The reliability of the opinion of the prophet and the historian is comparable. Today it is quite clearly visible that chronology - contrary to the traditional idea of ​​history - is basically an exact science, and only as such is it capable of resolving its contradictions. The study of the movement of the Moon became the impetus for the creation of a real chronology. The version of ancient chronology accepted today is not the only one. The complexity of natural scientific methods for researching chronology makes it difficult for historians to use them.

Chronology plays an important role in history and source studies. It allows you to determine the time interval between events of the past and present, if you can convert the chronological data of the document into chronological units, for example, into Julian dates BC. e. or n. e. Many historical conclusions and concepts depend on the exact date of the events described in the source.

One of the classics called the historian a prophet looking back. This statement is not only figurative, but also accurate. For natural reasons, the reliability of the opinion of the prophet looking forward and the historian looking back turns out to be comparable and not too high. The prophet even finds himself in a privileged position, since his opinion is easier to check, you just need to be patient. In addition, an influential prophet can simply influence the future (as one science fiction writer said, not to predict the future, but to prevent it). The historian does not have the opportunity to influence the past, and all attempts to do this are incorrect.

Why did the question of ancient chronology arise today in a book primarily devoted to the description of statistical methods for analyzing texts? In the 15th–16th centuries, chronology was considered a branch of mathematics. Then it gradually turned into a section of historical science and is considered as an area of ​​knowledge that has been largely researched and needs only individual clarifications that do not affect the entire edifice of chronology as a whole. However, it turns out that the chronology of antiquity accepted today carries deep contradictions. And it was quite natural to try to eliminate at least some of these difficulties with the help of modern mathematical and physical methods. Today it is quite clearly visible that chronology - contrary to the traditional idea of ​​history - is basically an exact science, and only as such is it capable of resolving its contradictions.

The impetus for this work was the study of an important issue in celestial mechanics related to the analysis of the dates of ancient eclipses. It was about calculating the so-called parameter D" in the theory of the motion of the Moon. The parameter characterizes acceleration and is a function of time over a large interval of historical time. The calculations were performed by the famous modern astronomer Robert Newton. He discovered that the parameter D" strangely depends on time, making an unexpected leap in the interval of the 8th–10th centuries AD. e. The jump contradicts the gravitational theory and is so incredible that Robert Newton had to introduce “non-gravitational forces” specifically for the Earth-Moon system, which in no way manifest themselves in other situations.

A.T. Fomenko became interested in this incomprehensible effect and checked the work of R. Newton. The inspection confirmed that the work was carried out at the highest scientific level. Robert Newton, being a specialist in celestial navigation and the theory of calculating the trajectories of celestial bodies and vehicles, trusted ancient dates and tried to explain the effect he discovered without raising the question of the reliability of ancient chronology. However, the idea of ​​checking the accuracy of the dates of those ancient (including ancient) eclipses on which the work of R. Newton was based turned out to be more natural.

At the beginning of the 20th century, the famous Russian encyclopedist N.A. Morozov analyzed the dating of ancient eclipses and stated that almost all of them need revision. For many eclipses, he proposed new dates closer to our time. A.T. Fomenko used his tables to replace the traditional dates of eclipses, repeated R. Newton’s calculations and obtained a very impressive result. Graph D" radically straightened and turned into an almost horizontal line predicted by the standard gravitational curve. The mysterious jump disappeared, and with it the need to invent some kind of fantastic “non-gravitational interactions” disappeared.

Analysis of a large amount of historical information has shown that the version of ancient chronology accepted today is not the only one. Thus, the three ancient eclipses described by the famous historian Thucydides could not have occurred in the 5th century BC. e., and in the 11th or even 12th century AD. e., - there are only two astronomically accurate solutions. There is a conflict between astronomy and traditional chronology.

It turned out that for a long time, various scientists in various countries insisted on the need for a major revision of the system of ancient dates. The scope of this revision requires time and effort. Today, scientific analysis of chronology is carried out mainly by mathematicians and physicists, which is largely due to the complexity of natural scientific research methods. Unfortunately, the bulk of historians have so far turned out to be aloof from this activity, concentrating their efforts on trying to slow it down. Among the reasons for this - in addition to the lack of knowledge in the field of modern methods for processing chronological information - is subjectivity, which has already manifested itself more than once in the social sciences.

Here we can recall Lev Landau’s joke that sciences are natural, unnatural and unnatural. However, you should not worry too much about the fact that some sciences are more subjective and emotional, while others are more objective and dry. Each technique has its own charm, it is important to learn how to apply it to the place.

1.2. WHO CREATED THE CHRONOLOGY AND WHEN

The traditional chronology developed in the 16th–19th centuries. Dating of a document is usually done by comparison with data whose dating is considered already known. Christian historians have placed secular chronography in the service of sacred history. Due to the ambiguity of Kabbalistic calculations, the date of creation of the world varies from 5969 BC. e. before 3761 BC e. Two hundred versions of the date of creation of the world can be associated with a comparable number of versions of chronology. The founder of traditional chronology, I. Scaliger, was able to “solve” the insoluble problem of squaring the circle.

The traditional global chronology, which assigns dates in the Julian calendar to all the main events of ancient history, was formed as a result of the long work of several generations of chronologists of the 16th–19th centuries. Among its creators were, in particular, mathematicians and astronomers. Subsequent dating of the facts contained in any document that first came into the hands of historians is usually carried out approximately according to the following scheme.

Let the Roman consul be mentioned in a historical text describing certain events. By now, the compilation of a sequential list of consuls for a period of 1050 years - from Junius, son of Marcus Brutus, and Tarquinius Collatinus (509 BC) to Basil (541 AD) - has been completed in basic terms. By finding in this list the name of the consul mentioned in the text under study and referring to the years of his reign in accordance with the dating of the entire list, historians tie the events described in the document to a timeline.

Thus, most modern dating methods are based on the principles of comparing the data of the document under study with data whose dating is considered already known. It is no coincidence that an example is taken from Roman chronology. As the famous modern American chronologist E. Bickerman writes, “all other datings of ancient chronology can be linked with our chronology using direct or indirect synchronisms with Roman dates.” In other words, Roman chronology is the "vertebral column" of the entire global chronology of Europe, as well as the Mediterranean, Middle East, Egypt and other regions.

The founders of traditional chronology as a science are considered to be I. Scaliger (1540–1609) and D. Petavius ​​(Petavius) (1583–1652). However, a series of their works ( Scaliger I. Opus novum de emendatione temporum. Lutetiac. Paris, 1583. Thesaurum temporum. 1606; Petavius ​​D. De Doctrina temporum. Paris, 1627) not completed. As E. Bickerman notes, “there is no sufficiently complete study of ancient chronology that meets modern requirements.” Therefore, it would be more correct to call the traditional chronology the Scaliger-Petavius ​​version. This version was not the only one. E. Bickerman generally speaks with regret about the “chaos of medieval dating.”

The shortcomings of scientific substantiations of traditional chronology are explained not only by the huge volume of processed material, but also by objective difficulties. The first difficulty should be noted that, as A.Ya. points out. Gurevich, “for centuries, history remained predominantly church history, and it was written, as a rule, by clergy.”

It is believed that the early foundations of chronology were laid by Eusebius Pamphilus (IV century AD). and Blessed Jerome. The work of Eusebius “History of Times from the Beginning of the World to the Council of Nicaea” (the so-called “Chronicle”) and the work of Jerome were discovered only in the late Middle Ages. Moreover, it turns out that “the original (Eusebius) now exists only in fragments and is supplemented by a free Latin translation of Bl. Jerome." It is curious that Nikephoros Callistus in the 14th century attempted to write a new version of the history of the first three centuries, “but he could do nothing more than repeat what Eusebius had said.” Since the work of Eusebius was published later than the work of Nikephoros - only in 1544 - a pertinent question is: is Eusebius's book based on the work of Nikephoros? Writers today regularly face authorship problems of this kind, and there is no reason to believe that things were different in the past.

Global chronologies were very often based on a mechanical interpretation of numbers collected in religious sources, which were infallible and, in the opinion of the interpreter, had a deep meaning. For example, as a result of such Kabbalistic exercises, J. Usher (Usserius, Usher) suggested that the world was created on the morning of Sunday, October 23, 4004 BC. e. Treatises on the analysis of ancient chronology were written by religious scholastics in parallel with the writing of dissertations in which they calculated how many devils could fit on the tip of a needle. However, ironically, chronological treatises have received greater historical resonance. The secular chronology that emerged later is entirely based on church chronology. Thus, E. Bickerman notes: “Christian historians put secular chronography in the service of sacred history... Jerome’s compilation was the basis of chronological knowledge in the West.”

Due to the significant ambiguity and doubtfulness of Kabbalistic calculations, for example, the date of the creation of the world varies in different documents within significant limits and differs by 2100 years. There are about 200 (!) versions of this date, which can be matched with a comparable number of chronology versions. Let us give only basic examples of the date of creation of the world:

5969 BC e. - Antiochian, Theophilus;

5872 BC e. - the so-called dating of 70 interpreters;

5551 BC e. - Augustine;

5515 BC e., as well as 5507 - Theophilus;

5508 BC e. - Byzantine, so-called Constantinople;

5500 BC e. - Hippolytus and Sextus Julius Africanus;

5493 BC e., as well as 5472 or 5624 - Alexandrian, era of Annian;

5199 BC e. - Eusebius of Caesarea;

4700 BC e. - Samaritan;

4004 BC e. - Jewish, Asher;

3941 BC e. - Jerome;

3761 BC e. - Jewish.

The question of the “correct date of creation of the world” is very important. A huge number of documents date the events described in years “from the creation of the world,” and therefore thousand-year discrepancies in the choice of the date of creation greatly affect the dating of all documents of this type.

The sanctification of chronological dates by church authority until the 18th century prevented their critical analysis and revision. For example, Scaliger called the works of his predecessor Eusebius “divine.” Being brought up on unconditional worship of the authority of their predecessors, chronologists of the 16th–17th centuries were not always in harmony with common sense, mathematics and logic and reacted sharply to criticism from outside.

The same Scaliger clearly demonstrates his attitude towards scientific criticism in the next episode. The author of a chronology highly regarded in the scientific world became a passionate quadraturist. Let us recall that this was the name given to people who tried, using a compass and a ruler, to construct a square equal in area to the given circle. It has been irrefutably proven that this problem is mathematically insoluble. Scaliger published a book in which he claimed that he had established the “true quadrature”. No matter how the best mathematicians of the era - Viet, Clavius ​​- tried to prove to him that the reasoning was incorrect, everything was useless. Scaliger and his supporters, furiously defending their opinions, did not admit anything, responded with abuse and contemptuous epithets, ultimately declaring all geometers complete ignoramuses in the field of geometry.

Scaliger was the first (together with Petavius) to use the astronomical method to confirm (but by no means critically verify) chronology. As is believed today, he thereby turned his version into a “scientific” one. This touch of “scientificness,” combined with church authority, turned out to be sufficient for chronologists of the 17th–18th centuries to completely trust the version of Scaliger that reached them (and was already largely ossified). By the 19th century, the total volume of chronological material had increased so much that it aroused involuntary respect by its very existence. As a result, chronologists of the 19th century saw their task only in minor clarifications of dates. In the 20th century, the problem of dating was considered basically already solved, and chronology finally froze in the form in which it emerged from the writings of Eusebius, Jerome, Theophilus, Augustine, Hippolytus, Clement of Alexandria, Usher, Scaliger, Petavius.

Nevertheless, as chronology develops and it frees itself from the pressure of authorities, new generations of scientists discover serious difficulties in reconciling many of these sources with Scaliger’s version. For example, it was discovered that Jerome made an error of a hundred (!) years in his description of the events of his time. The Sassanian tradition separated Alexander the Great from the Sassanids by 226 years, and modern chronologists have increased this interval to 557 years (a gap of more than three hundred years!). The basics of Egyptian chronology also came to us through the filter of Christian chronologists: the list of kings compiled by Manetho was preserved only in excerpts from Christian authors.

1.3. ISAAC NEWTON AS A CRITIC OF TRADITIONAL CHRONOLOGY

Isaac Newton is the greatest scientist in the history of mankind, whose works in physics and mathematics still form the basis of everyday and scientific perception of the world around us. It would be natural if a modern person, who sees the world through the eyes of I. Newton, at least partially accepted his view of history. I. Newton's chronology is significantly shorter than the traditional one. He revised historical data up to 200 BC. e., rejuvenating the main part of the events, and making some events more ancient. Part of the history of Ancient Greece has been “lifted up” 300 years closer to us. The history of Ancient Egypt, instead of several thousand years, is compressed into 330 years, with some fundamental dates “raised” by 1800 years. As before, as now, authors are afraid of suffering for publishing according to a statistically reliable chronology.

Isaac Newton (1642–1727) is the greatest scientist in the history of mankind, whose works in physics and mathematics still form the basis of the everyday and scientific perception of the world around the vast majority of people. This English mathematician, mechanic, astronomer and physicist, president of the Royal Society of London, created classical mechanics and developed (independently from G. Leibniz) differential and integral calculus. He discovered the dispersion of light, chromatic aberration, studied interference and diffraction, developed the corpuscular theory of light, and put forward a hypothesis that combined corpuscular and wave concepts. Built a reflecting telescope. He discovered the law of universal gravitation, created the theory of the movement of celestial bodies and the foundations of celestial mechanics. This list of Newton's scientific achievements is far from complete.

Such a person rightfully occupies a special place among critics of the Scaliger-Petavius ​​version. Isaac Newton is the author of several profound works on chronology, in which he came to the conclusion that the Scaligerian version was erroneous in some of its important sections. These studies of his are little known to the modern reader, although previously there were heated debates around them. Nevertheless, it would be natural if modern man, who, as noted above, sees the world mainly through the eyes of I. Newton, at least partially accepted his view of history. Newton's major chronological works are A Brief Chronicle of Historical Events, from the First in Europe to the Conquest of Persia by Alexander the Great and A Correct Chronology of the Ancient Kingdoms (Fig. 1-1).

Rice. 1–1. Title page of Isaac Newton's book. Newton Isaac. The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms amended. To which is Prefix"d, A Short Chronicle from the First Memory of Things in Europe, to the Conquest of Persia by Alexander the Great. - London, J. Tonson, 1728.

Based on the logical analysis of the natural scientific approach, I. Newton subjected the chronology of antiquity to a strong transformation. He reviewed all the main literature on ancient history and all the main sources, starting with ancient and eastern mythology. The work lasted 40 years, requiring intense research and enormous erudition. Some, but very few, events he even made more ancient. This applies, for example, to the legendary campaign of the Argonauts. According to I. Newton, this campaign did not take place in the 10th century BC. e., as was then believed, and in the 14th century BC. e. But in general, I. Newton’s chronology is significantly shorter than Scaliger’s, that is, accepted today. He moved most of the events dating earlier than the era of Alexander the Great “upward”, towards rejuvenation, that is, closer to us. This revision is not as radical as in the works of N.A. Morozov, who believed that the Scaligerian version of the chronology of antiquity is reliable only starting from the 4th century AD. e.

It should be noted that in his chronological studies I. Newton revised only dates approximately earlier than 200 BC. e. His observations were scattered, and he was unable to detect any system in these, at first glance, chaotic re-datings. He focused mainly on the chronology of Ancient Egypt and Ancient Greece.

For example, the traditional version of chronology places the beginning of the reign of the first Egyptian pharaoh Menes (Mena) around 3000 BC. e. And according to I. Newton, this event dates back to only 946 BC. e. So the shift “up” is approximately 2000 years. Another example is the myth of Theseus, which today dates from the 15th century BC. e. I. Newton claims that these events took place around 936 BC. e. Therefore, the proposed "upward" date shift is approximately 700 years. If today the famous Trojan War dates back to approximately 1225 BC. e., then I. Newton claims that this event occurred in 904 BC. e. Therefore, the upward shift in dates is approximately 330 years.

The main conclusions of I. Newton can be formulated as follows. Part of the history of Ancient Greece was “raised” by him “up” in time, on average 300 years closer to us. The history of Ancient Egypt, which covers, according to the Scaligerian version, several thousand years, from approximately 3000 BC. e. and higher - “raised up” and compressed into a period of time only 330 years long (from 946 BC to 617 BC). At the same time, some fundamental dates of ancient Egyptian history were “raised” by I. Newton “up” by approximately 1800 years.

It is significant that I. Newton apparently feared that the publication of a book on chronology would create many problems for him. It is worth noting that the situation has changed little today and authors continue to suffer for publishing according to a statistically reliable chronology. The “Brief Chronicle” was rewritten several times by I. Newton until his death in 1727.

It is curious that the book was not prepared by I. Newton for publication. However, rumors about I. Newton's chronological research spread, and the Princess of Wales expressed a desire to get acquainted with them. I. Newton gave her the manuscript on the condition that this text would not fall into the hands of unauthorized persons. The same thing happened with Abbe Conti. However, having returned to Paris, Abbe Conti began to give the manuscript to interested scientists. As a result, M. Freret translated the manuscript into French, adding his own historical review to it.

This translation soon reached the Parisian bookseller G. Gavelier, who, dreaming of publishing I. Newton’s work, wrote him a letter in May 1724. Having received no response from I. Newton, he wrote him a new letter in March 1725, informing him that he considered his silence as consent to publication along with Frere's remarks. Again there was no answer. Then Gavelier asked his London friend to get an answer personally from I. Newton.

The meeting took place on May 27, 1725, and I. Newton gave a negative answer. However, it was too late. The book has already been published (Abrege de Chronologie de M. Le Chevalier Newton, fait par lui-meme, et traduit sur le manuscript Angelois. With observation by M. Freret. Edited by the Abbe Conti, 1725). I. Newton received a copy of the book on November 11, 1725. After this, he published a letter in the “Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society” (“Transactions of the Royal Society”, v.33, 1725, p.315), where he accused Abbot Conti of breaking his promise and publishing the work against the will of the author. With the advent of attacks from Father Souciet in 1726, I. Newton announced that he was preparing for publication a new, more extensive and detailed book on ancient chronology. However, all these events took place shortly before the death of I. Newton in 1727. He did not manage to publish a more detailed book, and traces of it were lost.

Most likely, the complex history of the publication of the “Brief Chronicle” is explained by the fact that the wise I. Newton was seriously afraid of the consequences of the appearance of this book. Such fears of the creators of the new chronology at all times had good grounds.

On this occasion, I remember one of the ideologists of this science, professor, doctor of physical and mathematical sciences Mikhail Mikhailovich Postnikov, who in 1984 told me approximately the following. The Central Committee of the CPSU warned him against research on statistically reliable chronology with the following argument. The dissertation of one of the founders of Marxism is dedicated to the historian Tacitus, whom Postnikov, not without reason, called a false figure. Such a fact, according to the ideologists of communism, could cast a shadow on the scientific foundations of Marxism and was therefore unacceptable...

Quite a lot of responses appeared to the work of I. Newton in the press of the mid-18th century. They belonged mainly to historians and philologists, were of a negative nature and characterized this work as “the delusions of an honorable amateur.” There were, however, responses in support of I. Newton’s opinion, but not many. And Cesare Lambroso in his famous book “Genius and Madness” wrote this: “Newton, who conquered all of humanity with his mind, as his contemporaries rightly wrote about him, in his old age also suffered from a real mental disorder, although not as strong as previous men of genius. It was then that he probably wrote “Chronology”, “Apocalypse” and “Letter to Bentel”, works that are vague, confusing and completely different from what he wrote in his younger years" ( C. Lambroso. Genius and madness. - M.: Republic, 1995, p. 63).

This kind of accusation does not correspond to the generally accepted rules of scientific discussion. In those days, as indeed today, they concealed behind themselves an inability to make compelling arguments and argue on the merits.

1.4.NIKOLAY ALEXANDROVICH MOROZOV AS THE FOUNDER OF SYSTEM CHRONOLOGY

ON THE. Morozov is one of the few great encyclopedist scientists in the history of mankind. In 1945 there were three honorary academicians of the USSR Academy of Sciences - N.F. Gamaleya, N.A. Morozov and I.V. Stalin. Fundamental hypothesis of N.A. Morozov’s idea of ​​the artificially extended chronology of antiquity is based on the “repetitions” he discovered, that is, texts that probably describe the same events, but dated different years. ON THE. Morozov was the first scientist to understand that events not only of ancient but also of medieval history needed re-dating, although he did not revise the chronology “above” the 6th century AD. e. Apparently, N.A. Morozov did not know about the similar works of I. Newton and E. Johnson, but what is even more interesting is that many of the conclusions of these chronology researchers coincide.

ON THE. Morozov (1854–1946) - an outstanding Russian encyclopedist scientist (Fig. 1–2). He became the first researcher to truly broadly and radically raise the question of the scientific justification of the chronology accepted today. Known for his work in the field of astronomical, meteorological, physical and chemical problems. Honored Scientist of the RSFSR. Honorary member of the Moscow Society of Natural Scientists. Permanent member of the French Astronomical Society (Societe Astronomique de France). Permanent member of the British Astronomical Association. Since 1922, he has been an honorary member of the Russian Academy of Sciences (since 1925 - the USSR Academy of Sciences), a holder of orders of the USSR. The official reference book of the USSR Academy of Sciences, published in 1945, lists all honorary academicians of the USSR Academy of Sciences for 1945. There are only three of them. This is N.F. Gamaleya, N.A. Morozov and I.V. Stalin.

Rice. 1–2. Portrait of N.A. Morozova.

Fate N.A. Morozova's life was not easy. However, this is the lot of almost any great encyclopedist scientist, of whom there have been not so many in the history of mankind. All these people - for their ability and desire to systematically engage in a variety of sciences - have always caused irritation and criticism from narrow specialists.

Morozov's father, Pyotr Alekseevich Shchepochkin, was a wealthy landowner and belonged to an old noble family. Great-grandfather N.A. Morozova was related to Peter 1. The mother of the outstanding scientist was a simple serf peasant Anna Vasilyevna Morozova. P.A. Shchepochkin married A.V. Morozova, having previously given her her freedom, but without consolidating the marriage in the church, so the children bore their mother’s surname.

At twenty years old N.A. Morozov became a revolutionary-People's Will. In 1881, for revolutionary activities, he was sentenced to indefinite imprisonment in the Shlisselburg fortress, where he independently studied chemistry, physics, astronomy, mathematics, and history. In 1905 he was released after being imprisoned for 25 years. After his release, he was actively engaged in scientific and scientific-pedagogical activities. After the October Revolution, he became director of the Lesgaft Natural Science Institute. After N.A. left Morozov from the post of director, the institute was completely reformed.

It was at his institute that N.A. Morozov and his colleagues carried out most of their famous research on ancient chronology, based on the methods of natural sciences.

Back in 1907 N.A. Morozov published the book “Revelation in a Thunderstorm and Storm,” where he analyzed the dating of the “Apocalypse” and came to conclusions that contradict Scaligerian chronology. In 1914, he published the book “Prophets,” in which, based on astronomical dating techniques, the Scaligerian dating of biblical prophecies was radically revised. In 1924–1932 N.A. Morozov published the fundamental seven-volume work “Christ” (Fig. 1–3). The original title of this work was “The History of Human Culture in Natural Scientific Light.” In it N.A. Morozov presented a detailed critique of Scaligerian chronology. An important fact discovered by him is the unfoundedness of the concept underlying the Scaligerian chronology accepted today.

Having analyzed a huge amount of material, N.A. Morozov put forward and partially substantiated the fundamental hypothesis that the Scaligerian chronology of antiquity is artificially stretched and lengthened in comparison with real events. This hypothesis of N.A. Morozov is based on the “repeats” he discovered, that is, texts that probably describe the same events, but then dated from different years. The publication of this work caused lively controversy in the press, echoes of which are also present in modern literature. Some fair objections were raised, but on the whole the critical part of Christ's work could not be challenged. Apparently, N.A. Morozov did not know about the similar works of I. Newton and E. Johnson, which were practically forgotten by his time. What is even more interesting is that many of the conclusions of N.A. Morozov are in good agreement with the results of Western scientists.

ON THE. Morozov significantly advanced the issue, extending critical analysis up to the 6th century AD. e. and discovering here too the need for radical re-datings. Despite the fact that N.A. Morozov also failed to identify any system in the chaos of these re-datings; his research is at a qualitatively higher level than the analysis of I. Newton.

ON THE. Morozov was the first scientist to understand that events not only of ancient history, but also of medieval history, needed re-dating. Nevertheless, N.A. Morozov did not go beyond the 6th century AD. e., considering that the version of chronology accepted today is more or less correct. We will see later that this opinion of his turned out to be deeply erroneous.

Thus, this is not the first time that questions about revising views on traditional chronology have been raised. Century after century they arise again and again, and this suggests that the problem really exists. And the fact that changes in the chronology of antiquity, proposed, for example, by I. Newton and N.A. Morozov, - are fundamentally close to each other, testifies: this is where the solution to the problem lies.

1.5. ABOUT ROMAN CHRONOLOGY

Roman chronology plays a decisive role in general chronology. There is a discrepancy of 500 years between the various dates for such an important event as the founding of Rome. The Roman chronicles have not reached us, and we have their retellings in very poor form. The most “reliable” documents of Roman history, upon closer examination, turn out to be forged, fabricated much later. The established traditional version of Roman history has always seemed the most reliable - in the absence of powerful methods for verifying legends - only for lack of a better one.

First of all, the situation with Roman chronology should be described, since, as already noted, it plays a decisive role in general chronology. Widespread criticism of the traditional version of Roman chronology began in the 18th century at the Academy of Inscriptions and Fine Arts, founded in 1701 in Paris. There, in the 20s of the 18th century, a discussion arose about the reliability of the Roman tradition in general (Pouilly, Frere, etc.). The accumulated material served as the basis for even more in-depth criticism in the 19th century.

One of the largest representatives of this scientific trend, called hypercriticism, was the famous historian Theodor Mommsen. He wrote, for example, the following: “Although King Tarquinius II was already of age at the time of his father’s death and reigned thirty-nine years later, nevertheless he ascends the throne as a young man. Pythagoras, who arrived in Italy almost a whole generation before the expulsion of the kings (509 BC), is nevertheless considered by Roman historians to be a friend of the wise Numa (died around 673 BC; here the discrepancy reaches, according to at least 100 years). State ambassadors sent to Syracuse in 262 from the founding of Rome negotiate there with Dionysius the Elder, who ascended the throne eighty-six years later (348 BC).”

The traditional version of Roman chronology rests on shaky foundations. For example, there is a discrepancy of 500 years between different dates for such an important event as the founding of Rome. The fact is that, according to Hellanicus and Damaste (allegedly living in the 4th century BC), later supported by Aristotle, Rome was founded by Aeneas and Odysseus (and named after the Trojan woman Roma). This means that the founding of Rome occurs immediately after the end of the Trojan War, in which both Aeneas and Odysseus were participants. But in the version of traditional chronology accepted today, the Trojan War (supposedly XI-11th century BC). dates back to the founding of Rome (supposedly 8th century BC). for about 500 years.

Several interpretations of this contradiction can be proposed: either Rome was founded 500 years earlier, or the Trojan War occurred 500 years later, or the ancient chroniclers report a deliberate lie that Aeneas and Odysseus founded Rome. By the way, what about Romulus then? Or is “Romulus” simply another name for the same Odysseus? Many questions arise. And the deeper you dig, the more there will be.

By the way, according to another version, the name of the city was given by Rom, the son of Odysseus and Kirke. Does this mean that Rom (or Remus, brother of Romulus) is the son of Odysseus? From the point of view of today's traditional chronology, this is impossible.

The uncertainty of the date of the founding of Rome significantly affects the dating of a large number of documents that count the years “from the founding of Rome (the city).” Such, for example, is the famous “History” of Titus Livy. At the same time, it turns out that “Roman traditional history has come down to us in the works of very few authors: the most solid of these works is, without a doubt, the historical work of Titus Livy.”

In this regard, the opinion of the historian Theodor Mommsen is interesting: “With regard to... the world chronicle, the situation was even worse... The development of archaeological science made it possible to hope that traditional history would be verified using documents and other reliable sources; but this hope was not justified. The more research was done and the deeper it became, the more clearly the difficulties of writing a critical history of Rome became clear.”

Further, Mommsen writes even more harshly about the problems of the reliability of Roman history: “The lies in digital data were systematically carried out by him (Valerius Anziatus) right up to the modern historical period... He (Alexander Polyhistor) set an example of how to put the missing five hundred years from the fall of Troy to the rise of Rome into a chronological connection (remember that according to another chronological version, different from the one accepted today, the fall of Troy occurred immediately before the founding of Rome, and not 500 years earlier) ... and fill this gap with one of those meaningless lists of kings that, unfortunately , were in such use among Egyptian and Greek chroniclers; judging by all the data, it was he who brought into the world the kings of Aventine and Tiberinus and the Albanian family of Silvius, whom later posterity did not fail to provide with their own names, specific terms of reign and, for greater clarity, even portraits.”

Theodor Mommsen was far from the only famous scientist who proposed starting a revision of the most important dates of antiquity. An extensive and very skeptical point of view, which questioned the correctness of the chronology of Ancient Rome and, in general, the reliability of our knowledge about the first five centuries of Roman history, is set out, for example, in the works of Louis de Beaufort and G.K. Lewis.

N. Radzig wrote: “The fact is that the Roman chronicles have not reached us, and therefore we must make all our assumptions on the basis of Roman annalistic historians. But even here... we are faced with great difficulties, of which the main thing is that we have the annalists in a very bad shape.”

It is believed that the Roman fasti kept a chronological annual (weather) record of all officials of the ancient world. These tables seemed to be able to serve as a reliable basis for chronology. However, G. Martynov asks the question: “But how can we reconcile with this the constant disagreements that we encounter in Livy at every step in the names of consuls, moreover, their frequent omission and, in general, complete arbitrariness in the choice of names?.. The facts are riddled with irregularities, which are sometimes impossible to understand. Livy was already aware of the instability of this main basis of his chronology.”

As a result, G. Martynov proposes “to admit that neither Diodorus nor Livy have the correct chronology... We cannot trust the linen books, based on which Lipinius Macrus and Tubero give completely contradictory instructions. The most apparently reliable documents, even those, upon closer examination, turn out to be forged, fabricated much later.”

Thus, the established traditional version of Roman history has always seemed to historians not entirely convincing and was considered the most reliable - in the absence of powerful methods for verifying legends - only for lack of a better one.

1.6. PROBLEMS OF EGYPT CHRONOLOGY

Herodotus's chronology is usually significantly shorter than the traditional one, so the discrepancy can reach more than 1200 years. The difference between the dates of the accession to the throne of Men, the first pharaoh, is 3643 years. Egyptology originated at the beginning of the 19th century.

Many documents from ancient Egypt contradict each other in a chronological sense.

Thus, consistently and coherently presenting the history of Egypt, Herodotus in his famous “History” puts the pharaohs Rampsinitis and Cheops next to each other, calling Cheops the successor of Rampsinitis. A modern commentator confidently corrects Herodotus: “Herodotus confuses the chronology of Egypt: Rampsinitis (Ramses II) is the king of the XIX dynasty (1345–1200 BC), and Cheops is the IV dynasty (2600–2480 BC). )". Thus, the discrepancy with the traditional version reaches more than 1200 years.

In general, Herodotus' chronology of kings often does not correspond to the traditional one. Usually it is significantly “shorter” than the Scaligerian one. For example, immediately after Pharaoh Asihis he places Pharaoh Anisis, that is, he makes a leap from the end of the Fourth Dynasty (c. 2480 BC) to the beginning of Ethiopian rule in Egypt (c. 715 BC).” . This leap is 1800 years.

The choice of any one chronological version from several contradictory ones is not always obvious. This was reflected, for example, in the struggle between the so-called. short and long chronologies of Egypt, unfolding in the 19th century. At present, a short chronology is conventionally accepted, but it also carries deep contradictions that have not yet been resolved.

The famous Egyptologist G. Brugsch wrote: “When the reader’s curiosity stops at the question: can any eras and moments of the history of the pharaohs be considered definitively established chronologically, and when he turns to the tables compiled by different scientists for clarification, he will stop in surprise before the most diverse opinions in the calculations of pharaonic years made by representatives of the newest school. For example, German scientists determine the time of accession to the throne of Men, the first pharaoh:

Boeck dates this event to 5702 BC;

Unger - 5613;

Brugsch - 4455;

Louth - 4157;

Lepsius - 5702;

Bunsen - 3623.

The difference between the extreme conclusions of this series of numbers is astonishing, since it amounts to 2079 years... The most thorough work and research carried out by competent scientists to verify the chronological sequence of the reigns of the pharaohs and the order of change of entire dynasties, have proved at the same time the inevitable necessity of allowing simultaneous and parallel reign, which significantly reduces the amount of time required for dominion over the country of the thirty dynasties of Manetho. Despite all the discoveries in this area of ​​Egyptology, numerical data are still in a very unsatisfactory state.”

Modern tables also estimate the date of Mena's accession differently, suggesting options around 3100, around 3000, etc. The total variation of this date reaches 2700 years. If we take into account the opinions of others, for example, French Egyptologists, the situation becomes even more confusing:

Champollion gives 5867 BC. e.;

Lesueur - 5770 BC e.;

Mariette - 5004 BC e.;

Shaba - 4000 BC e.;

Meyer - 3180 BC e.;

Andrzejewski - 2850 BC. e.;

Wilkinson - 2320 BC e.;

Palmer - 2224 BC e. etc.

The difference between Champollion's dating and Palmer's dating is a whopping 3,643 years.

Moreover. At the end of the 19th century, Chantepie de la Saussay wrote: “Egyptology, thanks to which the darkness that covered Egyptian antiquity was first dispelled, was born only 80 years ago. The results of the research were popularized, one might say, too quickly... Thanks to this, many false views came into use. It is not yet possible to construct an Egyptian chronology.”

An even more complex situation arose around the list of kings compiled by the Sumerian priests. The famous archaeologist L. Woolley wrote about this: “It was a kind of backbone of history, similar to our chronological tables... But, unfortunately, such a list was of little use... The chronology of the list of kings as a whole is clearly meaningless... The sequence of dynasties was established arbitrarily" .

Moreover, the exceptional antiquity attributed today to these lists is inconsistent with modern archaeological evidence. For example, reporting on excavations of royal tombs in Mesopotamia, L. Woolley talks about a series of finds of gold toiletries: “One of the best experts said that these things were Arab work of the 13th century AD. e. And one cannot blame him for such a mistake, because no one suspected that such high art could exist in the 3rd millennium BC.”

Unfortunately, this criticism did not receive constructive development at that time due to the lack at that time of objective methods of a statistical nature that would allow checking previous chronological identifications and establishing dates in an independent and objective manner.

1.7. MERGING OF THE MIDDLE AGES AND ANCIENTITY: TACITES AND POGGIO, CICERO AND BARZIZZZA, VITRIVIUS AND ALBERTIE

The famous ancient Roman “History” of Cornelius Tacitus may have been written by the famous medieval Italian humanist Poggio Bracciolini. Poggio discovered and put into circulation the works of Quintillion, Valerius Flaccus, Asconius Pedianus, Nonius Marcellus, Probus, some treatises by Cicero, Lucretius, Petronius, Plautus, Tertullian, Marcellinus, Calpurnius Secula - but the circumstances of these finds and datings were never explained anywhere manuscripts. The bulk of the manuscripts on which our knowledge of Greek science is based are Byzantine copies produced 500 to 1500 years after the death of their authors. Around 1420, the Milanese professor Gasparino Barzizza took on a risky task: he was going to fill the gaps of Cicero’s “incomplete excerpt” with his own additions for coherence. The far-reaching parallels between the books of the “ancient” Vitruvius and the remarkable humanist of the 15th century Alberti are noteworthy. Different pronunciations and spellings of the same name by different historians of different nationalities seem to have repeatedly been the cause of large and small chronological errors. One gets the feeling that the architects of the 14th–15th centuries did not at all consider their work to be “imitation of antiquity,” but simply created it.

Of key interest is the question of the origin of ancient primary sources. It is known that the vast majority of these documents only surfaced during the Renaissance after the Dark Ages. The appearance of manuscripts often took place in an environment that was not conducive to a critical analysis of their dating.

Famous historians Gochard and Ross published studies in 1882–1885 and in 1878 in which they proved that the famous ancient Roman “History” of Cornelius Tacitus actually belongs to the pen of the famous Italian humanist Poggio Bracciolini. The history of the discovery of the books of K. Tacitus really raises many questions. It was Poggio who discovered and put into circulation the works of Quintillian, Valerius Flaccus, Asconius Pedianus, Nonius Marcellus, Probus, some treatises of Cicero, Lucretius, Petronius, Plautus, Tertullian, Marcellinus, Calpurnius Secula, etc. The circumstances of these finds and dating of manuscripts.

In the 15th century, famous humanists Manuel Chrysolor, Gemist Pleton, Vissarion of Nicea and others came to Italy. They first introduced Europe to the achievements of “ancient Greek thought.” Byzantium at this time gave the West almost all of the ancient Greek manuscripts known today from ancient times. Otto Neugebauer wrote: “Most of the manuscripts on which our knowledge of Greek science is based are Byzantine copies produced 500 to 1500 years after the death of their authors.”

An objective analysis of classical ancient texts indicates the uncertainty of their origin and the lack of documented data about their fate in the previous, so-called “Dark Ages”. This leads in many cases to assume the absence of these texts before the eve of the Renaissance.

Thus, the oldest copies of the so-called incomplete translation of Cicero’s texts are considered to be those of the 9th–10th centuries AD. e., however, the most ancient manuscript of an incomplete copy perished long ago. In the 14th–15th centuries, interest in Cicero grew, and it came to the point that around 1420, the Milanese professor Gasparino Barzizza took on risky work: he was going to fill in the gaps of the “incomplete excerpt” with his own additions for coherence (!). But before he could finish his work, a miracle happened.

In the remote Italian town of Lodi, an abandoned manuscript was found with the full text of all the rhetorical works of Cicero... Barzizza and his students pounce on the new find, with difficulty decipher its ancient (probably 13th century) font and finally make a readable copy. Lists are taken from this copy, and in their totality they constitute a “complete excerpt”... Meanwhile, the irreparable happens: the archetype of this excerpt, the Lodi manuscript, turns out to be abandoned, no one wants to struggle with its difficult text, it is sent back to Lodi. And there she disappears without a trace, so that since 1428 nothing is known about her fate. European philologists still mourn this loss.

The famous book of Suetonius “The Lives of the Twelve Caesars” is also available only in very late copies. They all go back to a single ancient manuscript that was allegedly in Einhard’s possession; allegedly around 818 AD. e. Einhard, creating his “Life of Charles,” carefully reproduced, as is considered today, “Suetonian biographical schemes.” This is the so-called “Fulda manuscript”, and the first copies from it have not reached us. The oldest copy of Suetonius's book is considered to be a text from the 9th century AD. e., but it surfaced only in the 16th century. The remaining lists are dated in traditional history no earlier than the 11th century AD. e.

The dating of ancient sources was carried out in the 15th–16th centuries on the basis of considerations that have not reached us. Only in 1497 was the book “On Architecture” by Vitruvius opened. According to N.A. Morozov, in the astronomical section of Vitruvius’ book, the periods of heliocentric (!) revolutions of the planets are indicated with incredible accuracy. The architect Vitruvius, who allegedly lived in the 1st–2nd centuries AD. e., knew these numbers better than the astronomer Copernicus! Moreover, in the orbital period of Saturn he was mistaken by only 0.00007 fraction of the modern value of the period, of Mars by 0.006, and of Jupiter by 0.003.

It is worth paying attention to the far-reaching parallels between the books of the “ancient” Vitruvius and the remarkable humanist of the 15th century Alberti. It is worth noting some consonance between the names of Alberti and Vitruvius, based on the frequent transition of “b” to “c” and vice versa: Alb(v)erti - Vitruvius. In general, different pronunciations and spellings of one name by historians of different nationalities, apparently, have repeatedly been the cause of large and small chronological errors. Alberti (1414–1472) is known as a major architect, the author of a fundamental architectural theory, extremely similar to the similar theory of the “ancient” Vitruvius. Like the “ancient” Vitruvius, Alberti wrote a large work that included not only the theory of architecture, but also information on mathematics, optics, and mechanics.

The title of Alberti’s medieval work “Ten Books on Architecture” coincides with the title of a similar “ancient” work by Vitruvius. It is believed that the “ancient” Vitruvius was for the medieval Alberti “a role model when drawing up his own treatise.” Alberti's work is entirely designed in “ancient tones.” Experts have long compiled tables in which fragments of the works of Alberti and Vitruvius appear parallel to each other (sometimes coinciding literally!). Historians comment on this circumstance as follows: “All these numerous parallels... reveal the Hellenistic-Roman atmosphere in which his own thoughts were formed.”

Thus, the book of the “ancient” Vitruvius fits absolutely naturally into the medieval atmosphere and ideology of the 15th century AD. e. Moreover, the vast majority of Alberti’s medieval buildings were made, it turns out, “in the antique style.” In particular, he creates a palace “in the image and likeness of a Roman amphitheater.” As a result, the leading architect of the medieval era fills the cities of Italy with “ancient” buildings that are now - but by no means in the 15th century AD. e. - are considered “imitations of antiquity.” He writes books “in the ancient style,” not suspecting that they will later be declared “an imitation of antiquity.” And only after all this, in 1497 AD. e., the book of the “ancient architect Vitruvius” will be opened, sometimes almost word for word coinciding with a similar book by the medieval Alberti.

One gets the feeling that the architects of the 14th–15th centuries did not at all consider their work to be “imitation of antiquity,” but simply created it. The theory of “imitation” will appear much later, in the works of Scaligerian historians.

1.8. MEASURING AND LEAPING TIME IN THE MIDDLE AGES

Until the 13th–14th centuries, instruments for measuring time were a rarity, a luxury item. Augustine equated each day of creation to a millennium and tried to use such reasoning to determine the duration of human history. The crusaders at the end of the 11th century were convinced that they were punishing not the descendants of the Savior’s executioners, but these executioners themselves. Petrarch participated in the discussion about the falsity of the privileges given by Caesar and Nero to the Austrian ducal house in the 13th century AD. e. Gladiatorial fights in the Middle Ages, as in “antiquity,” ended in the death of the fighter.

An analysis of ancient documents shows that previous ideas about time were sharply different from modern ones. Until the 13th–14th centuries, instruments for measuring time were a rarity, a luxury item. Common clocks in medieval Europe were sun clocks, sand clocks, and clepsydra water clocks. But sundials were only suitable in clear weather, and clepsydras remained rare.

At the end of the 9th century AD. e. Candles were widely used to keep time. For example, when traveling, King Alfred of England took candles of equal length with him and ordered them to be burned one after another. The same counting of time was used back in the 13th–14th centuries, for example, under Charles V. The monks were guided by the number of pages of sacred books they read or psalms that they managed to say between two observations of the sky.

But for informative astronomical observations you need a watch with a second hand! But even after the invention and spread of mechanical watches in Europe, for a very long time they did not have not only a second hand, but also a minute hand.

The problem of inaccurate measurement of real time in the Middle Ages is complemented by the most sophisticated chronological Kabbalah. In particular, periods of time acquire a completely different duration when used to measure biblical events... Thus, Augustine equated each day of creation to a millennium (!) and tried to use such reasoning to determine the duration of human history.

It's funny that in the Middle Ages the past is depicted in the same categories as the present. Biblical and ancient characters appear in medieval costumes. The juxtaposition of Old Testament kings and patriarchs on the portals of cathedrals with ancient sages and gospel characters best reveals the anachronistic attitude towards history. The crusaders at the end of the 11th century were convinced that they were punishing not the descendants of the Savior’s executioners, but these executioners themselves. This fact is quite significant.

Modern historians, based on Scaligerian chronology, believe that the Middle Ages confused eras and concepts on a grand scale, that medieval authors only “out of their ignorance” identified the ancient, ancient, biblical era with the era of the Middle Ages. But, besides this explanation, another point of view is quite reasonable. It can be assumed that these statements of medieval chroniclers correspond to reality, and we now consider them “anachronisms” because today we follow the incorrect Scaligerian chronology.

Scaliger's chronological version reflects only one of several medieval chronological concepts. Along with it, there were other versions. For example, it was believed that the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation of the 10th–13th centuries AD. e. is a direct continuation of the Roman Empire, which supposedly fell in the 6th century AD. e. according to the Scaligerian version.

Here we can mention a medieval dispute that is strange from a modern point of view. The great Italian poet and founder of the humanistic culture of the Renaissance, Francesco Petrarch (1304–1374), based on a number of philological and psychological observations, argued that the privileges given by Caesar and Nero to the Austrian ducal house (in the 13th century AD!) were false. For a modern historian, the very idea that the “ancient” Caesar and Nero were contemporaries of the medieval Austrian ducal house (which began to rule only in 1273 AD, that is, sort of 1200 years after Caesar and Nero), is, of course, absurd. But, as we see, Petrarch’s medieval opponents in the 14th century did not think so at all. e. Then it still had to be proven!

Regarding these famous documents, E. Priester notes: “All interested parties understood perfectly well that these were obvious and unscrupulous forgeries, and yet they “politely” turned a blind eye to this circumstance.”

Another striking example. Modern people from school are accustomed to the idea that famous gladiatorial fights took place only in the “distant ancient past.” But that's not true. V. Klassovsky, having talked about gladiator fights in “ancient” Rome, immediately adds that these fights also took place in medieval Europe of the 14th century AD. e.! For example, he points to gladiator fights in Naples around 1344 AD. e. These medieval battles, as in “antiquity,” ended in the death of the fighter.

1.9. DATING OF BIBLE TEXTS

All three of the oldest texts of the Bible appeared only after the 15th century AD. e. The most ancient surviving manuscripts of the Bible are written in Greek, and there are no Hebrew manuscripts of the Bible earlier than the 9th century AD. e. does not exist. The vast majority of dating of biblical manuscripts is based on “handwriting style,” which makes this “dating” completely dependent on Scaligerian chronology. The canon (the establishment of the law by the Christian Church) of the Bible was actually established only from the time of the new Council of Trent in the 16th century AD. e.

The chronology of biblical books and their dating is very uncertain and rests on the authority of theologians and historians of modern times.

The oldest surviving more or less complete copies of the Bible are the Alexandrian, Vatican and Sinai manuscripts. All three manuscripts are dated paleographically (that is, based on “handwriting style”) to the second half of the 4th century. n. e. The language of the codes is Greek. The least is known about the Vatican Codex - in particular, it is not clear how and where this monument came from around 1475 to the Vatican... It is known about the Alexandrian Codex that in 1628 Patriarch Cyril Lucaris donated it to the English king Charles I. The Sinaiticus Codex was only discovered in the 19th century by K. Tischendorf.

Thus, all three of the oldest Bible codes appeared only after the 15th century AD. e. The reputation of the antiquity of these documents was created by the authority of K. Tischendorf, who was based on the “style of handwriting.” However, the very idea of ​​paleographic dating presupposes the already known global chronology of other documents, and therefore is not an independent method of dating.

Of the individual biblical works, the oldest are considered to be the manuscript of the prophecy of Zechariah and the manuscript of Malachi, dating back to the 6th century AD. e., and they are also dated paleographically. The most ancient surviving manuscripts of the Bible are written in Greek. No Hebrew Bible manuscripts before the 9th century AD. e. (!) does not exist. Although the manuscripts are of a later date, mainly from the middle of the 13th century AD. e., are stored in many national book depositories. The oldest Hebrew manuscript containing the complete Old Testament Bible dates back to 1008 AD. e.

It is assumed that the canon (the establishment of law by the Christian church) of the Bible was established by the Council of Laodicea in 363 AD. e., however, no acts of this and other early councils have survived. In reality, the canon was officially established only from the time of the new Council of Trent, convened during the Reformation in 1545 and lasting until 1563. By order of this council, a large number of books considered apocryphal were destroyed, in particular the Chronicles of the Kings of Judah and Israel. It is significant that the overwhelming majority of dating of biblical manuscripts is based on paleography, which makes this “dating” completely dependent on Scaligerian chronology. When the chronology changes, all “palaeographic dating” automatically changes.

For example, in 1902, the Englishman Nash acquired in Egypt a fragment of a papyrus Hebrew manuscript, the dating of which scientists could not come to a consensus on. Finally, we agreed to consider that the text dates back to the beginning of the century. e. Subsequently, after the discovery of the Qumran manuscripts, it was the comparison of the “handwriting” of the Nash papyrus and the Qumran manuscripts that made it possible from the very beginning to establish the great antiquity of the latter. Thus, one piece of papyrus, about the dating of which they cannot come to a consensus, drags down with it a whole mass of other documents.

It is not surprising that when dating the Qumran scrolls, great disagreement arose among scientists - from the 2nd century BC. e. until the time of the Crusades. For example, the American historian S. Tseitlin categorically insists on the medieval origin of these texts.

1.10. READING A TEXT WRITTEN WITH CONSONANTS ALONE IS A VOLUTION PROBLEM

Many original texts in a wide variety of languages ​​do not have vowels, which creates problems in reading and interpreting them. The Russian “KRV” can mean: blood, curve, blood, cow, etc. Vowel letters were introduced into the Hebrew Bible no earlier than the 7th or 8th centuries AD. The problem of vocalization played a key role in the ambiguities of ancient texts that arise when interpreting the names of cities, countries, names of kings, etc.

Many original texts in a wide variety of languages ​​do not have vowels, which creates problems in reading and interpreting them. Since the Hebrew written language originally had neither vowels nor signs replacing them, the books of the Old Testament were written using only consonants.

Ancient Egyptian texts were also written using consonants. The names of Egyptian kings are given in modern literature in a conventional, so-called school transmission, adopted in textbooks... This transmission often varies significantly, and the reading is quite arbitrary.

Probably, the rarity and high cost of writing materials in ancient times forced scribes to save material by discarding vowels when writing. And the very manner of oral speech in terms of pronouncing vowels and consonants in the old days, apparently, differed significantly from the modern one. To some extent, this manner can be understood from the speech of modern tribes, who rarely use written texts in communication.

True, if we now take the Hebrew Bible or manuscript, we will find in them signs indicating the missing vowels. These signs did not belong to the Hebrew Bible. The books were read one consonant at a time, filling in the gaps with vowels to the best of one’s ability and in accordance with the apparent requirements of the meaning and oral traditions.

Imagine how accurate a letter written with only consonants can be!

T.F. Curtis wrote: “Even for the priests, the meaning of the writings remained extremely doubtful and could only be understood with the help of the authority of tradition.” It is assumed that this serious defect in the Hebrew Bible was eliminated no earlier than the 7th or 88th centuries AD, when the Massorites (Massorites) revised the Bible and “added ... signs to replace vowels; but they had no guidance except their own judgment and very imperfect tradition.”

Driver adds: “From the time of... the Massorites in the 7th and 8th centuries... the Jews began to guard their sacred books with extraordinary care even when it was too late to correct... the damage done to them. The result of this care was only the perpetuation of distortions, which were now placed in terms of authority... completely on the same level as the original text.”

It was previously believed that vowels were introduced into the Hebrew text by Ezra in the 5th century BC. e. When, in the 16th and 17th centuries, Levita and Capellus in France refuted this opinion and proved that vowel signs were introduced only by the Massorites, this discovery created a sensation throughout Protestant Europe. It seemed to many that the new theory led to the complete overthrow of religion. If vowel signs were not a matter of divine revelation, but were only a human invention, and, moreover, of a much later time, then how could one rely on the text of Scripture? The debate aroused by this discovery was one of the most heated in the history of new biblical criticism and lasted more than a century. Finally they stopped: the correctness of the new view was recognized by everyone.

It seems that the problem of vocalization played a key role in the ambiguities of ancient texts that arise when interpreting the names of cities, countries, names of kings, etc. Tens and hundreds of different variants of vocalization of the same term appear. As a result, Scaligerian history does not always identify unambiguous biblical inconsistent names of cities, countries, etc., based on Scaliger’s chronology and from a hypothetical localization that attributes biblical events exclusively to the Middle East.

1.11. PROBLEMS OF GEOGRAPHICAL LOCALIZATION OF ANCIENT EVENTS

None of the books of the Old and New Testaments have reliable archaeological evidence for their traditional geographical and temporal localization. Perhaps in the Middle Ages the same famous city on the Bosphorus was called by different names: Troy, New Rome, Constantinople, Jerusalem. Southern Italy in the Middle Ages was sometimes called Magna Graecia. Herodotus's map may be inverted in relation to the modern one, that is, with the replacement of east by west. According to the version of modern historians, we have to assume that Herodotus identifies the following bodies of water: Red Sea - South Sea - Black Sea - North Sea - Mediterranean Sea - Persian Gulf - Our Sea - Indian Ocean.

The famous archaeologist L. Wright, by the way, an ardent supporter of the Scaligerian localization and dating of biblical events, wrote: “The vast majority of finds prove nothing and disprove nothing; they fill the background and provide the setting for the story... Unfortunately, the desire to "prove" the Bible permeates many of the works available to the average reader. The evidence is misused, the conclusions drawn from it are often incorrect, erroneous or half correct.”

A careful analysis of specific facts shows that none of the books of the Old Testament has reliable archaeological evidence of their traditional geographical and temporal localization. The entire “Mesopotamian” theory of the Bible is called into question.

The situation is no better with the traditional localization of the events of the New Testament, which supposedly took place near modern Jerusalem. The historians themselves frankly write: “Reading the literature devoted to the archeology of the New Testament makes a strange impression. There are tens and hundreds of pages of descriptions of how the excavations were organized, what the appearance of the relevant areas and objects is, what the historical and biblical “background” of this plot is, and in conclusion, when it comes to reporting the results of all the work, there are several vague and clearly confused phrases that the problem has not yet been solved, but there is hope that in the future, etc. We can say with complete confidence and categoricalness that not a single, literally not a single New Testament plot has so far had any convincing archaeological confirmation... Not a single place that is traditionally considered the scene of one or another New Testament event can be indicated with the slightest degree of certainty.”

Indeed, significant difficulties accompany attempts to correctly geographically localize many ancient events. For example, “New City” is present in ancient chronicles in several copies:

Naples in Italy, which still exists today;

Carthage, which also means “New City”;

Naples in Palestine;

Scythian Naples;

New Rome, that is, Constantinople, Constantinople, could also be called the New City.

Therefore, when some chronicle tells about events in a certain “Naples”, you should carefully figure out which city you are talking about.

Let's take another example - Troy.

One of the localizations of the famous Homeric Troy is near the Hellespont (for which, however, there are also several significantly different localizations). It was precisely based on this hypothesis - that the ruins of Troy were located near the Hellespont - that G. Schliemann in the 19th century assigned, without any serious grounds, the high-profile name of Troy to the meager settlement he found in the Hellespont region.

In traditional chronology, it is believed that Homeric Troy was finally destroyed in the 12th–13th centuries BC. e. But in the Middle Ages, for example, the Italian Troy, which, by the way, exists to this day, enjoyed well-deserved fame. This medieval city played an important role in many medieval wars, especially in the famous war of the 13th century AD. e. Byzantine medieval historians, for example, Niketas Choniates and Nikephoros Gregoras, also speak of Troy as an existing city. Titus Livius indicates the place “Troy” and the Trojan region in Italy (Fig. 1-3a).

Rice. 1-For. Ancient miniature “At the Gates of Troy”

Some medieval historians identify Troy with Jerusalem. This confuses modern commentators: “And the book of Homer itself somewhat unexpectedly turned ... into a book about the destruction of Jerusalem from beginning to end.” The medieval author Anna Comnena, speaking about Ithaca, the birthplace of Homer’s Odysseus, one of the main heroes of the Trojan War, unexpectedly declares that on the island of Ithaca “a large city was built, called Jerusalem.” It should be recalled here that modern Jerusalem is not located on an island.

The second name of Troy is Ilion, and the second name of Jerusalem is Elia Capitolina. There is an analogy: Elia - Ilion. Perhaps, in the Middle Ages, it was true that some people called the same city Troy-Ilion, and others called Jerusalem-Elia? Eusebius Pamphilus wrote: “He called the small cities of Phrygia, Petusa and Timion, Jerusalem.” The above facts show that the name Troy “multiplied” in the Middle Ages and was applied to different cities. Perhaps there was originally a single medieval “original”? In this regard, one cannot help but pay attention to the following data preserved in Scaligerian history and allowing us to put forward the hypothesis that in some documents Homer's Troy is probably the famous city of Constantinople, Tsar-Grad.

It turns out that the Roman Emperor Constantine the Great, when founding New Rome, the future Constantinople, met the wishes of his fellow citizens and “first chose the site of ancient Ilion, the fatherland of the first founders of Rome.” The famous historian Jelal Essad reports this in his book “Constantinople” (M., 1919, p. 25). But Ilion, as is well known from Scaligerian history, is another name for Troy. As historians further say, Constantine nevertheless “changed his mind,” shifted the new capital slightly to the side and founded New Rome nearby, in the city of Byzantium.

Perhaps in the Middle Ages the same famous city on the Bosphorus was called by different names: Troy, New Rome, Constantinople, Jerusalem? After all, the name “Naples” simply translates as “New City”. Maybe New Rome was once also called the New City, that is, Naples? Let us also note that the south of Italy in the Middle Ages was called Magna Graecia.

Today it is believed that the city of Babylon was located in modern Mesopotamia. The authors of some medieval texts hold a different opinion. For example, the book Serbian Alexandria places Babylon in Egypt. Moreover, it localizes the death of Alexander the Great in Egypt. But according to the Scaligerian version, Alexander the Great died in Mesopotamia. Moreover, it turns out: “Babylon is the Greek name for the settlement located opposite the pyramids (Tower of Babel?). In the Middle Ages, this was sometimes called Cairo, of which this settlement became a suburb.” The term "Babylon" has a meaningful translation, like many other city names. Therefore, this term could be applied to different cities.

Eusebius reports that Rome was called Babylon. Moreover, “by Babylon, Byzantine historians (in the Middle Ages) most often mean Baghdad.” A medieval author of the 11th century AD speaks about Babylon as an existing, and not at all destroyed, city. e. Mikhail Psell.

The significance of Herodotus for Scaligerian history is enormous. But now he declares that the Nile flows parallel to the Istru, which is now identified with the Danube (and for some reason not with the Dniester, for example). And here it turns out that the opinion about the parallelism of the Danube and the Nile was widespread in medieval Europe until the end of the 13th century AD. e.

The identification of Herodotus's geographical data with a modern map encounters significant difficulties within the framework of the Scaligerian localization of the events he describes. In particular, the numerous corrections that modern historians are forced to make when making such identifications show that Herodotus's map may be inverted in relation to the modern one, replacing east with west. This orientation is typical of many medieval maps.

Commentators are forced to believe that in different places in Herodotus’ History the same names of seas mean completely different bodies of water. For example, according to modern historians, we have to assume that Herodotus identifies the following bodies of water: Red Sea - South Sea - Black Sea - North Sea - Mediterranean Sea - Persian Gulf - Our Sea - Indian Ocean. Many strange things arise from an unbiased analysis of the geography of the Bible.

1.12. ANALYSIS OF BIBLE GEOGRAPHY

Many biblical texts explicitly describe volcanic phenomena. The attribution of these descriptions to the traditional Mount Sinai and to Jerusalem in Palestine is strange: this mountain was never a volcano. The only powerful volcano in the Mediterranean is Vesuvius. It is possible that some of the events described in the Bible, namely the campaign of the Israelites led by Moses and the subsequent conquest of the “Promised Land” led by Joshua, took place not in modern Palestine, but in Europe, in particular in Italy.

Very often, ancient events are effectively and colorfully shaded by grandiose natural phenomena. The fact that many biblical texts explicitly describe volcanic phenomena has been noted in history for a long time. The Bible says: “And the Thunderer said to Moses: Behold, I will come to you in a thick cloud... to Mount Sinai... during the lingering sound of the trumpet, (when the cloud departs from the mountain), they (the people) may ascend the mountain... There were thunder and lightning , and a thick cloud over Mount (Sinai), and a very strong trumpet sound... Mount Sinai was all smoking because the Thunderer had descended on it in fire; and smoke rose from it like smoke from a furnace, and the whole mountain shook greatly; and the sound of the trumpet grew stronger and stronger" (Exodus, XIX). And further: “All the people saw thunder and flames, and the sound of a trumpet, and a smoking mountain” (Exodus, XX). “You stood... at Horeb... and the mountain burned with fire to the very heavens, and there was darkness, cloud and darkness” (Deuteronomy, IV, 9-12).

The destruction of the biblical cities of Sodom and Gomorrah has long been considered in history as destruction as a result of a volcanic eruption: “And the Thunderer rained brimstone and fire on Sodom and Gomorrah ... behold, smoke rises from the earth like the smoke of a furnace” (Genesis, XIX, 24, 28). Etc.

Here is a list of “volcanisms” in the Bible compiled by V.P. Fomenko and T.G. Fomenko: Genesis (XIX, 18, 24), Exodus (XIII, 21, 22), (XIV, 18), (XX, 15), (XXIV, 15, 16, 17), Numbers (XIV, 14), ( XXI, 28), (XXVI, 10), Deuteronomy (IV, 1 1, 36), (V, 19, 20, 21), (IX, 15, 21), (X, 4), (XXXII, 22) , 2nd book. Kings (XXII, 8-10, 13), 3rd book. Kings (XVIII, 38, 39), (XIX, 11,12), 2nd book. Kings (I, 10–12, 14), Nehemiah (IX, 12, 19), bk. Psalms (ps. II, v. 6, ps. 106, v. 17), (ps. 106, v. 18), Ezekiel (XXXVIII, 22), Jeremiah (XLVIII, 45), Lamentations of Jeremiah (II, 3) , (IV, 1 1), Isaiah (IV, 5), (V, 25), (IX, 17, 18), (X, 17), (XXX, 30), Joel (II, 3, 5, 10 ).

The attribution of these descriptions to the traditional Mount Sinai and to Jerusalem in Palestine is at least strange: this mountain was never a volcano. So where did the events take place? It is enough to study the geological map of the surroundings of the Mediterranean. There is not a single active volcano in the Sinai Peninsula, Syria and Palestine. There are only zones of “Tertiary and Quaternary volcanism”, as, for example, near Paris. In historical time, i.e. after the beginning of the century. e., no volcanic phenomena have been recorded here.

The only powerful volcanic zones still active in the region are Italy and Sicily. Egypt and North Africa do not have volcanoes. So, you need to find:

1) a powerful volcano that was active during the historical era;

2) near the volcano - the destroyed capital (see Lamentations of Jeremiah);

3) near the volcano - two more cities destroyed by it: Sodom and Gomorrah.

There is only one such volcano in the Mediterranean. This is Vesuvius, one of the most powerful volcanoes active in historical times. At its foot is the famous Pompeii (the capital?) destroyed by the eruption and two destroyed cities: Stabia (Sodom?) and Herculaneum (Gomorrah?). It should be noted that there are some similarities in the names.

ON THE. Morozov conducted an interesting analysis that allows us to read the unspoken text of some fragments of the Bible, taking into account the location of Mount Sinai-Horeb-Zion in Italy. Let us give some examples (translation from Hebrew by N.A. Morozov).

The Bible says: “He spoke to us on Mount Horeb... “It is enough for you to live on this mountain!” (...) set out on your journey... to the land of KNUN" (Deuteronomy I, 7). Theologians pronounce “KNUN” as “Canaan” and refer it to the desert on the shores of the Dead Lake, but another vowel is also possible: “KNUN” - “Kenua” instead of “Genoa” (that is, the Genoese region in Italy). The Bible says: “To the land of Canaan, and to LBUN” (Deuteronomy I, 7). LBNUN theologians pronounce Lebanon, but LBNUN often means “white” - the same as “Mont Blanc” - “White Mountain”.

The Bible says: "Until the great river, the river PRT." Theologians pronounce “PRT” as the Euphrates, but beyond Mont Blanc there is the Danube River with a large tributary, the Prut.

The Bible says: “And we departed from Horeb, and walked throughout this great and terrible wilderness” (Deuteronomy I, 19). Indeed, near Vesuvius-Horeb there are the famous Phlegrean fields - vast scorched spaces filled with small volcanoes, fumaroles and lava layers.

The Bible says: “And they came to KDSH V-RNE.” Theologians pronounce KDSH V-RNE as “Kadesh-Barnea,” but here, perhaps, they mean Cadiz on the Rhone. Perhaps modern Geneva is named after Cadiz on the Rhone.

The Bible says, “And they walked around Mount Seir for a long time.” “Seir” was left by theologians without translation, but if translated, we get: Devil’s Ridge, Devil’s Mountain. This is exactly the mountain that is located beyond Lake Geneva, namely Diablereux - “Devil’s Mountain”.

The “sons of Lot” encountered along the way can be identified with the Latins, that is, “LT” without vowels.

The Bible says: “Cross the river ARNN” (Deuteronomy II, 14). In the synodal translation: Arnon. But this is the Italian Arno River that still exists!

The Bible says: “And they went to Bashan” (Deuteronomy III, 1). The city of Wassan, or Bashan, is mentioned repeatedly in the Bible. Amazingly, the city of Bassan (Vassano) - Bassano - still exists in Lombardy.

The Bible says: “And the king of Bassan came out against us... at Adria (“Edrei” in the synod, translation)” (Deuteronomy III, 1). But Adria still exists, and precisely under this name, near the mouth of the Po; and the Po River, by the way, is often called the Jordan (Eridanus) by ancient Latin authors (see, for example, Procopius), which is in perfect agreement with the biblical outline of the Jordan - IRDN.

The Bible says: “And we took all his cities...sixty cities” (Deuteronomy III, 3-4). Indeed, in this area in the Middle Ages there were many large cities: Verona, Padua, Ferrara, Bologna, etc.

The Bible says: “From the stream ARN (“Arnon” in the synod, translation) to the HRUN of the mountains” (Deuteronomy III, 4.8). But the mountains "KHRMUN" can obviously be pronounced as "German mountains".

The Bible says: “Only Og, king of Bashan, remained. Behold, his bed (here: coffin), an iron bed, and now in Rabbah (synodal translation!)” (Deuteronomy 111.2). Not only is Ravenna (Rabba) named here, but also the famous tomb of Theodoric of Goths (“og” - Goths?) (493–526 AD), located in Ravenna! Etc.

Thus, it is possible that part of the events described in the Bible, namely the campaign of the Israelites led by Moses and the subsequent conquest of the “Promised Land” led by Joshua, took place not in modern Palestine, but in Europe, in particular in Italy.

1.13. THE MYSTERIOUS RENAISSANCE AGE AS A CONSEQUENCE OF CHRONOLOGICAL ERRORS

The ancient Plato is considered the founder of Platonism, which was revived several hundred years later in another famous “Neoplatonist” Plotinus (205–270 AD), and again (!) revived already in the 15th century AD. e. with the same force in another famous “Platonist” Pleto. It is believed that the ancient, brilliant Latin degraded at the beginning of the Middle Ages into a rough, clumsy language, which only in the Renaissance regained its former shine. A very large number of names, which today are considered exclusively ancient, were common in Byzantium in the 12th–14th centuries AD. e.

In traditional chronology, the “revival effect” is clearly expressed, supposedly a repetition of antiquity. The ancient Plato is considered the founder of Platonism. Then his teaching dies, only to be revived several hundred years later in another famous “Neoplatonist” Plotinus (205-270 AD), whose name coincidentally turned out to be almost identical with the name of his spiritual teacher Plato. Then Neoplatonism dies, so that after another few hundred years, this time in the 15th century AD. e., to be reborn again with the same strength in another famous “Platonist” - Pleto. The name of which, again “by chance,” is almost identical to the name of the ancient teacher Plato. It is believed that Pleto revived ancient Platonism. The appearance of the manuscripts of ancient Plato from oblivion occurs precisely in the 15th century AD. e. Pleto organizes the “Pleton Academy” in Florence - an exact analogue of the ancient Platonic Academy. He is the author of the famous utopia “Treatise on Laws” (both Plato and Pleto write “utopias”), which, unfortunately, has not reached us in its entirety. But the full text of the “Treatise on the Laws” of ancient Plato has reached us. Like the ancient Plato, Pleto of the 15th century puts forward the idea of ​​an ideal state, and his program is extremely close to Plato’s program. In unison with both of them, Plotinus (205–270 AD) also hopes that the emperor will help him found in Campania (i.e., again in Italy) the city of Platonopolis, in which he will introduce aristocratic-communal institutions “according to Plato "

One of the main points that gives rise to at least two options for dating documents - ancient dating and medieval - is the presence of the Renaissance, when all the ancient, now considered ancient, areas of science, philosophy, culture, painting, etc. were allegedly revived again. that the ancient, brilliant Latin degraded at the beginning of the Middle Ages into a rough, clumsy language, which only in the Renaissance regained its former splendor. This revival of Latin (as well as the ancient Greek language) begins no earlier than the 8th–9th centuries AD. e.

It turns out that the famous medieval trouvères began from the 10th–11th centuries to develop plots that historians now call “a masquerade of classical memories.” In the 11th century, the “story of Ulysses” (Odyssey) appeared, in which the supposedly well-known Homeric plot is presented in medieval light - knights, ladies, fights, etc. But, on the other hand, all the elements are present here that will then be considered the backbone ancient plot. Starting from the end of the 12th and beginning of the 13th centuries. the Trouvères said with some pride: this story (of the Trojan War) is not hackneyed; no one had ever composed or written it... For them it was almost a national story. The fact is that the Franks considered themselves to be from Troy (!), and the author of the 7th century AD. e. Fredegarius Scholasticus points to King Priam as a figure of the previous generation. The campaign of the Argonauts was merged with the Trojan War, when the conquering crusaders (apparently the medieval originals of the ancient Argonauts) rushed to the distant countries of Asia. In medieval texts, Alexander the Great compliments France. Some texts of the Middle Ages, speaking about the Trojan War, call Paris - Paris (Parisian?).

Under the pressure of tradition and all these oddities, historians are forced to believe that in the Middle Ages the idea of ​​chronological sequence was almost lost: at the funeral of Alexander the Great there are monks with crosses and censers; Catiline listens to mass... Orpheus is a contemporary of Aeneas, Sardanapalus is the king of Greece, Julian the Apostate is the papal chaplain. Everything in this world - modern historians are surprised - takes on a fantastic coloring. The crudest anachronisms and the strangest inventions coexist peacefully.

All these and thousands of other facts are today discarded as patently absurd. Long before the discovery of the supposedly ancient history of the Golden Donkey, the “donkey theme” was developed in great detail in the works of medieval trouvères. Moreover, the ancient story of the Donkey, which surfaced only in the Renaissance, is the natural conclusion of this entire medieval cycle.

The following general fact holds. In the Middle Ages, long before the discovery of ancient, antique originals, all supposedly ancient plots arose and were developed along an ascending line. Moreover, the supposedly ancient originals that appeared later, during the Renaissance, chronologically and evolutionarily follow their medieval predecessors.

It is important that people in ancient times did not have names in the modern sense, but nicknames with meaningful translations in the language in which they were originally pronounced. Nicknames characterized a person's qualities; The more remarkable traits he had, the more nicknames he had. For example, various chroniclers gave the emperor the nicknames by which he was known in the area. Pharaohs had some names before their coronation and others after it. Since they were crowned several times, with crowns from different regions, the number of their names quickly increased. These nicknames are usually translated as: “strong”, “bright”, etc. The same thing happened in Russian history. Tsar Ivan III had the name Timofey; Tsar Vasily III was Gabriel; Tsarevich Dmitry (killed in Uglich) - not Dmitry, but Uar; one is a royal name, the other is a church name.

v HISTORY AS AN EXACT SCIENCE

Today there is an idea that names that differed from ancient ones were common in the Middle Ages. But analysis of the texts shows that ancient names were constantly used in the Middle Ages. For example, Neil of Sinai, who allegedly died in 450 AD. e., writes letters to his contemporaries, medieval monks who bore clearly ancient names: Apollodorus, Amphictyon, Atticus, Anaxagoras, Demosthenes, Asklepiodes, Aristocles, Aristarchus, Alcibiades, Apollos, etc. A very large number of names that are considered today exclusively ancient , was common in Byzantium in the 12th–14th centuries AD. e.

1.14. PROBLEMS OF DIRECT ARCHAEOLOGICAL DATING

The basic principle of archaeological dating - by analogy with what already exists - does not give reliable results today. Changing the chronological “scale” automatically changes the chronology of new archaeological finds. The vast majority of ancient monuments over the past 200–300 years, that is, from the moment when continuous observations began to be carried out over them, for some reason began to deteriorate more than in previous centuries and even millennia. This may indicate that all these buildings are not so ancient at all and they are being destroyed in a natural order and at a natural speed known to all of us.

Modern archaeologists speak with pain about the ignorant diggers of previous centuries, who hopelessly mutilated numerous monuments in search of valuables. “When things arrived at the Rumyantsev Museum (excavations of 1851-1854), they represented a completely disordered pile of material, since there was no inventory with marks of which mound each thing came from... The grandiose excavations of 1851-1854... will be mourned for a long time science." Currently, the excavation technique has been improved, but, unfortunately, it is rarely possible to apply it to ancient excavations: almost all of them have already been “processed” by previous “diggers.”

It is worth recalling the basic principle of archaeological dating - by analogy with what already exists - and what it can lead to. For example, in Egypt of the 18th - 19th dynasties, Greek vessels of the Mycenaean culture were discovered in graves. Then these dynasties and this culture are considered by archaeologists to be simultaneous. Then the same vessels (or “similar ones”) were found together with special type of clasps in Mycenae, and similar pins were found in Germany, next to urns. A similar urn was found near Fanger; and in this urn there is a new kind of pin. A similar pin was found in Sweden, in the so-called. "King Bjorn's Mound". So this mound was dated to the 18th - 19th dynasties of Egypt. At the same time, it was discovered that Bjorn’s mound “could in no way relate to the Viking king Bjorn, but was erected a good two thousand years earlier.”

It is not clear what is meant by the “similarity” of finds, therefore all this (and similar) methods rest on undivided subjectivism and - most importantly! - on Scaligerian chronology. Newly found objects - vessels, etc. - are compared with “similar” finds, dated earlier on the basis of Scaligerian chronology. Changing the chronological scale automatically changes the chronology of new archaeological finds.

A striking example of the problems that arise when dating archaeological material is the excavations of Pompeii. The 15th-century author Jacob Sannatzar wrote: “We approached the city (Pompeii), and its towers, houses, theaters and temples, untouched by centuries, could already be seen.” But Pompeii is considered destroyed and buried by the eruption of 79 AD. e. Therefore, archaeologists are forced to evaluate Sannatzar’s words as follows: “In the 15th century, some of the buildings of Pompeii were already standing above the sediment.” It is believed, therefore, that Pompeii was then “covered by the earth” again, since only in 1748 did they stumble upon the remains of Pompeii.

The excavations were carried out barbarously. “Now it is difficult to determine the extent of the damage caused by vandalism of that time... If the drawing did not seem too beautiful to someone, it was broken into pieces and thrown away like garbage... When they found some marble table with a bronze inscription, they tore off individual letters and threw them into a basket ... Souvenirs were made from fragments of sculptures for tourists, often with images of saints.” It is possible that some of these supposed “fakes” were originals, but they just did not fit into the Scaligerian chronology.

In the 20th century, archaeologists and historians paid attention to the following process. The vast majority of ancient monuments over the past 200–300 years, that is, from the moment when continuous observations began to be carried out over them, for some reason began to deteriorate more than in previous centuries and even millennia. Here, for example, is a note from the Izvestia newspaper dated October 31, 1981: “The Sphinx is in trouble. For almost five thousand years, the statue of the famous Sphinx in Giza (Egypt) has stood unshakably. However, now environmental pollution has negatively affected its safety. The Sphinx was in distress. A large piece (paw) broke off from the statue. The reason for this was increased humidity, soil salinity and, mainly, the accumulation in the area where the sphinx is located of wastewater that has not undergone any treatment.”

Modern industry is commonly cited, but no one has done extensive research to assess the impact of modern civilization on stone structures. Perhaps all these buildings are not at all as ancient as the Scaligerian chronology claims, and they are destroyed in a natural order and with a natural speed known to all of us.

1.15. DENDROCHRONOLOGY AND DATES

Dendrochronology is based on the fact that the graph of the thickness of annual rings is approximately the same for trees of the same species growing in the same places and conditions. Dendrochronological scales in Europe and Asia extend “down” from our time by only a few hundred years. All supposedly “earlier” segments of dendrochronological scales cannot be used for independent dating, since they themselves are tied to the time axis only on the basis of Scaligerian chronology.

One of the modern methods that claims to provide independent dating of historical monuments is dendrochronological. His idea is quite simple. It is based on the fact that tree rings grow unevenly over the years. It is believed that the graph of the thickness of annual rings is approximately the same for trees of the same species growing in the same places and conditions.

To apply this method for dating, it is necessary to first construct a reference graph of the thickness of the annual rings of a given tree species over a sufficiently long historical period. We will call such a graph a dendrochronological scale. If such a scale is constructed, then it can be used to date some archaeological finds containing pieces of logs. It is necessary to determine the type of tree, make a cut, measure the thickness of the rings, build a graph and try to find a segment with the same graph on the dendrochronological reference scale. In this case, the question must be investigated - what deviations of the compared graphs can be neglected.

However, dendrochronological scales in Europe extend “down” only a few centuries, which does not allow dating ancient structures. “Scientists from many European countries tried to apply the dendrochronological method... But it turned out that the matter is far from so simple. Ancient trees in European forests are only 300–400 years old... Deciduous wood is difficult to study. They are extremely reluctant to tell its vague rings about the past... Good-quality archaeological material, contrary to expectations, turned out to be insufficient.”

American dendrochronology is in a better position (Douglas fir, alpine and yellow pine), but this region is removed from the “zone of antiquity.” In addition, there are always many unaccounted factors: local climatic conditions of a given period, soil composition, humidity fluctuations, terrain, etc., etc., which significantly change the ring thickness graphs. It is important that the construction of dendrochronological scales was carried out on the basis of the already existing Scaligerian chronology, therefore changing the chronology of documents will automatically change these scales. It turns out that dendrochronological scales in Europe and Asia extend “down” from our time by only a few hundred years.

Let us give a more accurate picture of the current state of these scales in Italy, the Balkans, Greece, and Turkey. Here is a diagram of dendrochronological dating scales for these countries. This diagram was kindly provided to the author by Professor Yu.M. Kabanov (Moscow). In 1994, Professor Yu.M. Kabanov participated in a conference at which American professor Peter Ian Kuniholm demonstrated it. Chart compiled by Malcolm and Carolyn Wiener Laboratory for Aegean and Near Eastern Dendrochronology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA. In Fig. 1–4 horizontally clearly depict fragments of dendrochronological scales reconstructed for different tree species: oak, boxwood, cedar, pine, juniper, conifer family.

Rice. 1–4. Current state of dendrochronological scales. It is clearly seen that they are considered “continuously extended” into the past only until the 10th century AD. e. Before this time, the “scale” represented separate fragments that were in no way connected with each other.

It is clearly seen that all these six scales have a gap around 1000 AD. Thus, none of them can be continuously extended from our time “down” beyond the 10th century AD. e.

It should be emphasized that all supposedly “earlier” segments of the dendrochronological scales shown in the diagram cannot be used for independent dating. This is due to the fact that they themselves are tied to the time axis only on the basis of Scaligerian chronology. Based on it, some individual “ancient” logs were “dated”. For example, a log from a pharaoh's tomb was dated to some millennium BC based on "historical considerations." After that, finding other “ancient” logs, they tried to chronologically link them to this already “dated” log. Sometimes it worked. As a result, a segment of the dendrochronological scale arose around the initial “dating”. The relative dating of the various "ancient" finds within this segment is probably correct. However, their absolute dating, that is, linking this entire period to the time axis, is incorrect. Because the first dating made according to the Scaligerian chronology was incorrect.

1.16. DATING BY SEDIMENTARY LAYER

RADIUM-URANIUM AND RADIUM-ACTINIUM METHODS

Traditional chronology has even penetrated into the calibration of scales of crude physical methods for estimating the absolute age of objects. In some areas of Europe, only 3 centimeters of precipitation accumulates over a thousand years; in southern Ukraine, the same amount is deposited annually. Radium-uranium and radium-actinium methods are convenient for dating geological formations only in cases where the required accuracy does not exceed 4-10 thousand years.

Scaligerian historical chronology also penetrated into the calibration of scales of rough physical methods for estimating the absolute age of objects.

A. Oleinikov reports: “Over the eighteen centuries that have passed since the Roman invasion (we are talking about the territory of present-day Savoy), the walls at the entrance to the quarries managed to become covered with a layer of weathering, the thickness of which, as measurements showed, reached 3 mm. Comparing the thickness of this crust, formed over 1800 years (as suggested by the Scaligerian chronology), with the 35-centimeter weathering crust covering the surface of the hills polished by the glacier, it could be assumed that glaciation left the local region about 216 thousand years ago... But the supporters of this method paid well understand how difficult it is to obtain standards for the rate of destruction... In different climatic conditions, weathering occurs at different rates... The speed of weathering depends on temperature, air humidity, amount of precipitation and sunny days. This means that for each natural zone it is necessary to calculate special graphs and draw up special scales. Is it possible to be sure that the climatic conditions remained unshakable from the moment when the layer of interest to us was exposed?”

There have been numerous attempts to determine absolute age from sedimentation rates. They were unsuccessful. A. Oleinikov wrote: “Research in this direction was carried out simultaneously in many countries, but the results, contrary to expectations, turned out to be disappointing. It became obvious that even identical rocks in similar natural conditions can accumulate and weather at very different rates, and it is almost impossible to establish any exact patterns of these processes. For example, it is known from ancient written sources (and again - a reference to the Scaligerian chronology) that the Egyptian pharaoh Ramses II reigned about 3000 years ago. The buildings that were erected during his time are now buried under a three-meter layer of sand. This means that over a millennium, approximately a meter-thick layer of sand deposits was deposited here. At the same time, in some areas of Europe, only 3 centimeters of precipitation accumulates over a thousand years. But at the mouths of estuaries in southern Ukraine, the same amount of precipitation is deposited annually.”

They tried to develop other methods. “The radium-uranium and radium-actinium methods operate within 300 thousand years. They are convenient for dating geological formations in cases where the required accuracy does not exceed 4 - 10 thousand years.” For the purposes of historical chronology, these crude methods, unfortunately, cannot yield practically anything.

1.17. RELIABILITY OF THE RADIOCARBON METHOD

Willard Frank Libby received the Nobel and Guggenheim Prizes for his invention of radiocarbon dating in 1950. The method is based on an irreversible decrease in the concentration of the radioactive carbon isotope C-14 in the body after death. The method in its current state gives chaotic errors of up to 1000–2000 years and, in its “independent” dating of ancient samples, is overly focused on the answers proposed by historians. Radiocarbon dating of the Shroud of Turin gave a date around the 11th–13th centuries AD. e., from which the following conclusions follow: either the Shroud of Turin is a falsification, or there is a great dating error, or Christ lived in the 11th–13th centuries. n. e.

In 1950, the American Willard Frank Libby published the results of his research, which was subsequently crowned with the Nobel and Guggenheim Prizes. Based on experiments, he came to the conclusion that neutrons produced under the influence of cosmic rays in the earth's atmosphere are absorbed by nitrogen atoms to form the radioactive carbon isotope C-14. This carbon forms carbon dioxide molecules, which are absorbed by plants, and through them by animals, including humans. The half-life of this radioactive isotope is 5568 years. This means that its concentration in the atmosphere and biosphere would have dropped by half during this time if it had not been replenished with newly formed atoms.

However, according to the theory, this replenishment ceases after the death of the living organism, leading to an irreversible decrease in the concentration of C-14 in the body after death. And if in a living organism there is one C-14 atom for every 10 billion ordinary C-12 carbon atoms, then in a long-dead organism the concentration is lower, which makes it possible to estimate the date of death. And according to it - the time of life. Libby developed a technique for measuring and recalculating the isotope content, which led to the advent of the radiocarbon method for determining the age of ancient objects.

Today, the radiocarbon method, which claims to independently date ancient monuments, is very popular. However, as radiocarbon dates accumulated, the most serious difficulties in applying the method were revealed. In particular, as A. Oleinikov writes, “I had to think about one more problem. The intensity of radiation penetrating the atmosphere varies depending on many cosmic reasons. Therefore, the amount of radioactive carbon isotope produced must fluctuate over time. It is necessary to find a way that would allow them to be taken into account. In addition, a huge amount of carbon generated by the combustion of wood fuel, coal, oil, peat, oil shale and their processed products is continuously released into the atmosphere. What effect does this source of atmospheric carbon have on increasing the radioactive isotope? In order to determine the true age, complex corrections will have to be calculated to reflect changes in the composition of the atmosphere over the last millennium. These ambiguities, along with some technical difficulties, have raised doubts about the accuracy of many determinations made by the carbon method.”

The author of the method, W. F. Libby, not being a historian, was absolutely confident in the correctness of Scaligerian dating, and from his book it is clear that it was according to them that the radiocarbon method was adjusted. However, archaeologist Vladimir Milojcic has convincingly shown that this method in its current state gives chaotic errors of up to 1000–2000 years and, in its “independent” dating of ancient samples, is overly focused on the answers proposed by historians.

W.F. Libby wrote: “We had no disagreement with historians regarding Ancient Rome and Ancient Egypt. We did not make numerous determinations for this era (!), since in general its chronology is known to archeology better than we could establish it, and by providing samples at our disposal (which, by the way, are destroyed and burned in the process of radiocarbon measurement), archaeologists rather, they were doing us a favor.” This recognition by Libby is significant, since the difficulties of Scaligerian chronology were discovered precisely for those regions and eras for which, as Libby reported, “numerous determinations were not made.” With the same small number of control measurements on antiquity, which were nevertheless carried out, the situation is as follows. When carbon dating, for example, the Egyptian collection of J. H. Brasted, “suddenly it turned out,” Libby reports, “that the third object we analyzed was modern! This was one of the finds... which was considered... belonging to the dynasty (that is, 2563-2423 BC - about 4 thousand years ago). Yes, it was a hard blow." However, a “way out” was immediately found: the object was declared a forgery, since no one had the idea to doubt the correctness of the Scaligerian chronology of Ancient Egypt.

“In support of their fundamental assumption, they (proponents of the method) cite a number of indirect evidence, considerations and calculations, the accuracy of which is low, and the interpretation is ambiguous, and the main evidence is control radiocarbon determinations of samples of a previously known age... But as soon as it comes to control dating of historical objects , everyone refers to the first experiments, that is, to a small (!) series of samples.” The absence, as Libby also admits, of extensive control statistics, and even in the presence of the above-mentioned millennia-long discrepancies in dating, “explained” by forgeries, calls into question the possibility of using the method in the time interval of interest to us. This does not apply to applications of the method for geological purposes, where errors of several thousand years are insignificant.

W.F. Libby wrote: “However, we did not feel a lack of materials from an era 3,700 years distant from us, on which the accuracy and reliability of the method could be tested (however, there is nothing to compare radiocarbon dates with, since there are no dated written sources from these eras) ... Familiar “Historians are ready to vouch for the accuracy (of dating) within the last 3,750 years, but when it comes to more ancient events, their confidence disappears.”

In other words, the radiocarbon method has been widely used where the results obtained are difficult, even practically impossible, to verify by other independent methods. “Some archaeologists, without doubting the scientific principles of the radiocarbon method, have suggested that the method itself harbors the possibility of significant errors caused by as yet unknown effects.” But perhaps these errors are still small and do not interfere with at least rough dating in the interval of 2–3 thousand years “down” from our time? However, it turns out that the situation is more serious. The errors are too big and chaotic. They can reach a value of 1–2 thousand years when dating objects of our time and the Middle Ages.

The journal “Technology and Science” (1984, issue 3, p. 9) reported the results of the discussion that unfolded around the radiocarbon method at two symposia in Edinburgh and Stockholm: “In Edinburgh, examples of hundreds (!) of analyzes were given in which dating errors ranged from 600 to 1,800 years. In Stockholm, scientists complained that for some reason the radiocarbon method especially distorts the history of Ancient Egypt in an era 4,000 years distant from us. There are other cases, for example, in the history of the Balkan civilizations... Experts unanimously stated that the radiocarbon method is still doubtful because it lacks calibration. Without this, it is unacceptable, because it does not give true dates on the calendar scale.”

Radiocarbon dates were added, as L.S. writes. Klein, “confusion in the ranks of archaeologists. Some with characteristic admiration... accepted the instructions of physicists... These archaeologists hastened to rebuild chronological schemes (which, therefore, are not so firmly established?)... The first of the archaeologists to speak out against the radiocarbon method was Vladimir Milojchich... who... not only attacked the practical application of radiocarbon dating, but also ... severely criticized the very theoretical premises of the physical method... Comparing individual measurements of modern samples with the average figure - the standard, Milojcic justifies his skepticism with a series of brilliant paradoxes.

The shell of a living American mollusk with a radioactivity of 13.8, when compared with the average figure as the absolute norm (15.3), turns out to be already today (translated into years) at a respectable age - it is about 1200 years old! The blooming wild rose from North Africa (radioactivity 14.7) has been “dead” for physicists for 360 years... and the Australian eucalyptus, whose radioactivity is 16.31, does not yet “exist” for them - it will only exist in 600 years. The Florida shell, which recorded 17.4 decays per minute per gram of carbon, will not “emerge” until 1080 years later...

But since in the past radioactivity was not distributed more evenly than now, similar fluctuations and errors should be recognized as possible for ancient objects. And here are the obvious facts: radiocarbon dating in Heidelberg of a sample from a medieval altar... showed that the tree used to repair the altar had not yet grown at all!.. In the Welt Cave (Iran) the underlying layers are dated 6054 (plus or minus 415) and 6595 ( plus or minus 500) years. BC e., and the overlying one - 8610 (plus or minus 610) years. BC e. Thus... the sequence of layers is reversed and the overlying one turns out to be 2556 years older than the underlying one! And there are countless examples like this...

So, the radiocarbon dating method is applicable for rough dating only those objects whose age is several tens of thousands of years. His errors in dating specimens one or two thousand years old are comparable to that age itself. That is, sometimes they reach a thousand years or more.

Here are some more striking examples.

1. Living mollusks were dated using radiocarbon dating. The results of the analysis showed their age: supposedly 2300 years. These data were published in the journal Science (No. 130, December 11, 1959). The error is two thousand three hundred years.

2. The journal Nature, (No. 225, March 7, 1970) reports that a test for C-14 content was carried out on organic material from the mortar of an English castle. It is known that the castle was built 738 years ago. However, radiocarbon dating gave an age of 7370 years. The error is six and a half thousand years. Was it worth giving the date with an accuracy of 10 years?

3. Freshly shot seals were dated based on their C-14 content. Their age was determined to be 1300 years! A mistake of one thousand three hundred years. And the mummified corpses of seals that died just 30 years ago have been dated as being supposedly 4,600 years old. The error is four and a half thousand years. These results were published in the Antarctic Journal of the United States (No. 6, 1971).

In these examples, radiocarbon dating increases the age of the samples by thousands of years. As we have seen, there are counterexamples where radiocarbon dating not only reduces the age, but even “carries” the sample into the future.

Is it any wonder that in many cases radiocarbon dating pushes medieval objects back into ancient times. L.S. Klein continues: “Milojicic calls for, finally, to abandon the “critical” editing of the results of radiocarbon measurements by physicists and their “customers” - archaeologists, and to abolish “critical” censorship when publishing the results. Physicists Milojchich asks not to filter out dates that for some reason seem incredible to archaeologists, to publish all the results, all measurements, without selection.

Milojchich persuades archaeologists to do away with the tradition of preliminary acquaintance of physicists with the approximate age of the find (before its radiocarbon determination) - not to give them any information about the find until they publish their figures! Otherwise, it is impossible to establish how many radiocarbon dates coincide with reliable historical ones, that is, it is impossible to determine the degree of reliability of the method. In addition, with such “editing” the very results of dating - the appearance of the resulting chronological scheme - are affected by the subjective views of researchers.

So, for example, in Groningen, where the archaeologist Becker has long adhered to a short chronology (of Europe), and radiocarbon dates “for some reason” turn out to be low, while in Schleswig and Heidelberg, where Schwabdissen and others have long been inclined to a long chronology, and radiocarbon dates of similar materials are much higher. Comments are unnecessary here.

In 1988, a message about radiocarbon dating of the famous Christian shrine - the Shroud of Turin - received a great response. According to the traditional version, this piece of fabric contains traces of the body of the crucified Christ (supposedly 1st century AD), that is, the age of the fabric is supposedly about two thousand years. However, radiocarbon dating gave a completely different date: approximately the 11th–13th centuries. n. e. What's the matter? Naturally, the following conclusions arise. Either the Shroud of Turin is a falsification, or radiocarbon dating errors can reach many hundreds or even thousands of years, or the Shroud of Turin is an original, but not dated to the 1st century. n. e., and XI–XIII centuries. n. e. But then another question arises - in what century did Christ live?

As we can see, radiocarbon dating is more or less effective only when analyzing extremely ancient objects, whose age reaches tens or hundreds of thousands of years. Here, the inherent errors of several thousand years in the method may not be so significant. However, the mechanical application of the method for dating objects whose age does not exceed two thousand years (namely, this historical era is most interesting for restoring the true chronology of written civilization!) seems unthinkable without conducting preliminary detailed statistical and calibration studies on samples of reliably known age. At the same time, it is completely unclear in advance whether it is even possible in principle to increase the accuracy of the method to the required limits.

But there are other physical dating methods. Unfortunately, the scope of their application is significantly narrower than that of the radiocarbon method, and their accuracy is also unsatisfactory for the historical eras of interest to us. At the beginning of the century, for example, it was proposed to measure the age of buildings by their shrinkage or deformation of columns. This idea has not been put into practice, since it is absolutely unclear how to calibrate this method, how to really estimate the rate of shrinkage and deformation.

Two methods have been proposed for dating ceramics: archaeomagnetic and thermoluminescent. However, this has its own calibration difficulties. For many reasons, archaeological dating by these methods in, say, Eastern Europe is also limited to the Middle Ages.

As the reader has already understood, one of our main statements boils down to the following. Many historical names and concepts have significantly changed their meaning over time. Therefore, when analyzing ancient history, one cannot simply talk about “the city of Rome,” but one must talk about “the city of Rome in such and such a century.” Depending on what century we are talking about, the geographical position of “Rome” will change. In the 10th–11th centuries it was Alexandria, in the following centuries it was New Rome = Constantinople, and only then it was modern Rome in Italy. Geographical (historical) localization of a particular name, term, etc. is a function of time. Names “lived in time” and moved in geographical space. This is important to understand! At the beginning of the development of civilization, names were not yet strictly fixed, since there was no unified system of communications, many languages ​​and scripts were just being formed, and names were not yet “settled.” Only much later, with the spread of books, geographical maps, etc., did geographical names finally “stop” and become frozen on the map. But this was not always the case and you need to constantly remember this when you read ancient texts. Having seen the word “Rome” in the manuscript, you need to immediately ask: what kind of “Rome” are we talking about here? Where was it located in the era whose events are described in this manuscript? Of course, this circumstance complicates our analysis of the past. It would be easier to consider that the name "Rome" was always "attached" to the same geographical location. This seems natural to today's people: in our time, the names of cities are not so easily transferred from one city to another. But this was not the case in the past. And this is quite understandable. How could ancient people record and, most importantly, transmit information to each other about the geography of the world around them? To do this, you need to have some kind of “duplicating device” that allows you to reproduce, for example, a map or manuscript in at least several dozen copies in order to make it the property of many. Without such fixation, information becomes “fluid”, rapidly changing, old localizations are forgotten, new ones are introduced, and this process is difficult to control. Apparently, such transfers of names and frequent changes in their meaning stopped only with the advent of the printed book, which began to rigidly record information and distribute it among cultural layers of the population. Therefore, in the pre-printing era, transfers of names of cities, names of peoples, etc., changes in the meaning of terms, were a very common (and perhaps even typical) phenomenon. The process of transfer and migration of names could also be associated with the emigration of some part of the cultural layer from one place to another. For example, after the fall of Constantinople in the mid-15th century, many representatives of the ruling and intellectual stratum left New Rome and moved to Europe. Some names may have moved along with them.

In the future, we will refer to this consideration as the principle of a possible change in time in the meaning and geographical localization of many ancient names, terms, etc. In other words, the meaning and geography of a term is a function of time (i.e., of the historical era ).

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DEVELOPMENT OF SPATIAL REPRESENTATIONS AND METHOD OF WORKING WITH HISTORICAL MAPS

COURSE WORK

Introduction………………………………………………………………………………. 3

Chapter 1. Formation of historical and spatial understanding of students in a history lesson……………………………………………………………………………….......... 9

Chapter 2. Historical map as a visual aid for the formation of spatial concepts of students

2.1 General characteristics of historical maps……………………………. 12

2.2 The meaning of historical maps……………………………………………. 18

2.3 Scientific and methodological requirements for maps…………………………… 23

2.4 Working with a historical map in a history lesson…………………........ 28

2.5 Basic cartographic skills, knowledge and skills of students...... 37

2.6 Methodology for working with a historical map……………………………… 42

Chapter 3. Using contour maps in history lessons

3.1 The role of contour maps in developing skills in working with a historical map……………………………………………………………………………………… 49

3.2 Using contour maps in a history lesson……………………….. 51

Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………… 55

List of references……………………………………………………….. 57

Appendix………………………………………………………………………………….. 59

Introduction

This work is devoted to the study of the formation and development of spatial concepts in students, as well as to the study of methods for working with historical maps in history lessons.

History is a subject in which current events are examined both in time and space.

The idea of ​​historical space is one of the most important components of historical knowledge. The category “historical space” is one of the content lines of school courses. It involves studying the historical map of Russia and the world in the dynamics of the geographical, environmental, ethnic, social, geopolitical characteristics of human development reflected on the map. Today, significant attention should be paid to working with a map, since a map is not only a source of knowledge, but also a means of developing students’ critical thinking. Cartographic knowledge is in close unity with historical knowledge. The ability to use a historical map is not an end in itself, but a means for a more conscious perception of events and phenomena of history.

Relevance of the research topic is that in order to feel the very course of the historical process, it is necessary to master the skills of spatial localization of historical events, which is facilitated by working with a historical map and developing the ability to use it wisely when studying various topics.

An important role in the study of history at school is played by students’ knowledge of historical maps and mastering the ability to freely use wall and table maps when studying various topics.

The method of teaching history involves working with a map according to the following scheme: the teacher shows on a wall map - the students follow him using atlases and maps in the textbook. Thus, the wall map is considered the basis of the basics; the teacher constantly refers to it when presenting new material, when questioning students and at the stage of consolidating the presented material.

Knowledge of history presupposes not only free handling of historical facts, but also possession of a historical map. Before starting to study it, you need to convince students that without using a map at all, it is impossible to study history, because all historical events take place in a specific environment, in a certain place and at a certain time, therefore the geographical environment influences the development of the historical process .

In order to properly organize the work of familiarization and gradual comprehension of the historical map, the teacher must proceed from the fact that the map is a necessary means of visually revealing the connections of the historical process. Knowing a map means not only knowing its symbolism, cities, borders, rivers, but also seeing behind these conventional signs the living historical reality, the complexity of economic, socio-political and cultural relationships. Therefore, teaching students to “read a map” is the task that a history teacher should be guided by when starting to work on a historical map.

The object of this study is a methodology for teaching history at school.

Subject of research is a methodology for working with cartographic material in history lessons.

State of development of the problem. Many articles have been written about the importance of maps in history lessons, the authors of which draw attention to various aspects of the use of maps in the teaching process, to the role of wall maps, contour maps, chalk drawings and diagram maps in students’ deeper understanding of various topics.

This issue is discussed quite fully in the article by A.I. Strazheva “Locality in the study of history. Working with a historical map in the classroom and at home." This work contains interesting recommendations for working with the map, which have retained their significance today. The author focuses on the fact that the teacher must clearly show all the necessary landmarks on the map, encouraging students to look for them in their atlases and visually remember the location of various objects.

For everyone who wrote about the features of working with the map later, this article became fundamental. She was quoted, referred to, her recommendations were repeated and developed. Even in publications of recent years, when much attention has been paid to the development of students’ independent work skills, methodological recommendations for working with the map have not undergone significant changes.

The article by O.D. is devoted to the methodology of working with a historical map. Petrova “About working with a map in the 5th grade.” The author believes that the main task of a history teacher is to lead students to an understanding of the laws of social development that is feasible for their age. The article describes in detail the process of using a wall map when studying various topics in the 5th grade.

In the manual by M.T. Studenikin “Methodology of teaching history at school” presents a general description of historical maps, much attention is paid to the use of educational, contour maps and map diagrams in the classroom

G.I. gives useful advice on working with a contour map. Goder. He emphasizes that training in this case takes place in several stages. Students first complete the outline maps using tabletop maps, then wall maps, and finally from memory. The author emphasizes the value of using a contour map in developing skills in working with a historical map, offers recommendations for teaching children to fill out maps, characterizes errors when working with contour maps and suggests ways to overcome them.

A brief description of historical maps is given in the book by V.V. Shogan. In his understanding, a historical map is a conventional graphic aid that allows one to study historical events and phenomena of social life in a geographically defined place, establish the influence of the geographic environment on public life, and comprehend local historical connections and patterns of social development.

D.N. Nikiforov believes that great importance in the study of history should be given to the use of schematic drawings on the board. Particular attention is paid to working with the map, while the author emphasizes that the drawing on the board does not replace or exclude the visual aid, but only complements it.

In the article “The art of the blackboard in history lessons at school” V.S. Murzaev draws attention to the fact that many teachers do not know how to use a historical map. He introduces the concept of the "dumb card". The author believes that just a map with names does not “speak”; a speaking map can only be created by someone who knows the techniques of pedagogical drawing.

In the article by L.N. Aleksashkina and N.I. Vorozheikina “Using the cognitive potential of a historical map when schoolchildren study history”, a huge place is devoted to studying the significance of using historical maps in a history lesson, as well as studying the teacher’s organization of work with historical maps. The article describes various examples of tasks for working with a map.

In a manual for history teachers M.V. Korotkova “Visibility in History Lessons” describes in detail, using examples, the ways and techniques of a teacher’s work with various types of historical maps in the classroom.

P.V. made a huge contribution to the study of a teacher’s work with historical maps. Mountain. He highlighted methodological techniques and means of presenting cartographic material.

We extract significant information about the techniques and methods of working with a historical map from the article “ From foreign experience. Working with a map" by Professor Werner Fatke of the Free University (Berlin).

N.I. writes about cartographic knowledge and skills developed in students in the process of working with a historical map. Vorozheikin in the article “Formation of spatial concepts of students in primary school.” She determined the content of cartographic knowledge and skills of students in grades 5-9.

Vagin A.A. in the article “Schematic plans and maps in history lessons” the main attention is focused on the use of schematic plans and maps in the study of military-historical and military-revolutionary topics

in history class. Vagin describes in detail how teachers work with schematic plans with students of different age groups.

Thus, a number of works are devoted to this problem, which reflect various methods of working with historical and contour maps, as well as numerous recommendations and advice for beginning history teachers.

Goal of the work: to study the features of the formation and ways of developing historical ideas in students, as well as to study the role and significance of historical and contour maps in the process of teaching history at school, in students’ understanding that the geographical environment influences the course of the historical process.

In connection with this goal, it is necessary to solve the following tasks:

1) determine ways to develop spatial concepts in students during history lessons;

2) give a general description of historical maps;

3) show the role of the map in the formation of historical skills;

4) explore the importance of contour maps in developing skills in working with a historical map;

5) study the methodology of working with a historical map.

Work structure.

The work includes an introduction, three chapters with subparagraphs, a conclusion, a list of references and an appendix.

Chapter 1.

Formation of historical and spatial understanding of students in a history lesson.

Society develops not only in time, but also in space, i.e. on a certain part of the earth's surface, under certain natural conditions. Therefore, the study of history is closely related to the study of space. A.I. Strazhev wrote: “Historical events not placed in time and space seem to us to be an empty abstraction, devoid of real content, not reflecting historical reality.”

The idea of ​​historical space is the correlation of certain historical events with a specific place where they occurred, i.e. localization of historical events.

Acquaintance with a historical fact, as a rule, begins with its temporal and spatial localization. Localization of historical facts in time and space is one of the conditions for schoolchildren to understand individual facts as sequential links of natural historical processes occurring in certain territories and in the corresponding historical and geographical environment.

Localization of events in space is achieved with the help of various visual aids: maps, diagrams, plans, paintings, photographs, chalk drawings, applications. When working with them in the classroom, it is necessary to take into account the students’ existing violations of spatial concepts. These include the following violations:

1) a significant understatement of real distances, when what is distant in space appears close. The reasons for this violation are that students' spatial concepts are based on sensory experience, and when working with a map, students deal with vast distances that are far from their personal experience. Therefore, typical errors will be associated with underestimating the real distances between the objects being studied, settlements, etc.

2) difficulties in orienting in geographic directions (horizon sides), especially in intermediate ones (southwest, northeast). Therefore, when correctly showing objects or directions of action on a historical map, students may make mistakes in naming their location or direction.

3) misunderstanding of the location of objects relative to each other (in front - behind, left - right, far - close, etc.). This is explained not only by a violation of spatial orientation, but also by the indirect perception of historical objects through a picture, map, drawing, where all objects appear to be located close, nearby (higher or lower, and not north or south, etc.).

4) the perception of objects of different sizes located at different distances is the same, incorrect. This feature is typical for the perception of historical paintings with many participants, objects of a historical landscape, etc.

The history teacher must know the students’ violations in order to promptly carry out corrective work in the lesson.

But an important prerequisite for the formation of historical-spatial ideas is the fact that space in its basic characters (size, extent, relative position) is already known to students before they begin to study history.

Students acquire primary skills in working with maps in natural history and historical propaedeutics lessons in elementary school. They have the idea that the horizontal plane of maps depicts the terrain in a conventional form and scale. Students know about the symbols of rivers, seas, mountains, and terrain and refer to the symbols as needed. They can show populated areas and determine the border of the state. They develop ideas about the differences between geographical and historical maps. They know how the map is oriented (north, south, west, east). In basic school, this knowledge requires further deepening and development. The history teacher will rely on these already formed ideas and practical skills.

Thus, the formation of spatial representations of students in a history lesson is very important, since any historical event studied by students is necessarily localized (that is, placed) in a certain place, at a certain time. And in order to form these very historical and spatial ideas of students, it is necessary for the teacher to use historical maps in every history lesson.

Chapter 2.

A historical map as a visual aid for the formation of spatial concepts of students.

2.1 General characteristics of historical maps

Historical maps are created on a geographical basis and represent reduced, generalized figurative and symbolic images of historical events or periods. Images are shown on a plane at a certain scale, taking into account the spatial location of objects. Maps in conditional form show the placement, combinations and connections of historical events and phenomena, selected and characterized in accordance with the purpose of the map. The most ancient maps were created in Babylonia and Egypt in the 3rd - 1st millennia BC. Special educational cards appeared in Russia at the end of the 18th century. They show those events, phenomena and processes, the study of which is necessary for educational purposes.

Historical maps differ from geographical ones in a number of features:

1) The colors of geographic maps familiar to students take on a different meaning on historical maps. Green shows not only lowlands, but also oases, as well as ancient areas of agriculture and cattle breeding.

2) Another feature of historical maps is the disclosure of the dynamics of events and processes. On a geographical map everything is static, but on a historical map it is easy to see the emergence of states and changes in their territories or the routes of movement of troops, trade caravans, etc. The movements of people on the map are shown by solid and broken arrows; military strikes - arrows with a shorter shaft and a wider base; places of battles - crossed swords, points of concentration of the rebels - points.

Thus, a historical map is a conditionally graphic aid that allows you to study historical events and phenomena of social life in a geographically specific place, establish

the influence of the geographical environment on social life, comprehend local historical connections and patterns of social development.

Thus, with the help of a map, fifth grade students learn why arable farming arose earlier in the countries of the Ancient East, why crafts and navigation developed very early in the Athenian state. In the 7th grade, the map helps students understand why Moscow became the economic, political and cultural center of the Russian state.

The historical maps themselves vary in territory coverage (world, continental, state maps); by content (generalizing and thematic); by scale (large-scale, medium- and small-scale).

Generalizing (or basic) maps, for example “The Russian State in the 15th Century,” reflect all the most important historical events and phenomena of a given time in certain natural conditions. Thematic maps cover a narrower range of events. For example, the map “Russian-Japanese War 1904 - 1905.” shows in a certain area only those events that reveal the causes, course and results of the war. In practice, generalizing and thematic maps are used in close connection, as they complement each other.

According to V.V. Shogan, historical maps belong to the analytical means of visibility, since they contribute to the creation of an image - a representation between the subjects of history in a historical phenomenon.

V.V. Shogan believes that the following types of maps are used in teaching history:

1) Wall historical map. This is a school card in the truest sense of the term, as it is used only in schools or other educational institutions. Due to its size, it is used primarily for demonstration purposes. Wall maps usually depict a relatively large area, contain information about fairly long historical periods and about various aspects of the historical process. From a didactic point of view, the main purpose of a wall map is to facilitate review lessons (or review elements of a lesson). Wall maps may also contain additional maps (inset maps) dedicated to specific topics or specific details.

2) Map in the historical atlas. A historical atlas is a collection of chronologically arranged maps and inset maps, both overview and detailed. Unlike wall maps, atlases are used not only at school. School atlases, like any other, play the role of reference publications. Some historical atlases contain pictures, tables, diagrams, textual and chronological information along with maps. Along with historical atlases, the maps of which are devoted to the main events from antiquity to the present day, there are others intended for school and related to a specific topic.

3) Map in the textbook. It, unlike the map in the atlas, is an addition to the text and other elements of the textbook. Therefore, the map usually does not contain too much information and is intended to illustrate the text. The use of such maps seems advisable not only for reasons of economy; it is easier for schoolchildren to read the maps in the textbook.

4) Slide map. Such cards exist both as part of a series of transparencies (strip films) and separately. Projecting a slide on a screen can replace a wall map. If the teacher shows the cards in a certain sequence, and relatively quickly, a

a kind of dynamic “karto-film”. This (“multimedia”) method of display is often used in museums and exhibitions.

5) Homemade map, or map-scheme. Teachers are engaged in making homemade aids not only for a bad life. Well-executed maps and diagrams, whether a drawing on a board or a transparent film, a photocopy or an image on cardboard, on thick paper, fill the mentioned gaps in a significant set of cartographic aids better than any mass-produced maps and correspond to the abilities and knowledge of individual students. Teachers need to tackle homemade maps because students need to learn how to read printed maps.

In addition to the above types of school cards, Professor of the Free University (Berlin) Werner Fatke identifies the following:

6) Map on film. Many publishers have been producing banners (images on transparent film) for history lessons for a number of years. If a map is reproduced on film, its projection on a screen can replace the "old-fashioned" wall map. The disadvantage of a transparency map is that such a map cannot hang in front of students’ eyes for a long time. But banners are very useful in teaching schoolchildren to read maps.

7) Physical map in teaching history. The physical map is not a historical map, but it should be mentioned because even today it is often used as a “substitute” for a missing manual. If a geographic map contains political information related to the present or recent past (such as border designations), it is difficult to use in place of a historical map. However, with the help of applications, a modern map can be adapted to study the required topic.

8) Maps in periodicals and on television. They also cannot be called school historical maps. The subject of newspaper maps and television maps is almost always related to current events; such maps are intended for the general reader or viewer, they are very visual and contain a small amount of information - only the most essential. The periodic use of such cards is evidenced by the fact that they, being part of “out-of-school” life, are more likely to convince teenagers of the need to master map reading.

Thus, there is a wide variety of historical maps that can be used in the study of various topics. The use of these maps is the key to a deeper and more thorough assimilation of historical knowledge by students.

M.V. Korotkova writes about the different types of maps used in schools in the late 90s. She writes that at that time “schools had less and very low-quality cartographic material. The predominant maps were made on the basis of the old methodology and were mainly devoted to territorial changes, political unification processes in states or military events. Only no more than a dozen maps reflect new approaches to the content of historical material. They depict religious processes, economic and demographic development of regions, cultural achievements of countries and peoples, etc.”

“Of the three main types of historical maps - general, overview and thematic, the latter clearly prevail today. Thematic maps are dedicated to individual historical events and phenomena; many of them are stripped of unnecessary details and symbols, but contain visual and artistic symbols of the events being revealed. The themes of these cards are wars and the most important events in domestic politics (for example, reformation, oprichnina, abolition of serfdom, etc.).

General and especially overview maps have become much less common than before in atlases and textbooks. They reflect a number of successive moments in the development of the phenomena being studied and their state at a certain moment. This avoids the long-standing disadvantage of having all the information contained in one card.”

“Today we see the use of schematic maps in history teaching differently. Local plans and maps were previously a “free app” to large maps. They were designed to detail individual fragments of a large map. Today, in many manuals, map diagrams have become independent. They represent not only the details of military history, but also centers of culture and cultural-ethnic processes.

Sometimes, apart from maps in textbooks, a history teacher has practically no visual aids with cartographic materials, so he has to make them himself. Among the old time-tested methodological methods, one can recall a chalk drawing of a map on a board (card diagram), an enlarged photocopy or a silhouette image pasted on cardboard, a drawn image on a dark piece of linoleum (the so-called “black map” by A.I. Strazhev), images on transparent film, drawn with a felt-tip pen.

The use of such “handicraft” maps can to some extent compensate for the cartographic “hunger” in a history lesson. In addition, if they are successfully produced, they can be much better suited to the cognitive abilities of students and the teaching process than mass-produced cards.”

Thus, a historical map is a teaching aid that allows the teacher, when telling a story, to visually present to students the place and time of certain historical events and to reveal the dynamics of historical processes. In addition, various types of historical maps are provided to help the teacher and students, which contribute to a more complete assimilation of historical knowledge by students.

2.2 The meaning of historical maps

Werner Fatke writes about the importance of working with maps in history lessons:

“Schoolchildren’s first acquaintance with the map occurs, as a rule, in elementary school, in the third or fourth year of study. In subsequent years, work with the map is carried out mainly in geography lessons. In history teaching, such work usually takes a back seat.

The “secondary importance” of working with a map in a modern school can be judged by the results of inspections. Answering the question about how often maps and atlases are used, many teachers emphasize that these manuals do not play the most important role.

If you ask people who have already graduated from school a long time ago to remember what they associate with geography lessons and history lessons, then in the first case they will most likely name a map, and in the second - dates. In accordance with such ideas, the “competence” of geography includes space, and the “sphere of influence” of history includes time, i.e. The first science answers the question “where?”, the second - the question “when?”. Of course, one cannot agree with such a distinction between the objects studied by the two sciences.

The neglect of maps in history classes appears to be due to several reasons. First of all, many history teachers believe that mastering program material is more important than developing and consolidating skills. It does not take into account that, for the most part, the material learned is soon forgotten, and students take the skills developed at school with them into “real life.” After all, it is the skills acquired in history lessons, precisely the work techniques that schoolchildren master, that make it possible for an independent critical approach to the material being studied.

Insufficient attention to working with the map in the classroom is often due to the fact that the teacher himself does not feel too confident with this manual.

Many teachers are wary of cards because they know the capabilities of their students well. These capabilities are often insufficient to work with maps published for schools. However, teachers cannot be expected to systematically draw simpler historical maps or sketch maps.”

When presenting historical facts, the teacher not only accurately dates them, but also localizes them, i.e. relates to a specific place. He does this with the help of a historical map.

Localization of historical events and phenomena contributes to a correct understanding of the historical process and its patterns. Many events and phenomena can be understood by students only on the basis of their spatial relationships.

In this regard, it is appropriate to ask the following questions: what historical ideas does the map allow us to create? What does it help you see in history? In search of an answer to these questions, let us pay attention to a number of provisions:

1) The connection between nature, man and society.

As you know, a historical map combines geographical elements (images of continents and seas, mountains, valleys and rivers, etc.) and information about human activity and the development of society (includes information about the settlement of various groups of people and state borders, about cities and towns , the spread of crafts and trade, important events, etc.).

The correlation of geographical and socio-historical characteristics makes it possible to identify the influence of natural conditions on the occupations and lifestyle of people, their customs and traditions, to find out the conditions for the emergence and characteristics of individual civilizations. This is very important when studying history. Thus, the geographical location of Rus', Russia, the openness of its borders

(their exposure to mountains and seas) created, on the one hand, a constant threat of attacks on its territory from the east and west, and on the other, the need to conquer access to the seas. These circumstances largely determined the nature of the internal development and foreign policy of the Russian state.

2) The diversity of the historical world.

The map allows you to create, first visually, and then saturated with historical knowledge, an idea of ​​​​the boundaries in the past and present, the features of the natural environment and the social conditions of people in different parts of the world. This serves as a prerequisite for understanding the historical diversity of human society, understanding the origins of various systems of social relations, ethical values, etc.

3) Historical space and historical movement.

A map helps to visualize the movement of history.

Firstly, this refers to events directly related to the movement of people: migration, conquest. Development of new territories. Maps and charts are used to show the course of military operations, battles, routes of various kinds of expeditions, etc.

Secondly, fixing single events on a map helps to see common features and elements of significant processes (this applies, for example, to a series of revolutions).

Thirdly, a comparison of the information contained in maps dating back to different eras and centuries allows us to trace large-scale changes in the life of human society (the rise and fall of states, changes in civilizations, etc.).

In the domestic methodology of teaching history, it is noted that maps perform many functions in the educational process. They act as:

• form of localization of historical events and phenomena in space;
• source of historical information;
• a visual basis for understanding the connections between historical phenomena;
• a tool for summarizing and systematizing historical material;
• a means of testing students' knowledge and skills.

Speaking about working with historical maps in history lessons, it should be emphasized that this is not an additional load, but an important and necessary part of studying the subject.

The map is a carrier of significant historical information. It complements (and sometimes replaces) verbal descriptions of the geographical environment, the natural conditions in which the life of various human communities took place; clearly displays the course of individual events and large-scale processes. Educational maps contain statistical data, etc. All this allows us to consider the map as an object of active cognitive activity of schoolchildren.

Unfortunately, in history textbooks (as practice shows), maps are sometimes relegated to the role of formal illustrations. In the author's text there are infrequent references to cards, questions and tasks for working with them are rare. The task of using the cognitive potential of the historical map in this case completely passes to the teacher.

A.A. Vagin reports the great importance of using schematic plans and maps in history lessons: “a visual schematic battle plan helps students consolidate the material they have covered at home and reproduce it when answering.

What is also valuable here is the fact that mastering the material with the help of a schematic plan is largely freed from elements of mechanical cramming.

The schematic plan serves as a support for oral response; it contributes to the development of his speech. The student's presentation becomes more accurate.

At the same time, a schematic plan, due to its inherent detail of events, to a greater extent than a thematic map, accustoms one to a consistent presentation of material.”

G.I. Goder, who studied methods of teaching history in the fifth grade, also determines the importance of using historical maps when studying the course of the Ancient World:

“1) The political history of ancient states cannot be understood and mastered without cartographic knowledge. The course studies at least ten ancient states, three “world” powers, numerous campaigns of conquest, land and sea battles. The strict obligation to localize such facts on the map does not need proof.

2) Knowledge of the map helps to establish continuity between the ancient world and our time, to form an idea of ​​the unity of the historical process.”

Thus, the use of historical maps is of great importance when studying history, since the map develops in students knowledge, skills and abilities that will help them with independent work and will never be forgotten. In addition, visual material, which is a historical map, simplifies the student’s assimilation of oral material and subsequently helps him in reproducing it, that is, in answering.

2.3 Scientific and methodological requirements for school historical maps.

From the article by A.I. Strazheva:

“The wall historical map issued for the school must fully meet the objectives of school education in the scope of its content and in the forms established by the school methodology.

The school map should take into account the involvement of broader educational material in classroom lessons, contained in the teacher’s extended story, textbook documentation, and popular science literature. In addition, the map should in some cases increase the load in order to clearly convey to students the large population of a particular area, etc.

However, the requirement of most methodologists is quite reasonable - not to overload the school historical map with unnecessary data that does not arise from direct educational purposes. Overloading with cartographic information creates unnecessary difficulties in using the map, diversity and unclear visual representations of students, which contradicts the very idea of ​​a wall map as a visual aid.

The following are included on the school historical map:

1) Natural conditions of the historical process. First of all, physical and geographical data, natural conditions of the historical life of society: continents and seas, terrain, rivers, etc.

Unfortunately, cartographers often treat this side of the historical map insufficiently thoughtfully, overloading the map with details of a physical-geographical nature, or, conversely, removing absolutely necessary designations.

2) Population, settlements and boundaries on the historical map. In addition to physical and geographical information, the historical map contains designations of settlements and territories occupied by peoples and states. This is the most essential part of the content of the historical map.

3) Designation on the historical map of the economy. On the historical map, a prominent place is given to the designation, so to speak, of the economic relief, the location of productive forces. Metal mining, centers of the most important branches of agriculture and industry, trade routes - such designations have become an obligatory component of any historical map. Students thus have the opportunity to visualize the local side of certain economic forces and thereby more specifically imagine the significance of economics in the historical process.

4) Designation of socio-political events and phenomena on the historical map.

Thus, the historical map becomes dynamic and multifaceted, reflecting in the form of a kind of visual “synopsis” all the richness of the content of the historical course. The map becomes a complex picture-book that you need to learn to read and understand.

This complexity of the wall educational map has both its positive and negative sides.

The positive thing is that the map provides everything necessary for educational purposes; it helps the teacher, who is in the classroom near the wall map, to show students quickly and accurately the location of any historical territory or individual point.

The negative side of such a map is its excessive diversity and congestion, which prevents students from creating a clear visual image of the local configuration of a separate historical phenomenon on the map.

Werner Fatke also raises the question of “what school historical maps should be like” and puts forward the principle of “didactic refraction.” He reports: “Maps are more difficult to deal with than many other teaching aids, since maps, unlike a picture or a story on a historical topic, do not provide a specific visual representation of events, they only reproduce spatio-temporal structures, and use abstract language characters. Deciphering this language is impossible without the ability to think abstractly; working with cards requires concentration, persistence, and, consequently, effort.

To make it easier for children and teenagers to work with maps, it is necessary to adhere to the principle of “didactic refraction”. This principle can be implemented under the following conditions:

The content of the map must correspond to the system of knowledge acquired in this class, as well as to the previously established knowledge and skills of schoolchildren; graphic and color information should be provided in a visual form that does not allow for different interpretations and facilitates the assimilation of the main content of the map; the school historical map must be correlated with other school maps, historical and geographical; it is necessary to agree on thematic accents, sizes, scale, and symbols.

The insufficiently consistent implementation of the idea of ​​“didactic refraction” is a significant drawback of many educational historical maps, primarily wall maps. They are often overloaded with information and are more information repositories than tools

visibility. This approach makes the map difficult to read and use in teaching.

The principle of “didactic refraction” is often implemented in simplified maps placed in textbooks or on transparencies. Transparency maps used in lessons, unfortunately, usually suffer from the same shortcomings as wall maps.”

Therefore, many teachers make homemade maps in order to fill the gaps in the proposed set of cartographic aids with their own hands.

Here Werner Fatke poses “the problem of producing school historical maps taking into account didactic requirements”:

“The main didactic requirement for the creation of school historical maps: each manual should be made with an eye to the perception of the recipient, i.e. student, teenager. Implementing this requirement and keeping in mind the main elements of the school historical map (name, geographical background, historical information expressed in symbols, legend), it is necessary to pose a number of questions:

• How to formulate the name of the card? After all, the title should not only fix the spatial and temporal framework of what is shown on the map (this helps the teacher to navigate), but also reveal - at a level accessible to students - the theme of the map.
• How to “put” a geographical background under historical information without “drowning” the latter?
• What elements of the geographic background facilitate understanding of a historical topic and are necessary for that understanding?
• Is it possible to convey the dynamics of changes taking place in a given geographic space using a sequential series of small maps (“cartofilm”)?

• How to choose symbols that are understandable without explanation in the legend?
• Which paints to choose to avoid visual errors?
• How to arrange the inscriptions on the map so that they do not interfere with the reading of information, but facilitate it?

Fatke will also determine the boundaries of “didactic refraction”:

“The atlas must contain “the unity of map, image, word and number.” This requirement is taken into account in most school textbooks, in which fragments of the text are supplemented with various illustrative material. An attempt to implement such a requirement in some historical atlases sometimes comes down to the fact that maps are supplied with pictorial “appendages”. Such pictorial elements, introduced into a map without regard to its scale, create confusion and do at least as much harm as good.

In other cases, additional illustrations are placed outside the map. Due to limited space, small portraits are often reproduced in the margins of the map, which helps to personalize ideas about the historical process.”

Map reading is made more difficult by the "ever changing and evolving language of pictorial symbols." In order to avoid such problems, it is necessary to unify the symbols used on historical maps.

Thus, the historical map should be selected specifically for each class and correspond to the age and level of knowledge of the students. And when creating a schematic map independently, the teacher must take these requirements into account.

2.4 Working with a historical map in a history lesson

Nikiforov D.N. highlights different types of graphic works on a blackboard with chalk. Among which he highlights working with a map. Nikiforov argues that “showing one or another historical and geographical name on a wall map is sometimes not enough. Often we feel the need to sketch the part of the map we need, draw its detail and secure it with an independent drawing.

Here the main difficulty for the teacher is drawing the outline. If he acquires the skill of quickly drawing a generalized outline, further work on the board with chalk is no longer difficult. The teacher can: 1) mark rivers, mountains, lakes and other landmarks, 2) make the necessary inscriptions, 3) depict any processes with dotted lines, arrows or colored chalk: changes in borders, movement of troops, campaigns, trade routes, direction of colonization, etc., 4) using symbols to show economic factors: areas of gold, silver, iron and other metals mining, 5) designate areas of revolutionary movements, etc.”

“It is absolutely obvious,” wrote Nikiforov, “that we must generalize the outline, highlighting the most necessary moments in it. At the same time, it is important that we boldly apply it from memory.”

According to Nikiforov, “it is useful to introduce some variety of techniques into drawing maps, because this will increase the activity and initiative of students. One of these techniques may be the use of applications. For example, we accompanied the story about the slave uprisings in Sicily by attaching, using a piece of plasticine, to the outline of Sicily pre-cut paper appliqués of the names of the areas affected by the uprising. As a sign of the uprising, the name of the city was depicted engulfed in tongues of fire, which gave a certain emotionality, and as the story came to an end and the board was filled with more and more new names, the students got the impression of the grandeur of the uprising that engulfed all of Sicily.”

Another type of graphic work on a chalk board that Nikiforov highlights is diagrams of battles and campaigns. “Schemes of battles and campaigns are similar in nature to a map, since they limit an area of ​​​​the territory of military operations.”

Vagin A.A. in his article he writes, “a rare teacher, outlining the history of wars and revolutions, limits his description of the most important battles and uprisings to only a brief factual reference.

Most often, in such lessons, he attracts vivid artistic material, the most interesting passages from chronicles and annals.

Almost always he explains to schoolchildren both the reasons for the defeat of one of the parties and the general historical significance of this event.

He uses a map, a painting, perhaps a portrait of a commander.

But in those cases when the teacher sets himself the task of familiarizing students in more detail with the specific course of the battle itself, with the commander’s plan, when he strives for more in-depth work on the conclusions and assessment of the events of military and revolutionary history, he will not do without the use of appropriate schematic plans and schematic maps.

If a historical map, an almost inevitable attribute of any history lesson, serves as a visual aid in the study of various sections of the course and various aspects of social life, then the use of schematic plans in history lessons is associated, with rare exceptions, with the study of military-historical or military-revolutionary topics .

Unlike a map, a schematic plan, reflecting the spatial forms of a military-historical event, conveys its spatial situation on a much larger scale. Hence the possibility of a more detailed study of the very course of events, greater specificity.

The operation diagram gives the student a clear idea of ​​spatial relationships and thereby makes it easier for him to understand events.

These considerations determine the widespread use of schematic plans in the study of military-revolutionary material in a history course.”

Further, Vagin continues, “in order to serve as a guide in educational work with schoolchildren, our schematic plans must be accessible to children’s understanding, visual and easily visible. However, an excessive layering of different situations reflecting successive phases of the battle should be avoided.

In the practice of school work, the following methods are used to avoid layering in the scheme of successive stages of the battle. Firstly, several plans are used, depicting different phases of one battle.

The second technique is to draw a schematic plan on the blackboard by the teacher himself as the presentation unfolds. This technique has a number of advantages, since building such a “living diagram” using a blackboard and a piece of chalk makes the material being presented more dynamic and imprinted.”

Schemes and plans are used mainly in working with older schoolchildren. However, they are also appropriate in elementary school.

“The main difficulty in working with a schematic plan,” according to Vagin, “is the translation in the minds of students of the conventional graphic signs of the diagram into real images of active, fighting people, into concrete forms of real space and movement. The cognitive and educational result of the lesson will be poor if such a heroic event as the Battle of Kulikovo is imprinted in the child’s visual representation as an abstract, conventional drawing.

The methodological justification of a schematic plan in a history lesson in elementary school lies in the fact that, serving only as an auxiliary

As a visual aid, this plan will help to understand the spatial location of the contending parties and will thus serve as one of the means of developing spatial concepts and spatial orientation of the student.

For this purpose, the teacher uses the following methodological techniques. Firstly, it includes, as a visual aid, intermediate links between a picture and a schematic plan: these are panorama and panorama plan.

The second technique is to revive the diagram with artistic description, reading excerpts from works of fiction.”

Thus, “a schematic plan and a schematic map of military operations, giving the teacher’s story greater certainty and persuasiveness, reveal to students precisely those essential, distinctive points, without which neither understanding of the essence of the event nor conscious conclusions about its meaning are possible.”

“By using schematic plans and maps related to military and military-revolutionary topics in lessons, we facilitate the analysis and generalization of the educational material presented,” says A.A. Vagin.

“In the lower grades, a schematic plan has the significance of an auxiliary aid for the development and clarification of the spatial concepts of a primary school student. In middle age, when students are more fluent in a simple drawing of a plan or a schematic map, the introduction of a schematic plan can serve the purpose of a more serious analysis of the simplest issues of military art and arouse the student’s interest in the very content of those details that are reflected in such a schematic plan.

The interests of schoolchildren in grades V - VII in military history are mainly of a practical nature. He is interested in the external form of things and their technical structure.

This opens up the opportunity for the teacher to further use schematic plans in the VI-VII grade course, relying on the practical, technical interest of the student, satisfying and developing it, and raising him to more serious issues of military art.

Another thing is the interest of older schoolchildren in schematic plans. Being a conditional reflection of the course of events, they satisfy his need for generalizations. He is attracted by the very idea of ​​the plan. He is interested in the strategy and tactics of past wars.”

V.S. Murzaev attaches great importance to the history teacher’s ability to draw maps on the blackboard. He states, “A quick drawing of a historical map at any time during a lesson enlivens history teaching so much that the teacher should be able to do them. Drawing a map on the board does not mean abandoning the educational wall map - the drawing only provides an addition, makes it possible to fix students' attention on details, and isolates individual points from the general map. The teacher must carefully select everything he needs in this regard and “get used to” sketching the selected maps and their details.

Drawing a historical map by a teacher-historian differs significantly from the execution of the same map for geographical purposes. In the latter case, a certain accuracy is needed, determined primarily by the geographic grid. For a teacher-historian, only approximate accuracy is sufficient, only the relationship of large parts in a map, so to speak, only an approximate picture in terms of comparative size and location. Likewise, the detailing of geographical parts is not of significant importance. On the contrary: the closer the map is to the diagram, the better.”

1) Drawing using mutually perpendicular lines;

2) Drawing using geometric shapes or their combinations (i.e., before drawing, you should estimate by eye what simple geometric shape (rectangle, triangle and oval) this or that outline can be inscribed in. And then draw the outline into it , the geographical object we took);

3) Drawing with “free” lines (the technique of tracing a contour with short straight lines. In this case, you must always keep in mind the proportions of individual parts, and most importantly: maintain the exact ratio of height to width);

4) Drawing using configuration (any geographical shape can, to a certain extent, be equated to any specific figure. For example, such comparisons are well known, Italy with a boot, the Baltic Sea with the figure of a woman, etc. It is also necessary to master the drawing of special symbols:

• River. Drawn from top to bottom. Gradual thickening from the upper reaches to the mouth. Emphasize the main bends.
• Swamp. A series of parallel strokes - in groups.
• Forest. It is drawn in two versions: 1) general impression and 2) with characteristics of the species (spruce, birch).
• Mountains. We sketch out the main skeleton with a light line and proceed to finishing it on the left and right with bristly lines.
• Hills. They are depicted by circular parallel lines from the inner circles to the outer ones.
• The road is dotted.
• Cities and villages are in circles of various sizes.
• Camps - rectangles with appropriate inscriptions.
• Borders are dotted.

• Inscriptions should be in block letters);

5) Use of colored chalk (The use of colored chalk when drawing maps is highly desirable. Special purpose of colors: rivers and contours of water spaces are drawn with blue chalk; vegetation and swamps - green; revolutionary cities - red; borders - yellow, etc.) ;

6) Application card (The so-called application card looks very impressive on the chalkboard; it consists of separate parts cut out of colored paper. The parts are sequentially attached to the board with buttons as the teacher’s explanations progress).”

“In order to firmly consolidate the historical map in the memory of students, one cannot refuse, in essence, not a single technique recommended by pedagogical practice,” writes Murzaev. - You just need to methodically correctly apply them in the classroom. Thus, it is known that variety of display is a very significant means of consolidating knowledge.”

Studenikin M.T. writes about the use of educational historical maps in a history lesson:

When a historical map that is new to students appears, during the conversation it becomes clear: what part of the earth’s surface it covers; what chronological period of history is reflected on it; What is the dependence of climate on geographic latitude? The teacher shows geographical landmarks, the most important objects, the relative location of political associations; reveals a characteristic feature of the boundaries of a given period; introduces historical geography, naming former and modern names on the map; explains the symbols (legend) of the map.

When moving from one map to another, it is important to ensure continuity. If different regions are marked on the maps, then their spatial relationships are determined. This is helped by a general map covering both of these regions. Then the temporal relationships between the cards are revealed - the different times or synchronicity of historical events,

reflected on the maps. To establish intercourse connections in lessons, it is advisable to simultaneously use synchronous maps on Russian and world history. Simultaneous work with several maps helps students find the necessary historical and geographical objects, regardless of the size of the map, its scale and coverage of the territory.

To create an idea of ​​the space and location of the country under study on the map of the globe, historical and geographical (physical) maps or general and thematic maps are used simultaneously. They contain the same object, but it is depicted at different scales. Learning can proceed from the individual to the general or from the general to the individual. In the first case, the teacher demonstrates a historical map (single), then, based on the configuration of land and seas, the contours of the coastline, and the directions of rivers, students find the same territory on the physical map of the hemispheres (general).

To consolidate the acquired knowledge, it is advisable to play the game “Who can collect the card faster.” The student receives a map of Ancient Egypt, cut into squares. Task: restore the map. Then the task is given to determine how you can get from your hometown to modern Egypt (travel method).

The development of students' spatial understanding is facilitated by the simultaneous use of a map and an educational picture. The picture seems to reveal the symbols of the map, creating an idea of ​​the real terrain and space. Thus, when talking about the conquests of the Mongols, the teacher combines a map display with a description of the area and a demonstration of the painting “Dry Steppes.” Or, characterizing the path “from the Varangians to the Greeks” and creating an idea of ​​this great East Slavic waterway, along with the map “Russian principalities in the XII - early XIII centuries.” he is attracted by the painting “Dnieper Rapids”.

To teach primary school students to remember the geographical landmarks of the most important facts, the teacher gives tasks to show the main historical events on a physical map (for example, show on

physical map of Europe, which lands were annexed to Russia as a result of the Russian-Turkish wars of 1877 - 1878). Students should be taught about map memorization techniques used by professional military personnel. (They mentally break the map into squares and analyze one square at a time, starting at the top left corner and moving horizontally to the right.)

In high school, the relationship between the unchangeable and the transformable can be understood by comparing several maps depicting the same territory on the same scale, but in different historical conditions. Students become convinced that there are various ways and techniques for cartographic representation of historical events.

G.I. Goder owns a book in which he studies the working methods (with examples of tasks) of a teacher with a historical map in the 5th grade.

Also, O.D. Petrova in her article outlines step by step the progress of working with a historical map in grade V.

Thus, there is a huge variety of ways to work with historical maps in a history lesson. This includes the parallel use of other visual materials (paintings and portraits of prominent figures) with historical maps in order to convey to students a more complete understanding of the historical event being studied, and a graphic representation of historical processes with chalk on a blackboard, and drawing schematic maps and plans when considering military battles, etc. .d. In addition, it is important to note that the teacher must use the map in all lessons without exception, and work with the map when studying any historical processes: political, social, economic and military.

2.5 Basic cartographic skills, knowledge and skills of students

M.V. Korotkova reports, “the formation of cartographic knowledge and skills in schoolchildren begins with the simplest actions, with acquaintance with individual countries, then the history of a single world in a given period is studied. The map becomes one of the most important means of extracting essential knowledge. At the final stage, schoolchildren move from knowledge of historical topography and the ability to operate with it to ideas about the dynamics of the geopolitical position of states and civilizations.”

One of the most important areas in working with a map is teaching schoolchildren the ability to navigate it. It involves finding the right objects, displaying them correctly based on precise landmarks, and verbally proclaiming them.

The ability to navigate on a map involves assessing the relative position of objects, distances, and areas. To do this, it is necessary to teach schoolchildren to use the map scale.

The ability to navigate on a map also includes the ability to use its legend.

The most important skill, besides orientation, is reading the historical information in the map itself, for it is an important and special source of knowledge about the past.

M.T. Studenikin also defines cartographic knowledge and skills that students should develop while working with a historical map:

1) “In basic school, the teacher restores students’ knowledge of scale”;

2) It is necessary to make it clear to children that “if there is no corresponding map for the topic being studied, then it cannot be replaced with a map of another historical period”;

When displaying on a historical map, you should follow the basic rules:

3) “Before the show, it is necessary to give a verbal description of the geographical location of the point or milestone, the location of the event. When describing borders, one should name not only physical and geographical landmarks, but also neighboring states and peoples.” Since, according to Studenikin, “a student will only know the location of a historical object when he can find it by reference points and boundaries”;

4) “rivers should be shown only along the flow from source to mouth; cities dot; state borders are a continuous line. The display of the object is accompanied by an indication of the sides of the horizon (east and west, north and south), the name of geographical landmarks and features”;

5) “You need to stand by the wall map so as not to obscure the light source and the object being shown. The object is shown with a pointer or pen, facing the class. The pointer is taken in the hand that is closest to the map.”

Vorozheikina M.V. determines the main content of cartographic knowledge and skills of primary school students. She defines the main principle of working with the map: “working with the map should be carried out systematically, both when learning new material in class and when consolidating it.”

Vorozheikina shows how gradually from 5th to 9th grade there is an accumulation of knowledge and development of skills in working with a map.

• 5th grade. History of the Ancient World (68 hours)

Elementary knowledge on reading a historical map: 1) familiarization with the symbol system (legend) of the historical map; 2) ideas about the conventions of reflecting historical objects on the map (for example, showing changes in the boundaries of ancient states within the period indicated on the map). “Reading” a historical map based on its legend. Familiarization with the map and its symbols. Familiarity with the basic requirements for filling out a contour map.

Skills: use the map as a source of knowledge - based on the legend, extract information about the geographical location of various countries and the activities of people arising from it; describe the borders of the state, directions of military campaigns; show on a historical map the location of ancient civilizations and states, trade routes, places of battles and military campaigns, etc., accompanying the display with a verbal description (island, peninsula, mainland, what seas it is washed by, what countries it borders with, what rivers flow through the territory of the state, etc. .d.); fill out contour maps according to the proposed tasks.

• 6th grade. History of the Middle Ages (28 hours)

Consolidation actions, necessary for reading a historical map; for working with contour maps. Skill show on a historical map the directions of the most significant movements of people (Great Migration, conquests, crusades); location of states of the medieval world.

• 6th grade. History of Russia from antiquity to the end of the 16th century. (40 hours)

Consolidation actions on working with maps. Skills: use a historical map as a source of knowledge - description of borders, directions of aggressive campaigns, places of battles; elementary analysis of the map, extraction of various information based on the study of the map legend and teacher questions (about the natural environment and, accordingly, about the occupations of the population, about territorial growth, about the consequences of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, about

differences between a fragmented and a unified state); show on historical maps the territories of settlement of the East Slavic tribes, the borders of the Old Russian state by the end of the 11th century, the main Old Russian cities, trade routes, the largest independent centers of the period of political fragmentation, the main centers of “gathering” of Russian lands, the places of the most significant battles during the fight against the conquerors, military actions, territorial growth of the Russian state in the 15th - 16th centuries; work with contour maps, including assignments of a local history nature; correlate the map of the country (of a certain period) and the native land.

• 7th grade. New history of the 16th - 17th centuries. (26 hours)

Consolidation and development knowledge and skills received in history and geography lessons: on working with a map, about the Great Geographical Discoveries, geographical location, nature and population of the countries of the world. Skills: use a historical map as a source of knowledge; show on historical maps the direction of the Great Geographical Discoveries, the formation of colonial empires, etc.

• 7th grade. History of Russia XVII - XVIII centuries. (42 hours)

Fastening: skills use historical maps as a source of knowledge - about changes in the territory of Russia, the causes and consequences of individual wars, the differences between the uprising and the peasant war; actions necessary when working with contour maps; skills: use the contents of a historical map and map diagram in a story about events in the history of the Fatherland in the 17th - 18th centuries; show on historical maps the growth of the territory of Russia in the 17th - 18th centuries, the campaigns of Russian explorers and sailors, the largest centers of trade and manufacturing production, the course of military campaigns, campaigns and wars, areas of popular movements.

• 8th grade. New history of the 19th century. (24 hours)

History of Russia in the 19th century. (44 hours)

Consolidation of received knowledge and skills on working with contour maps. Skills: use a historical map as a source of knowledge about the economic and social development of countries around the world and Russia in the 19th century; show on historical maps the countries of Europe and the USA, the countries of Latin America, Asia and Africa in modern times; the territory of the Russian Empire in the 19th century, its changes, centers of industry and trade, places of military operations and campaigns.

• 9th grade. History of Russia XX - XXI centuries. (68 hours)

Recent history of the XX - XXI centuries. (34 hours)

Skills: search for the necessary information on the basis of one or two maps, analyze and systematize their data and apply them when telling and characterizing historical events and processes (about the socio-economic development of countries, about foreign policy, etc.); compare data from different maps, identifying similarities and differences.

Thus, when working with a map, it is important to develop in students certain knowledge, skills and abilities in accordance with their mental abilities and age. As a result, the requirements for the level of student preparation when working with a historical map should increase from class to class.

2.6 Methodology for working with a historical map.

Strazhev A.I. pays great attention to studying the methodology of a teacher’s work with a historical map. First of all, he talks about the need for a teacher to use a historical map in a history lesson, and as a result, about the teacher’s professional ability to work with a historical map: “the more fully and deeply the teacher knows and understands the historical map, the more interesting and fruitful the lessons with card."

“In the pre-revolutionary school, in relation to the historical map, the method of cramming, drilling, and annoying training was adopted; as a result, even if students formally knew more or less the map, they did not understand it, and therefore did not see in it a reflection of historical reality.

In the practice of Soviet school history teaching, work with maps is not at the proper level, often straying along the path of the old methods of formal training. Obviously, this happens because many teachers have not mastered the correct methodology for working with a historical map,” A.I. Strazhev comes to this conclusion.

And finally, Strazhev defines the teacher’s methodology for working with a historical map:

“To properly organize this work, the teacher must proceed from the basic, defining position that the historical map is a necessary and powerful means of visually revealing to students the connections of the historical process. Knowing a map means not only knowing its conventional punctuation, its symbolism, cities, borders, rivers, etc. - but also seeing behind these conventional signs the living historical reality, the complexity of economic, socio-political and cultural relationships.

Strazhev considers methods for studying a historical map:

“A map of the corresponding era should be hung in the classroom at every lesson without exception (not on the blackboard, as is most often done, but on a special “map stand” or on the wall). When preparing the story of a new lesson, the teacher must carefully think through all the issues related to the use of the map, carefully review the map himself and then, using it in the process of conversation with students, make sure that each student clearly sees and understands what is shown. The teacher must make the demonstration itself confidently, accurately and clearly for everyone with a long pointer, standing slightly to the side of the map. Sometimes it’s a good idea, in order to check how much the students have learned new information, immediately after the show, call one of the students to the map and invite him to show what the teacher showed.

In the same way, when asking what has been covered, it is imperative to call students to the map and get them to quickly and accurately display the cartographic data associated with the answer. It is good when a student acquires the habit of pointing on the map when answering, without waiting for the teacher’s request. You need to develop in yourself and your students the habit of considering the thoroughness and accuracy of a map to be just as mandatory as the thoroughness and accuracy of a historical story.

You can often see that students, when asked by the teacher to show some historical point, look for the corresponding inscription on the map. Instead of "reading the map", they simply read the names on the map. This, of course, gives extremely unstable and unconscious knowledge. To avoid this, the teacher should accustom himself and the students to describe the area being studied in words before showing it on the map. If it is necessary, for example, to show Novgorod, then the student must first, without looking at the maps when answering, say that Novgorod is located on

northwest of Russian lands, on the river. Volkhov, near the lake. Ilmenya. When a student needs to show the borders of a state, he often, quite mechanically, outlines the border line of the corresponding state painted in one color. And this does not mean at all that he really knows this border. It is necessary that the student be able to describe this boundary. When describing state borders, it is necessary to use not only physical-geographical “landmarks”, such as the names of rivers, mountains, seas, but also the names of states and peoples whose territory the described border comes into contact with. As a result of such work on the map, the teacher must ensure that students create a strong visual understanding of the state territories of certain countries.

The ability to revive and comprehend historical and geographical information can be learned from many historians who specifically worked in the field of historical geography, or who skillfully used geographical data in their historical works. In this regard, many pages in V.O.’s course on Russian history are very interesting. Klyuchevsky.

There is also an interesting technique that helps to delve deeper into the meaning of historical events and consists of drawing up schematic maps. At school, it is imperative to have contour maps on black oilcloth or plywood so that the teacher can draw the necessary territories, borders, cities, paths, etc. with chalk. and sketching a diagram of the acting forces on the map, explain to students the meaning of the events that took place. Such a diagram makes the greatest impression when it grows before the students’ eyes gradually, in combination with the teacher’s story.

And no matter how confident the teacher is that through his careful work in the class he managed to achieve a complete understanding and knowledge of the historical map, it is still necessary to consolidate this knowledge with the students’ homework.

We must, first of all, require students to, when preparing a lesson at home, consider the geographical data of the lesson using maps from a textbook or historical atlas.”

Thus, in his article, Strazhev outlined the main features of the methodological system for studying historical geography in school.

Werner Fatke also writes about the method of working with a historical map. He asks the question: “How to learn the art of map reading in history classes?”

Werner Fatke states that “a historical map can be introduced into the teaching process (in grade V) in two different ways: analytical and synthetic.

If an analytical (deductive, starting from “integrity”) path is chosen, then schoolchildren are first shown a map with a simple structure. It is best to use a homemade map here, since wall historical maps are too overloaded with information. The content of this map becomes the subject of educational conversation. The teacher should, if possible, limit himself to explaining how to work with the map and let the students themselves discover the information contained in this map. It is important that from the very beginning children use the correct terminology during educational conversations, so that they say “east” and “west” rather than “right” and “left”. The inability of schoolchildren to interpret the image on the map may indicate not only gaps and knowledge of the students, but also possible shortcomings of the map itself.

The “holistic” nature of the described method of introducing children to the historical map is manifested in the fact that the various elements of the map are considered together and in a semantic relationship. In the course of further learning to read a map, the whole picture should be decomposed into individual elements.

Learning begins with such a decomposition into elements if a “synthetic” (inductive) method of getting to know the map is chosen. This method to some extent reproduces the process of creating a historical map. As an aid, you can also use image projection through an epidiascope.

Students first see a blank outline map (the first film). Superimposed on this film is a second one, depicting the geographical “background”; here we should limit ourselves to color reproduction of the terrain, as on a simple physical map. On the third film, for example, lines depicting political boundaries can be applied. Now the historical map has finally acquired its own face, different from the appearance of the physical map. Dot marks can be placed on the next film, turning the map into a thematic one. The film with inscriptions completes the map.

Students get the opportunity to observe how the map becomes more and more meaningful and at the same time becomes saturated with information. By removing individual films, you can again reduce the amount of this information and make the map easier to understand.

So, with the “synthetic” method, a ready-made, complex map is the result to which students and the teacher arrive. Just as in learning to read, in developing the ability to read a map there is no one universal “correct” method. Depending on the specific circumstances, the teacher may even combine both methods described above.”

The second question asked by Werner Fatke is: “When and how to work with a map in history lessons?”

Werner Fatke discusses how often a history teacher should use a map. And he comes to the following conclusion: “in principle, always, because historical material constantly needs localization.” “Nevertheless,” he continues his thought, “the requirement “no lesson without a map” should still be considered excessive - if we are talking about working with a map, and not about the fact that schoolchildren can turn to the map at any time. In

In any case, there is no reason to object to the map being displayed in the classroom (office) for viewing for a long time, so that the map is always at hand at the right time, so that schoolchildren feel its “silent presence.”

However, this does not mean that the main goal of any history lesson is to establish where and when an event occurred. Cartographic aids can also be used to solve other problems, encouraging schoolchildren to think and penetrate to the essence of complex problems.”

To the question: “how can you work with a map?”, Werner Fatke answers: “It depends on the type of map: wall maps, maps on transparencies and transparencies are usually appropriate during frontal work with the whole class, and historical atlases or Other cartographic aids distributed to schoolchildren may also be useful for individual or group activities. The simultaneous use of a wall map and handouts is advisable during learning to read maps. This type of work is especially successful if the students have small copies of the wall map in their hands.

Atlases, among other functions, serve as reference aids (like dictionaries), and also, if necessary, facilitate homework.

The map can be used at the very beginning of the lesson - as a starting point for reflection, as a kind of introduction to the material, and as an illustration. In this case, it is reasonable to turn to the same map again at the end of the lesson, when it will be perceived by students at a different level, more meaningfully.

A historical map can be a good help throughout the entire explanation of new material, and in other cases - at the final stage of explanation, when consolidating what has been learned and when applying new knowledge.”

“While students are not yet completely comfortable with the map, it is advisable for the teacher to first demonstrate how to work with the map, then do this work together with the students and thus prepare them to complete tasks independently,” Werner Fatke comes to this conclusion.

Thus, when a history teacher uses historical maps in the classroom, the method of working with the map is important. The teacher must know the map well, be able to use it correctly and know the methodology for working with the map. The teacher must be able to present cartographic material to students in an accessible manner and teach them how to use the map correctly.

Chapter 3. Using contour maps in history lessons

3.1 The role of contour maps in developing skills in working with a historical map.

Of great importance in developing skills in working with a historical map is the contour map, as it makes it possible to assimilate and consolidate knowledge, develop new skills and abilities in working with a historical map. But working with a contour map leads to a positive result only when it is carried out purposefully and systematically.

Contour maps can be used at various stages of the lesson: they are used to consolidate new material in the lesson, to practice what has been learned in previous lessons with or without the use of reference materials, to control knowledge in the form of completing historical and geographical tasks on the map. The same outline map can be used to teach multiple topics, with each stage of student completion of the map assessed.

G.I. Goder, speaking about the value of working with a contour map, identifies two sides to this issue:

1. A contour map is an important means of practical teaching of the history of the ancient world, valuable for its search tasks.
2. The systematic use of maps in work significantly enhances “feedback,” helping the teacher guide students’ cognitive activity.

On the one hand, it is necessary to emphasize the enormous interest of fifth-graders in practical activities. The children are eager to draw, sculpt, and create models. Working with a contour map, without replacing artistic creativity, greatly contributes to the development of their practical skills.

But students can complete tasks on a contour map only if they have a historical map at hand. Most of the tasks require the student to identify one or another geographical feature on a contour map. Fifth-graders compare tabletop and contour maps and learn to recognize the outlines of seas and land areas, regardless of the scale of the map and what area of ​​the earth's surface is represented on it. This is how children organize their independent search activities, gradually familiarize themselves with and study the historical map based on the contour map.

On the other hand, the information obtained as a result of checking the assignment allows us to judge both the work of the class as a whole and the success of each student. The contour map serves as a kind of self-monitoring tool for the teacher and reveals his shortcomings. Systematic work with a contour map helps the teacher to feel the individuality of each student, his strengths and weaknesses, and to direct the children’s cognitive abilities in the right direction.

Thus, we can conclude that the contour map not only contributes to the formation of students’ spatial understanding, but also develops skills in working with a historical map.

3.2 Use of contour maps in a history lesson.

Useful tips for working with the map can be found in the manual by M.T. Studenikina. He makes a reference to an article by G.I. Goder "Optimization of the process of teaching the history of the ancient world in secondary schools." According to the author of the article, when starting to get acquainted with the contour map, the teacher, first of all, pays attention to the chronological framework of the period that it reflects, as well as whether working on the map will be feasible for the children. Training takes place in several stages. First, students fill out contour maps using tabletop maps, then wall maps and from memory.

The training begins with the simplest tasks of filling out maps: circle the borders of states, write their names, indicate the dates of main events. Then students compare the tabletop and contour maps, learn to recognize the outlines of land and sea areas, etc.

The teacher’s spoken word plays a major role in organizing students’ work with contour maps. You cannot hope that the children themselves will become familiar with the rules for filling out the cards printed on the cover, so you should repeatedly explain to them how to fill out the cards.

When filling out contour maps, it is necessary to comply with generally accepted requirements: the map must be filled out carefully, it must be written legibly, without errors, in free spaces so as not to interfere with the reading of the information. Working with a contour map always has a touch of creativity, which most often manifests itself in the design of the map: in the selection of colored pencils, in determining the size of the inscriptions on the map, in the size of various symbols, in the intensity of the lines drawn on the map. All this testifies not only to the artistic taste of the students, but also to their ability to separate the main from the secondary. Many tasks require students to make creative decisions and have a meaningful attitude towards the information they have studied in historical geography.

Fifth-graders do not immediately get used to practical work that is new to them. When filling out the outline map for the first time, they constantly turn to the teacher, ask him and each other questions, and talk. The guys still don’t know how to calculate time correctly: either they are in a hurry and hand in a hastily filled out card before the bell rings, or they only cope with half the task. The first task of filling out the map can only be started in the classroom and completed by students at home. In the future, the teacher alternates class and homework assignments according to the map.

When preparing a task based on a contour map, the teacher chooses one of two ways to work in the lesson:

1) the task is explained in detail, during a conversation with the class the entire course of its implementation is revealed, the students’ attention is focused on possible mistakes;

2) the task is not explained by the teacher; students are required to complete it completely independently, show intelligence and creativity.

In this case, the level of preparedness of the class is taken into account: the better prepared the class and the higher the successes achieved by it, the less explanations the teacher gives to the tasks, gradually complicating the nature of the work. It should be noted that the second option is rarely used in 5th grade; it is only possible as a form of control and usually only if the task is too difficult.

In most cases, you need to explain the task on the map, directing the children to complete it. The teacher can make the explanation of the task a separate element of the lesson, when he stops only at what may cause difficulties. Students can also be trained in another, hidden form. The explanation is not planned as a separate element of the lesson; the teacher simply includes the necessary material in the presentation, deliberately focusing the class’s attention on it. But this technique is possible only when the content of the task on the contour map is part of the content of one lesson.

These map assignment forms are good if students have experience filling out maps. When working with a contour map is at the initial stage, it is advisable to fully review the task in class.

G.I. Goder in his article pays special attention to typical mistakes and ways to overcome them, as well as to the main forms of working with a contour map.

Errors in working with the map, according to the author, are caused by the fact that insufficient attention was paid to this type of work, or the student applied the necessary symbols from memory without referring to the table map. Therefore, it is necessary to teach fifth-graders not to trust their memory, especially if the name is encountered for the first time. Typical mistakes are when a student who has historical knowledge cannot use it when performing a specific task. When reviewing such errors, it would be wise to call on another student to review their classmate's work.

Another mistake is typical for a number of students: instead of completing the required task, they thoughtlessly, mechanically redraw the textbook map. The contour map, without connection with the proposed task, is filled with city names, symbols, and colored with colored pencils. This mistake is explained by the student’s laziness, his reluctance to delve into the task, and his inability to comprehend it.

Various types of map work give good results:

1. The map is filled out at the end of the lesson; working on it is one of the ways to consolidate.
2. Test work on previously studied material using reference manuals.
3. Test work with a variable task is performed from memory.

1. Historical and geographical dictation on a contour map (sign the names of the rivers in the valleys of which states were formed, sign the names of the largest cities, indicate the location of the Egyptian pyramids, etc.).

Thus, the types of uses of contour maps are determined by specific teaching conditions. Each contour map is filled out by students as directed by the teacher in one, two or more steps, and it is advisable to evaluate each stage of the work separately. As a result of working with contour maps, students' interest in the historical map increases noticeably. They increasingly turn to her for answers and make significant progress in using her legend.

Conclusion

Thus, the formation of cartographic literacy is an integral part of teaching history in general education institutions. Cartographic literacy implies knowledge of reality in a certain chronological period; the ability to recognize and name the geographical space depicted on the map; determine the sequence and time of events displayed on the map; correctly read and describe in words the reality reflected on the map; convey the contents of the map graphically; compare the phenomena indicated on the map; compare the sizes of territories; find on the map and name the signs included in the legend; find the territory depicted on a small map on maps covering a large area; compare distances on the map with known distances; highlight changes in the territory; use the map when analyzing the causes and consequences of events; analyze the socio-economic and political development of the peoples of the world; compare maps and plans of different scales; read maps and charts.

There are a wide variety of historical maps that can be used to study a variety of topics. The use of these maps is the key to a deeper and more thorough assimilation of historical knowledge by students.

To learn to read a historical map, it is necessary to do a lot of work aimed at making students understand that without a map it is impossible not only to understand, but also to analyze the course of historical events. Therefore, it is very important to be able to use a historical map when studying all the events and phenomena of history.

Proper work with a contour map is of great importance, since a contour map not only contributes to the formation of students’ spatial understanding, but also develops skills in working with a historical map.

The goals, structure and content of school cartographic training, during which the development of cartographic literacy of students is carried out, depend on the general goals of the entire education system. During the period of formation of school history, the goals of cartographic training were reduced mainly to the development

students of historical nomenclature. In the first half of the 20th century. cartographic training was designed to ensure the development of skills to work with maps as sources of historical information. In the second half of the 20th century. the developed system of cartographic knowledge and skills was supposed to deepen the scientific nature of school history, and in the methodology of teaching history the role of the map as an object of study was strengthened.

Modern school cartography does not fully satisfy the modern goals of secondary historical education, and even less so - promising ideas for modernizing the school education system. Requirements of the 21st century school. Cartographic literacy of graduates implies, first of all, the presence of practical cartographic skills necessary in everyday life.

List of used literature

1. Aleksashkina L.N., Vorozheikina N.I. Using the cognitive potential of a historical map when schoolchildren study history. // Teaching history and social studies at school, 2011, No. 9.
2. Vagin A.A. Schematic plans and maps in history lessons. // Teaching history at school, 1946. No. 4.
3. Vorozheikina N.I. Formation of spatial concepts of students in primary school. // Teaching history and social studies at school, 2004, No. 9.
4. Goder G.I. Optimization of the process of teaching the history of the ancient world in secondary schools. - M., 1986.
5. Goder G.I. Teaching history to 5th grade. - M., 1985. - 207 p.
6. Mountain P.V. Increasing the effectiveness of teaching history in high school. - M.: Education, 1988. - 208 p.
7. Korotkova M.V. Visualization in history lessons: Practical. manual for teachers. - M.: Humanite. ed. VLADOS center, 2000. - 176 p.
8. Murzaev V.S. Blackboard drawings in teaching history. Manual for teachers. - M.; Uchpedgiz. 1946. - 116 p.
9. Nikiforov D.N. Blackboard and chalk in history lessons. // Teaching history at school, 1946. No. 2.
10. Petrova L.V. Methods of teaching history: Textbook. aid for students higher textbook establishments. -- M.: Humanite. ed. VLADOS center, 2003. - 208 p.
11. Petrova O.D. Working with a historical map in 5th grade. // Teaching history at school, 1964. No. 6.
12. Strazhev A.I. Locality in the study of history. Working with a historical map in the classroom and at home. // Teaching history at school, 1946, No. 2.
13. Studenikin M.T. Methods of teaching history at school: Textbook. for students higher textbook establishments. - M.: Humanite. ed. VLADOS center, 2003. -

1. Fatke Werner. From foreign experience. Working with the map. // Teaching history at school, 1992. No. 3-4.
2. Shogan V.V. Methods of teaching history at school: textbook. allowance. - Rostov n/d: Phoenix, 2007. - 475 p.

Application

Reminder for working with the map:

1. Show the required territory on the map and describe it in words.
2. Use the map legend (that is, symbols) and tell what the map “says” about.
3. Show on a map the places of events mentioned in the text of the textbook.

Memo for drawing up a contour map of history:

1. Write the title of the work in the upper left corner of the card.
2. Find an object in the atlas using landmarks; apply to contour maps.
3. Label everything shown on the contour maps and create your own map legend.
4. Place contour maps in the text of the summary.

Useful tips for working with contour maps:

1. While working with each contour map, it is necessary to create its “legend” (in a specially designated place on the map):

Indicate the symbols that you used when answering the questions given for the map;

Sign what each of the symbols means.

1. Write legibly, in small letters so that they do not take up much space on the map. In addition, the name of the river should not obscure or cross its course. The names of cities should be located close to the symbol that indicates the city - a circle.

1. The symbols you use should also not be very large and located within a particular country, near the geographical objects (cities, rivers, seas, etc.) with which they are associated.
2. Paint the area specified in the assignment carefully with colored pencils, not paints or felt-tip pens. The coloring should not be too bright, otherwise the names of cities, rivers, trade routes, etc. will not be visible. Make sure that the pencil does not extend beyond the area to be painted.
3. On each map, be sure to label the main geographical features: names of oceans, seas, rivers, peninsulas and islands, etc., the outlines of which are given on the map. They will not only help you more clearly imagine this or that region of the globe, this or that country, but will also provide guidelines for completing specific tasks.

Working with a map when studying the topic: “Egypt - the gift of the Nile” in 5th grade.

The purpose of the lesson: to familiarize students with the natural and climatic conditions of Ancient Egypt, as well as consider the role of the Nile River in the economic and social situation of Egypt.

Tasks:

Educational: organize the work of students to study the geographical location of Ancient Egypt, its natural and economic conditions and their influence on the daily life of the Egyptians.

Developmental: to promote the development of skills in working with a map, educational material, as well as the ability to analyze, compare, highlight the main thing and draw conclusions.

Educational: to promote in students an interest in the history of ancient civilizations, their culture and values ​​that have survived to this day.

Means of education: textbook “History of the Ancient World”, ed. V.S. Kosheleva, decorated board, outline maps, atlases, wall map “Ancient East. Egypt and Western Asia".

Lesson type: combined.

Explanation of new material:

The topic of our lesson is “Egypt - the gift of the Nile.” Today in the lesson we will learn about the location of Ancient Egypt and find it on the map. Let's find out what the Egyptians called their country and why. Let's find out when the settlement of the Nile Valley began and what it was connected with. We will also get acquainted with the activities of the ancient Egyptians.

Let's remember how you learned the map from previous lessons.

Which hemispheres do you know?

Show the eastern hemisphere on a map;

Name the countries of the world located in the eastern hemisphere;

Show Africa on the map;

What seas and oceans is it washed by?

What is the largest river in northeastern Africa?

Show me the Nile River;

Look where the Nile River originates and where it flows?

Thus, we all found out together that the Nile River, one of the greatest rivers in the world, flows through the northeastern part of Africa. And the country, located in the Nile Valley, north of the rapids and in the delta, was called Egypt in ancient times.

Open your atlases and tell us what you see there? What territory? Tell me, what other rivers and seas do you see on this map? Tell me, what do you have in common between the map in your atlas and the big map that hangs on the board? (students answer that this is the same territory). What's the difference between these cards? (students say that these cards are of different sizes). Tell me, what do you know about the scale of the map?

Okay, now open your textbooks to page 31 and tell me what is shown there? That's right, these are the borders of the Egyptian kingdom. This map gives us an idea of ​​a smaller area. You should notice that this map is missing the Arabian Peninsula, which we can see on the wall map. What else is missing on this map? (Asia Minor). Now answer me this question: why do we need such small maps? (students express their opinions). Now, I hope you understand that any historical map is part of the map of the globe, and we need it to make it easier to navigate around it.

Using the textbook map, who can go out and show the boundaries of the Egyptian kingdom on a wall map?

Let's all look at the map together, and we will see that when it flows into the Mediterranean Sea, the Nile River divides into several branches, forming a wide fertile valley in the shape of a triangle - a delta. The delta is also very visible on the map in your textbooks.

Now you will independently read the last paragraph of the first paragraph and answer me this question: what did the ancient Egyptians call their country and why? (students read and answer the question posed).

Who can show me North Africa? (show). 10-8 thousand years ago the climate of North Africa was not dry. Frequent rains fell here, there was rich vegetation, elephants, giraffes, antelopes, ostriches, and buffalos were found. From the Sahara Desert (who can show it on the map?) deep tributaries flowed into the Nile. Its valley was a large swamp, and the river was infested with fish and crocodiles.

Gradually the climate began to change. Rains became rare, rich vegetation disappeared, and the steppes turned into deserts. To escape the drought, people moved to the Nile Valley (showing on the map). It was not easy for them to explore new lands. On the banks of the river it was necessary to cut down bushes, build canals and erect long earthen embankments (dams). The Egyptians built huge reservoirs (For what purpose do you think?). Of course, the water was retained in them for a long time after the spill and was used to irrigate fields. Thus began the transition to irrigated agriculture.

Now we independently read paragraph 4 and then answer my questions: what did the ancient Egyptians do, what did they grow and who did they breed?

Tell me, what else did the Nile serve, and why was it so important for the Egyptians? Of course, products of exchange between artisans were transported along the Nile.

Reflection

So guys, let's summarize our lesson. What new did you learn today? Show the Nile River and Nile Delta on the map. Where does the Nile River flow? Show the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea on the map. Now show the territory of the Egyptian kingdom.

What did the ancient Egyptians do? What role did the Nile play in the daily life of the Egyptians?

Homework:

Paragraph 5, as well as tasks 1-3 on the contour map on pages 6-7.

Petrova L.V. Methods of teaching history: Textbook. aid for students higher textbook establishments. -- M.: Humanite. ed. VLADOS center, 2003. P. 80.

Vorozheikina N.I. Formation of spatial concepts of students in primary school. // PIOSH, 2004, No. 9. P. 30.

Petrova L.V. Methods of teaching history: Textbook. aid for students higher textbook establishments. -- M.: Humanite. ed. VLADOS center, 2003. P. 81.

Petrova L.V. Methods of teaching history: Textbook. aid for students higher textbook establishments. -- M.: Humanite. ed. VLADOS center, 2003. P. 81.

Studenikin M.T. Methods of teaching history at school: Textbook. for students higher textbook establishments. - M.: Humanite. ed. VLADOS center, 2003. P. 103.

Shogan V.V. Methods of teaching history at school: textbook. allowance. - Rostov n/d: Phoenix, 2007. P. 116.

Shogan V.V. Methods of teaching history at school: textbook. allowance. - Rostov n/d: Phoenix, 2007. P. 117.

Shogan V.V. Methods of teaching history at school: textbook. allowance. - Rostov n/d: Phoenix, 2007. P. 118.

From foreign experience. V. Fatke. Working with the map. // NIS, 1992. No. 3-4. P. 49.

Korotkova M.V. Visualization in history lessons: Practical. manual for teachers. - M.: Humanite. ed. VLADOS center, 2000. P. 4.

Korotkova M.V. Visualization in history lessons: Practical. manual for teachers. - M.: Humanite. ed. VLADOS center, 2000. P. 5-6.

From foreign experience. V. Fatke. Working with the map. // NIS, 1992. No. 3-4. P. 48.

Increasing the effectiveness of teaching history in high school. - M.: Education, 1988. P. 109.

Aleksashkina L.N., Vorozheikina N.I. Using the cognitive potential of a historical map when schoolchildren study history. // PIOSH, 2011, No. 9. P. 19.

Aleksashkina L.N., Vorozheikina N.I. Using the cognitive potential of a historical map when schoolchildren study history. // PIOSH, 2011, No. 9. P. 20.

Aleksashkina L.N., Vorozheikina N.I. Using the cognitive potential of a historical map when schoolchildren study history. // PIOSH, 2011, No. 9. pp. 20-21.

Goder G.I. Teaching history to 5th grade. - M., 1985. P. 50.

Strazhev A.I. Locality in the study of history. Working with a historical map in the classroom and at home. // PISH, 1946, No. 2. pp. 31-32.

Strazhev A.I. Locality in the study of history. Working with a historical map in the classroom and at home. // PISH, 1946, No. 2. pp. 32-34.

Strazhev A.I. Locality in the study of history. Working with a historical map in the classroom and at home. // PISH, 1946, No. 2. P. 34.

From foreign experience. V. Fatke. Working with the map. // NIS, 1992. No. 3-4. pp. 49-50.

From foreign experience. V. Fatke. Working with the map. // NIS, 1992. No. 3-4. P. 50.

From foreign experience. V. Fatke. Working with the map. // NIS, 1992. No. 3-4. pp. 50-51.

Nikiforov D.N. Blackboard and chalk in history lessons. // PISH, 1946. No. 2. pp. 41-42.

Nikiforov D.N. Blackboard and chalk in history lessons. // PISH, 1946. No. 2. P. 42.

Vagin A.A. Schematic plans and maps in history lessons. // PISH, 1946. No. 4. P. 67.

Vagin A.A. Schematic plans and maps in history lessons. // PISH, 1946. No. 4. pp. 67-68.

Vagin A.A. Schematic plans and maps in history lessons. // PISH, 1946. No. 4. P. 70.

Vagin A.A. Schematic plans and maps in history lessons. // PISH, 1946. No. 4. P. 73.

Vagin A.A. Schematic plans and maps in history lessons. // PISH, 1946. No. 4. pp. 75-77.

Vagin A.A. Schematic plans and maps in history lessons. // PISH, 1946. No. 4. P. 77.

Murzaev V.S. Blackboard drawings in teaching history. - M., 1946. P. 41.

Murzaev V.S. Blackboard drawings in teaching history. - M., 1946. S. 42-43.

Murzaev V.S. Blackboard drawings in teaching history. - M., 1946. S. 43-44.

Studenikin M.T. Methods of teaching history at school: Textbook. for students higher textbook establishments. - M.: Humanite. ed. VLADOS center, 2003. pp. 105-106.

Studenikin M.T. Methods of teaching history at school: Textbook. for students higher textbook establishments. - M.: Humanite. ed. VLADOS center, 2003. pp. 106-107.

Studenikin M.T. Methods of teaching history at school: Textbook. for students higher textbook establishments. - M.: Humanite. ed. VLADOS center, 2003. P. 107.

Goder G.I. Teaching history to 5th grade. - M., 1985. P. 51-73.

Petrova O.D. Working with a historical map in 5th grade. // NIS, 1964. No. 6. pp. 67-75.

Korotkova M.V. Visualization in history lessons: Practical. manual for teachers. - M.: Humanite. ed. VLADOS center, 2000. pp. 8-13.

Studenikin M.T. Methods of teaching history at school: Textbook. for students higher textbook establishments. - M.: Humanite. ed. VLADOS center, 2003. pp. 108-109.

Vorozheikina N.I. Formation of spatial concepts of students in primary school. // PIOSH, 2004, No. 9. P. 31.

Vorozheikina N.I. Formation of spatial concepts of students in primary school. // PIOSH, 2004, No. 9. pp. 31-32.

Vorozheikina N.I. Formation of spatial concepts of students in primary school. // PIOSH, 2004, No. 9. pp. 31-32.

Strazhev A.I. Locality in the study of history. Working with a historical map in the classroom and at home. // PISH, 1946, No. 2. P. 36.

Strazhev A.I. Locality in the study of history. Working with a historical map in the classroom and at home. // PISH, 1946, No. 2. pp. 36-38.

Strazhev A.I. Locality in the study of history. Working with a historical map in the classroom and at home. // PISH, 1946, No. 2. P. 38.

From foreign experience. V. Fatke. Working with the map. // NIS, 1992. No. 3-4. pp. 51-52.

From foreign experience. V. Fatke. Working with the map. // NIS, 1992. No. 3-4. P. 52.

From foreign experience. V. Fatke. Working with the map. // NIS, 1992. No. 3-4. pp. 53-54.

From foreign experience. V. Fatke. Working with the map. // NIS, 1992. No. 3-4. P. 54.

Studenikin M.T. Methods of teaching history at school: Textbook. for students higher textbook establishments. - M.: Humanite. ed. VLADOS center, 2003. P. 112.

Goder G.I. Optimization of the process of teaching the history of the ancient world in secondary schools. - M., 1986. P. 50.

Historical events occur in both time and space. In history, space-time connections “are expressed in statements that after such and such an event something happened in such and such a place, that such and such events took place at the same time in other places, or that some process continues in some the country (place) is so many years old” (78, pp. 120-121).
Only in connection with certain spatial conditions can many historical events be understood. Attributing events to a specific space and describing the geographic environment in which it occurred is called localization. Thus, students will understand the importance of rivers as routes of communication in Ancient Rus' only if they are explained that the East European Plain was covered with impenetrable forests and swamps.
The locality of historical events is studied with the help of such schematic aids as historical maps, site plans, map diagrams. All of them are used for demonstration purposes and help to identify connections between historical events, their essence and dynamics. Schematic manuals are used as a source of historical knowledge and as a means of systematization.
Unlike other visual aids, such as educational pictures, maps do not provide a specific visual representation of events, but only reproduce space-time structures using an abstract language of symbols.

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