecture made a number of original developments, in particular, both the forms of temples and their individual details. And despite the monumental nature of the Greek public architecture of the classical time, a sense of proportion did not allow the creation of structures that served the purpose of suppressing and belittling the feelings of a free citizen of a free state, in contrast to the architecture of the ancient Eastern despotisms, Hellenistic and Roman times, where individualistic-monopolistic tendencies encouraged hypertrophied monumentality and colossal structures. (Since Hellenistic times, palaces of kings and villas of royal nobles and wealthy people have appeared in Greek architecture.) Private buildings, along with the growth in the well-being of the general mass of the population of democratic cities, were also improved. Cities were supplied with running water and sewerage. Newly built cities (for example, Piraeus) were already created according to the Greek philosophy of architecture, the most prominent representative of which was Hippodames from Miletus (hippodamian planning). Ancient civilization arose as a civilization of city-states and remained so until its end, despite the loss of the city's right to conduct an independent foreign policy, backed up by its own independent armed forces. But in the process of the increasing offensive of the imperial central government on the rights of municipal self-government (up to the draconian taxation by Justinian), the cities lost sources not only of development, but also of regeneration and fell into decay.
Together with the ancient city, Greek and then Roman literature was formed, all those genres and literary samples that would largely determine the development of European and world literature. In the archaic era, a pre-literate epic created in the dark ages is recorded, in particular Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, which became subjects of compulsory school education not only in the gymnasiums of antiquity, but also in the humanistic (classical) gymnasium of modern times. The living epic is no longer created, but only parodies of it, since its natural environment - the aristocratic community - is giving way to democracy. An emancipating personality fulfills its need for expression and awareness of feelings and experiences in another kind of literature - in lyrics. It was in the era of the archaic that a whole constellation of masters of various lyrical forms arose - Alcaeus, Sappho, Anacreon, Archilochus and many others. In the classical era, drama becomes the leading genre, and the theater becomes an obligatory attribute of the architecture of each city. The greatest playwrights of tragedy are Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, comedies - Aristophanes. Isegoria (equal freedom of speech for all citizens) and isonomy (political equality) cause the flowering of the once aristocratic art - oratory, for the manifestation of which there were enough reasons at meetings of the people's assembly, council, court, at folk festivals and even in everyday life. Demosthenes and Isocrates were special masters of this art and at the same time political figures. And besides them, dozens of names can be named, since oratory never died in antiquity, although with the fall of Greek democracy and the Roman Republic, it rather turned into eloquence. The development of public consciousness was the reason for the emergence of literature describing states in the process of development, i.e. historiography, the most prominent representatives of the initial stage of which were Hecateus of Miletus, Herodotus and Thucydides. The relationship between the subject and the object, the person and the surrounding world, i.e., the problems that appeared along with Greek freedom, is trying to comprehend with the help of various approaches the Greek philosophy that was born along with it, unlike other areas of Greek spiritual culture, which did not receive real development in Roman culture.
In close connection with philosophy, Greek science is also developing, which already had great achievements in classical times - mathematics, geometry, astronomy, medicine, the continuation of which are modern relevant scientific disciplines. The technology has also reached a high level. However, in antiquity it did not form a close connection with scientific developments, since slave labor, which was increasingly widespread in postclassical times, was cheaper than technology. Only military equipment had stable development. At the same time, for a thousand years from the era of the classics to the end of antiquity, engineers and technicians gave a relatively strong impetus to the development of productive forces, expanded the range of consumer goods, increased their quality, and increased their quantity. Technical innovations, in addition to the military field, were used in lifting mechanisms, shipbuilding, mining (including quarries and metallurgical enterprises), water management (pipelines, water wheels). Steam and air pressure was applied. Despite the inhibitory power of slave labor, progressive designs of plows, mowers, reapers and water mills began to be used even in antiquity.
By the 4th c. BC e. in general terms, an education system has developed in Greece - general education or encyclopedic education, enkyuklios paideia, which was basically rejected neither by Rome, nor by the Christian Middle Ages, nor by the Christian democratic modern times (humanistic or classical gymnasium, humanitarian education). Classical languages - ancient Greek and Latin - in the form of the so-called international vocabulary entered all European and many non-European languages and, being the international language of science and culture, they link together, like living nerves and blood vessels, modern civilization with its life-giving sources - historical experience and achievements of the past.
