The process of internal colonization in Western Europe. Internal Colonization: The Russian Empire One Hundred Years Later History Miscellaneous. Internal colonization Information About

Clothing and jewelry

The climatic conditions of most European countries demanded to dress warmer than the Romans removed. In contrast to the ancient glorification of the beauty of the human body, the church considered the body to be sinful and insisted that it should be covered with clothing.

For a long time, women's and men's clothing looked like: a long, knee-length shirt, short pants, an overshirt, a raincoat. In the XII century. it began to differ more and more, the first signs of fashion appeared. Changes in dress styles reflected the then societal preferences. Men began to wear thick stockings in the 14th century. turned into pants, women wore only skirts. However, the opportunity to follow the fashion had mainly representatives of the wealthy strata. The church did not approve of the nobility's fascination with fashion.

Of the clothes, the peasant usually wore a linen shirt - a kameez and pants to the knees or even to the ankles. Over the kameez, another long shirt with wide and long sleeves (blouse) was worn. The outer garment was a cloak, tied at the shoulders with a clasp (fibula). In winter, they wore either a roughly combed sheepskin coat, or a warm cape made of dense fabric or fur.

Clothing reflected a person's place in society. The attire of the wealthy was dominated by bright colors, cotton and silk fabrics. The poor were content with dark clothes made of coarse homespun cloth. Shoes for men and women were leather pointed boots without hard soles. Most of the poor people walked the country roads or the dirt of the city streets in wooden shoes or barefoot. Hats originated in the 13th century. and have changed continuously since then. Habitual gloves acquired importance during the Middle Ages. Shaking hands in them was considered an insult, and throwing a glove to someone was a sign of contempt and a challenge to a duel.

The nobility liked to add various decorations to their clothes. Men and women wore rings, bracelets, belts, chains. Very often, these things were unique pieces of jewelry. For the poor, all this was unattainable. And not only because of the cost, but also because it was prohibited by law. Wealthy women spent significant amounts of money on cosmetics and perfumes brought by merchants from eastern countries. They were envied by the representatives of the beautiful half of humanity, who could not afford such a luxury, but tried to keep up with fashionistas.

At the end of the XI century. The population of medieval Europe for the first time began to feel that it was cramped on its own continent. The knights wandered along the paths, wondering where to find their possessions, in what war to take part and conquer the lands. The peasants also began to lack land to feed themselves and pay tribute to their feudal lord. All this forced the Europeans to start colonization- Development of new lands. The time of active European colonization was the entire period of the XI - XIII centuries.

In the Middle Ages there were military (external) and internal colonization. Military colonization was aimed at capturing new lands by force of arms outside the spread of Western Christian civilization. The military colonization of Europeans was directed to the Iberian Peninsula, where the fight against the Arabs was fought, and was called reconquista(reconquest), to Palestine, where Crusades under the pretext of the dismissal of the Holy Sepulcher to the Baltic states, where, under the flag of the fight against the pagans, the local population was actually destroyed, etc.

internal colonization- this is the development by peasants of an array of free lands in Europe. By that time, there were enough free territories in Europe. It was only necessary to put a lot of work in order for them to give a harvest and feed the people. Peasants developed new lands with great difficulty, but the threat of crop failures and famine pushed them to this. They cut down forests, drained swamps and turned them into fertile fields. That process was very difficult, exhausting and long. Only within a few generations could a peasant family change an unsuitable for agriculture area for a fertile field. As a rule, developed lands were a continuation of already existing fields.

The seniors supported the efforts of the peasants, they understood: the development of new lands would lead to an increase in the population, because then more people would be able to feed themselves; perhaps even new villages will arise, the inhabitants of which will pay them taxes, and they will become even richer. Therefore, the feudal lords encouraged the peasants to cultivate virgin lands, freeing them from paying taxes for a certain period.

The need for land even pushed the peasants to attack the sea. So, the inhabitants of the Netherlands built dams and gradually conquered patches of land from the sea, turning them into pastures. The competition between man and the water element has been going on for centuries. Sometimes, during storms, the sea flooded the drained lands, but people restored the dams, and again, instead of sea waves, hay turned green.

To carry out such a grandiose attack on nature, new tools and all kinds of technical inventions were required. Most of the new tools or methods of farming were invented not at a time when Europeans were expanding their living space (XI-XIII centuries), but much earlier. However, it was at this time that they began to be used massively and played a decisive role. Heavy axes began to be used to cut down forests next to the billhooks. For plowing new lands, a heavy wheeled plow began to be used, in which, thanks to collars and harnesses, a horse began to be harnessed. The collar transferred the burden of work for the horse from the neck to the chest, which did not contribute to rapid fatigue. And iron horseshoes for horses began to protect against injuries. Heavy iron harrows began to be used to loosen the earth. Thanks to plows and harrows, it was possible to develop heavier, but fertile soils. Windmills, borrowed from the East, have become an important element of the rural landscape.

Along with technical innovations, new technologies for cultivating the land have also become established. In most parts of Europe, the three-field system was established. The land that the peasant had at his disposal, he divided into three parts. The first part from autumn was sown with winter crops. The second spring spring. The third - rested, i.e. was under steam. The following year, the first field was left fallow, the second was sown with winter crops, and the third with spring crops. In addition, crop rotation was carried out. The same crop was not sown in the same field for several years in a row. They began to use organic fertilizers. These changes in technique and technology made it possible to slightly increase the yield.

COLONIZATION

(from lat. colonia - settlement) - 1) The foundation of settlements in c.-l. country; 2) the settlement and development of vacant and marginal lands (the so-called inner lands).

K. as the foundation of settlements in k.-l. the country was widespread already in the ancient world; it is characteristic of both ancient (Assyria, Phoenicia), and ancient (Greek policies, Rome) state-in. About K. in antiquity, see Antique colonies, as well as Antique cities in the Northern Black Sea region.

Large movements of tribes of the early Middle Ages (Great Migration of Peoples, etc.) ending with the settlement of tribes in new territories "led to complex relationships between the local population and newcomers, to significant socio-economic and ethnic changes and played a large role" in the genesis feud. relations (see Feudalism). An example is the K. Balkan Peninsula by the Slavs in the 6th-7th centuries.

Military-colonization enterprises were crusades 11-13 centuries. on Bl. East.

In him. bourgeois historiography (works by Kechke, Hampe, and many others) is extolled in every possible way by the so-called. German colonization in the East. Europe, which began with the time of Charlemagne, culminating. point in the 13th century. To continued in the 17-18 centuries. and later; it is claimed that she played a decisive role in the rise of c. economy, industry, trade, culture app. Slavs, Hungary. In the Marxist ist. science does not dispute the fact that it. the colonists are artisans, the peasants brought with them a well-known household. experience and advanced technology. But at the same time, Nar. K. and invader. the goals pursued under K. him. feudal lords - the organizers of K. The latter determined the negative. the role of the German K. as a form of conquering glory. and other populations and the capture of fame. lands. It was by no means "peaceful" in nature (as reactionary bourgeois historiography often presents), but was accompanied in a number of districts by bitter. wars and physical destruction of glory. and other populations (for details, see the article "Drang nah Osten").

Along with the foundation of settlements (both urban and rural) in the conquered countries and lands (factories of Venice and Genoa, German colonies) in cf. century, the so-called. internal K., that is, the gradual (lasting for centuries) settlement and economic development of free, empty lands of their own. country, accompanied by the resettlement of part of the population from their former habitats to new places. In some countries, internal Conservation also took place in the process of recapturing the country from the invaders (for example, in the course of Spain). In the countries of the West Europe int. K. makes especially noticeable progress in the 12-14 centuries. There is a clearing of fallow lands, uprooting of forest districts; in their place appear arable land and numerous. villages. Internal K. was evidence of progress in production. forces of the feud. society: there was an expansion of acreage, an increase in the production of agricultural products. products. In an effort to increase land. rent and the expansion of their sphere of power, the feudal lords and the church sometimes acted as the initiators of k., attracting various benefits to the new settlements of peasants (see Hospitals), artisans, artisans. But a decisive role in the process of internal. The k. was played by the peasantry, whose forces were developing new lands and which was most often the initiator of k. For the peasantry, k. was not only a means of expanding the size of x-va, but also a way to facilitate feuds. dependence, since the newly developed lands were used by the peasants either on preferential terms, or in general as free land. property (at least initially). K. acquired very wide dimensions in Russia (see below).

During the period of the new time, pl. countries of Asia, Africa, Lat. America through the military. and economic coercion were turned into colonies in the sense that is given to this word at the present time, and became the object of capitalist exploitation (see Colonies and colonial policy). During the new time, K. does not stop by organizing resettlement. colonies by emigrants of the metropolitan countries, while the approval of the colonists on the new territory. often leads to its colonial subjugation. A typical example of the organization of resettlement. colonies can serve as an Amer. continent (as well as English K. Australia and New Zealand, Dutch and English K. South Africa). The conversion process was often accompanied by the extermination or displacement of the indigenous population to inconvenient lands and the organization of reservations (in North America, as well as in Australia and South Africa). At the same time, there was a process of partial mixing of the alien and indigenous population. In the United States, the descendants of immigrants from different countries of Europe make up the majority of the population of this country. During 1820-1960, approx. 42 million people, of which approx. 34 million before 1921. The presence of vast tracts of uncultivated land in the west created the opportunity for those who arrived in the north. Colonists acquire America from Europe on W. lands. plots, creating there independent. farmer's farms. The rapid settlement and development of lands in the west was facilitated by the transformation into the north after the war for independence. America 1775-83 territories to the West. from Allegan to "common lands". The mass squatter movement played an important role in Canada. Published during the civil war homestead act (1862) was the most important law in the history of K. zap. US lands. Settlement app. The development of land quickly moved forward, and soon the initial stage of land cultivation in the United States was completed (however, the allotment of land for agricultural cultivation continued into the 20th century).

The problem of K. is given meaning. place in Amer. bourgeois historiography, especially starting with F. J. Turner, who tried to explain the patterns of Amer. stories, starting from having means. fund "free lands" and the process of their K., and proclaimed the expansion of a necessary condition for the development of the United States. Following Turner, F. L. Paxon, D. Schaefer, D. Clarke, and other historians considered the problem of k. With a known value, the actual material of the works of Amer. historians dedicated to K., they are characterized by the image of the "idyllic" picture of K. - ignoring the fact that app. the lands (to-rye they are called "free") actually belonged to the Indians; ignoring the role of revolutions in the process of K. zap. lands, as well as the differentiation of Amer. farmers-colonists - that is, the capitalist process. bundles in farms. In the owls K.'s historiography is considered in connection with the broader problem of the development of capitalism in US agriculture. ways of development of capitalism in the village. x-ve; it is emphasized that K. app. land was accompanied by exterminate. the wars of the colonists against the Indian tribes, that in the new districts development proceeded according to the capitalist. way, accompanied by capitalist. stratification among farmers. Owls. historians pose the problem of the influence of capitalism on the characteristics of the capitalist. development not only in the west, but also in the east. districts of the country. Attention is drawn to the fact that K. was at the same time an "outlet", softening (for a while) acute social contradictions in the districts of the "old" settlement.

Lit .: Marx K., Forced emigration ..., K. Marx and F. Engels, Soch., 2nd ed., Vol. 8; his own, "Capital", vol. 1, ch. 25 ("Modern theory of K."), ibid., vol. 23; Engels F., Labor Movement in America, ibid., vol. 21; Lenin, V.I., The agrarian question and the forces of the revolution, Soch., 4th ed., vol. 12; his own, Marx on the American "black redistribution", ibid., vol. 8; Fences M. A., Crusades, M., 1956; Konokotin A.V., Essays on agr. history of Sev. France in the IX-XIV centuries, Ivanovo, 1958; Efimov A. V., Essays on the history of the USA, M., 1955; his own, "Free Lands" of America and East. concept of F. D. Turner, in collection: From the history of societies. movements and international relations, M., 1957; Saprykin Yu. M., English. colonization of Ireland in the XVI - early. XVII centuries., M., 1958; Kuropyatnik G.P., On the path of development of capitalism in agriculture in the USA in the pre-monopoly. era, "NNI", 1958, No 4; Essays on the New and Contemporary History of the USA, vol. 1, M., 1960; Samoilo A.S., English. colonies in the North. America in the 17th century, M., 1963.

L. F. Toskin. Moscow.

Colonization in Russia. In the 9th-12th centuries. glory. population Dr. Rus' gradually colonized the territory. in pools pp. Oka, upper Volga, Vyatka, terr. Podvinya, Prionezhie, Pomorie, etc. K. sowing. parts of the East. Europe intensified in the 13-15 centuries. as a result of the conquests of the Mongol-Tatars and the establishment of their domination. At the same time, the vast steppe and forest-steppe districts to the south of the Oka became deserted, becoming places for the nomadic nomads of the conquerors. These districts were named. Wild field.

At 16 - 1st floor. 19th centuries colonization movements the population were sent preim. to the south and east they were called out by the growing feudal serf. oppression. In the 16-17 centuries. the peasants and townspeople who fled to the outskirts were forced to wage a continuous struggle, mainly against the predatory raids of the Tat. and other steppe feudal lords. Under these conditions, K. also took on the character of the formation of a military. communities of Cossacks (see Cossacks). Relying on the population settled to the south of the Oka, the government of Russia secured the territory. Wild field. K. these districts led to the formation of many here. cities, the plowing of land and the development of agriculture; from the 2nd floor. 17th century they become suppliers of grain and livestock for the center of the country. Feudal lords also penetrate here, to-rye began to receive developed and inhabited lands from the pr-va in estates and estates. After the conquest of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates (50s of the 16th century), there was an intensive K. Wed. and Nizh. Volga and Ural regions.

From con. 16th century began K. Siberia and D. East. The Russians founded cities in Siberia and brought farmers here. culture - their tools, cultures and methods of using the land (fallow and two-field, three-field). Following them, representatives of various peoples of Siberia (Yakuts, etc.) began to engage in agriculture. Characteristic features of internal K. in 18 - 1st floor. 19th centuries were landowner K. south. districts, carried out by transferring serfs from the Center, and governments. K. Siberia by exile here for political. and antiserfdom. speeches, as well as criminal offenders. Resettlement movement from the center. provinces and households. the development of the vast districts of Siberia, the Far East, the North. The Caucasus especially intensified in the 19th century, and continued into the beginning. 20 century, acquiring more and more capitalist. character. There was extensive plowing of the land by the colonists (for example, in the North Caucasus), who produced wheat, tobacco, and other crops for sale. K. during this period led to the creation in the developed districts of the market for the capitalist. prom-sti and drawing them into the world capitalist. x-in.

In con. 19 - beg. 20th century The initial stage of the K. outskirts of Russia was completed.

Lit .: Lenin V. I., The development of capitalism in Russia, Soch., 4th ed., Vol. 3; his own, Serf-owners at work, ibid., vol. 5; his, Agrarian Program of Social Democracy in the First Russian Revolution of 1905-1907, ibid., vol. 13; his own, The Agrarian Question in Russia to the con. 19th century, ibid., vol. 15; his, Migration issue, ibid., v. 18; his, Meaning of the resettlement case, ibid., vol. 19; his, On the question of the agrarian policy of the (general) modern government, ibid.; Essays on the history of the colonization of the North, c. 1, P., 1922; Lyubavsky M.K., Education of the main state. terr. Great Russian nationalities. Settlement and unification of the center, L., 1929; Bernadsky V.N., Novgorod and Novgorod, land in the 15th century, M.-L., 1961; Tikhomirov M. H., Russia in the XVI century, M., 1962; Bakhrushin S.V., Izbr. works on the history of Siberia in the XVI-XVII centuries, in his book: Nauch. works, vol. 3, part 1, M., 1955; Shunkov V.I., Essays on the history of the colonization of Siberia in the XVII - early. XVIII centuries., M.-L., 1946; his, Essays on the history of agriculture in Siberia (XVII century), M., 1956; Fadeev A.V., Essays on economics. development of the steppe Ciscaucasia in the pre-reform period, M., 1957; Alexandrov V. A., Rus. population of Siberia in the XVII - early. XVIII century., M., 1964.

Soviet historical encyclopedia. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. Ed. E. M. Zhukova. 1973-1982 .

Synonyms:

See what "COLONIZATION" is in other dictionaries:

- (fr. colonization, from lat. colonia colony, settlement). Mass immigration to an uncultured country of immigrants from any civilized state. Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. Chudinov A.N., 1910. COLONIZATION ... ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

Settling and economic development of the empty marginal lands of the country (internal colonization), as well as the foundation of settlements outside its borders (external colonization). Since the time of the Great geographical discoveries, European colonization of the ancients ... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

The process of settling and economic development of empty or sparsely populated marginal lands of one's country ("internal colonization"), as well as the establishment of settlements (related mainly to agricultural activities) outside its borders ("external ... ... Political science. Dictionary.

colonization- and, well. colonization f. First recorded by I. Goncharov (frigate Pallada), 1858 EC. 1. Settling marginal and vacant lands. ALS 1. An example of the famous field of refuge (champ d asile), which unworthy speculators opened after the fall ... ... Historical Dictionary of Gallicisms of the Russian Language

colonization- 1. The process of settlement and economic development of the empty marginal lands of one's country (internal colonization) and the establishment of settlements outside one's country (external colonization). 2. The development of a new habitat by the body, i.e. extension… … Geography Dictionary

COLONIZATION, colonization, wives. Action under ch. colonize or colonize. The process of colonization. Territory colonization. Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov. D.N. Ushakov. 1935 1940 ... Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov

Conquest, development, enslavement, settlement Dictionary of Russian synonyms. colonization n., number of synonyms: 4 conquest (15) ... Synonym dictionary

COLONIZE, zuyu, zuesh; ovanny and COLONIZE, roar, roar; ovated; owls. and nesov., that. Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov. S.I. Ozhegov, N.Yu. Shvedova. 1949 1992 ... Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov

The article is published according to a journal source (Geophysical Processes and Biosphere, 2005, v.4, pp157-164), which is relatively inaccessible.

But some author's corrections have been made to the text, since the text published in the journal contains several editing errors.

The processes of internal colonization in Europe and Russia 701-1850. and solar cycles.

© 2005, 2007 S. A. Petukhov

sergey . petukhov@gmail. com

Internal colonization is an important process in the development of states and civilizations. For its quantitative characterization and study of links with climatic and geophysical phenomena, it is proposed to use a special chronological index of colonization characterizing the number of cities founded (or first mentioned) during a certain period of time. The chronological indices of colonization of 7 European countries and regions obtained in this way (Germany, the Netherlands, the Czech Republic/Slovakia, Scandinavia, the Eastern Baltic States, Belarus/Ukraine and Russia), covering the period from 701 to 1850, show significant synchronism, and also demonstrate a highly reliable relationship with solar activity. The connection between the phenomena of colonization, urbanization and cultural shifts with 80-90 year cycles of solar activity is discussed.

The consideration of historical processes is often based on the analysis of the reasons for the development of certain areas immanent to them (such, for example, the history of technology or religion, where major events cause numerous consequences through the mechanisms of cause-and-effect relationships) and the complication of their systems. However, external "clocks" - cyclically changing climatic factors and sudden weather anomalies can significantly affect society and influence the course of history (for example, nomad raids caused by droughts [ Goncharov, 1994], or a severe cooling of the 16th century, which influenced social processes in European countries [“ Holocen”, 1999]. There are also studies showing that a similar assumption can be put forward regarding the possible contribution to the dynamics of historical processes of cosmophysical and related geomagnetic factors [ Ertel, 1994]. The proof of the existence of such an impact is an interdisciplinary task, since it is carried out on historical material, but by methods specific to the natural sciences. In cases of social phenomena presumably associated with natural cycles, it is possible to directly compare natural and social indices specially developed for this purpose. This paper investigates the relationship between colonization phenomena and climatic and solar cycles.

Materials and methods.

The bases used in the work included data on the cities of Central and Eastern Europe, as well as the Asian part of Russia (for the period 701-1850, a total of 2105 cities), the years of the founding of cities, the years of obtaining city status, as well as data on their current population. time (2000-2002). All Belarusian, Dutch, Baltic, Russian, Ukrainian cities were considered; Polish and German cities with a population of more than 20 thousand people; Czech-Slovak cities with a population of more than 5 thousand people. and a selection of the most historically significant Scandinavian cities. The cities of the Kaliningrad region were considered together with the cities of Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia, since their emergence was part of a single historical process of the colonization of the Baltic states.

Encyclopedias and dictionaries were used to collect data [ Great Soviet Encyclopedia, 1981; The new encyclopedia Britannica, 1992, Brockhaus Enzyklopä die, 1981; Mala encyclopedia PWN, 2000; VSeobecna encyclopedia, 1996, Kuca, 1995-2001], site of historical demography and population statistics www . library. uu. nl/uesp/populstat/populframe. html, virtual "People's Encyclopedia of Cities and Regions" My City "" (www. mojgorod. en), as well as site materialswww. citypopulation. de And www. vgd. en.

Based on these data, a time series of regional 25-year colonization indices was constructed, equal to the number of settlements with an urban future founded or first mentioned during the 25-year time interval for the territory under consideration. For Russia, a more detailed one was also built, with a 10-year index.

The following were used as natural indices:

1. Indices of solar activity, presented in the National Geophysical Data Center ( http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov).

2. Reconstruction of solar activity from the content of the beryllium isotope Be 10 [Bard, 2000]. (IGBP PAGES / World Data Center for Paleoclimatology Data. Contribution Series #2003-006. NOAA/NGDC Paleoclimatology Program, Boulder CO, USA). From and In a similar series, median mean values ​​of solar activity were calculated for 25-year periods.

3 ). Reconstruction of air temperature fluctuations in the Northern Hemisphere in XI - XX centuries [Jones et al, 1998] - P . D. Jones, K. R. Briffa, T. P. Barnett, and S. F. B Tett, (1998), Millennial Temperature Reconstructions. IGBP PAGES/World Data Center-A for Paleoclimatology. Data Contribution Series #1998-039.For a series of air temperature fluctuations in the Northern Hemisphere, average temperature deviations for 25-year periods were calculated.

Programs were used to create databases and their processing. dBase V, NCSS 97, Excel from MS Office 2000, as well as a time series analysis software package developed at the Institute of Physics of the Earth RAS and kindly provided by A. G. Gamburtsev.

Results.

1. Colonization and urbanization of Europe according to indices.

The graph of colonization processes (Fig. 1A) demonstrates their synchronism for most regions, including the most remote ones - Eastern and Western Europe. But at the same time, internal colonization in Western and Central Europe was limited to accessible territories, which were exhausted in the XIV century. For Eastern Europe, it lasted longer, and for the Asian part of Russia, it continues in our time. For Scandinavia, a significant difference is found - the formation of a few cities in the early period (some of them ceased to exist) and the overwhelming number of other cities in the 17th century.

Fig.1 Synchronicity of colonization processes in Europe 701-1850 (7 regions). The abscissa shows 25-year periods, the ordinate shows the number of settlements with an urban future founded in a given period.

Control of colonization indexes.

Cities whose founding dates were used to construct colonization indices vary widely in their contemporary significance. However, settlements founded in regions that are fundamentally important for further development usually have great opportunities for development, and, as a result, are characterized by a larger population in the future. Thus, comparing the time course of the colonization index (the number of cities founded in a certain period of time) with the population of these cities, for example, at the present time (2000-2002), can serve as an additional quantitative control that the proposed index reflects the real historical dynamics of development of fundamentally important regions.

Another method for controlling the adequacy of the colonization index to the task at hand can be historical control, i.e., comparing the moments of the increase in this index with the periods of intensive development of the given region, as reflected in historical sources.

Graphs that simultaneously reflect the processes of the founding of cities and the size of their modern population (for Russia and Germany) are presented in Fig. 2 (A and B). There is no complete match between the two profiles in either case. However, it is obvious that the peaks of urban growth quite accurately reflect the historical development of promising territories.

For Germany, the main periods of colonization were 726-825, 1026-1050, 1151-1175, 1226-1250. For Russia, these fundamental moments fall on:

· 1126-1150, the colonization of the basins of the upper Volga and Oka in the XII century (a characteristic figure is Andrei Bogolyubsky);

· 1226-1250, the invasion of the Tatar-Mongols - the emergence. refugee towns with no growth potential;

· 1351-1375, the revival of the Russian principalities by the end of the yoke - in the XIV century (a characteristic figure of Dmitry Donskoy),

· 1475-1450, the emergence of independent Russia (Ivan III);

· 1551-1600, the development of the Volga region in the second half of the 16th century (Ivan IV the Terrible and Boris Godunov);

· 1626-1675, advance to the Urals and Siberia;

· 1701-1725 years, the development of the south of Russia and access to the Baltic at the end of the 17th - beginning of the 17th century (Peter I);

· 1751-1775, conquests in the south during the time of Catherine II ..

Quantitative and historical controls were used for indices of Czech, Belarusian/Ukrainian and Baltic cities and confirmed the phenomenon of principal periods of internal colonization.

Rice. 2 The foundation of new settlements with an urban future in the territories belonging to modern Russia and Germany and their population at the beginning XXI century. A. Territory of Russia 826-2000 B. Territory of Germany 676-1600

internal colonization- settling and economic development of the empty outlying lands of the country.

Medieval Europe

In the history of Russia

A number of modern researchers (A. Etkind, D. Uffelman and others) consider not the economic, but the ideological and mental side of internal colonization in Russia. Questions are raised about the antagonistic relations between the imperial center and the periphery, about the mutual perceptions of the authorities and the people about each other. The center, under the conditions of imperial internal colonization, considers the periphery as “natural” and wild, in need of cultivation and civilizing transformation. The revolution in this vein is seen as an attempt to overcome the contradictions of internal colonization, but soon its new stage begins - the Soviet one.

A. Etkind writes:

Colonization always has two sides: active and passive; the side that conquers, exploits, and profits, and the side that suffers, endures, and rebels. But the cultural distance between the metropolis and the colony does not always coincide with the ethnic distance between them.
The situation that interests us is just at the point of transition from an agrarian society to an industrial one. For agrarian societies, as Russia was before Peter and to a large extent remained after him, the main differences are built between the cultures of the rulers and the people - linguistic, ethnic, religious, even sexual. Industrialization gives rise to nationalism as a "marriage between the state and culture", the result of their mutual attraction and alignment. The nationalization of an agrarian culture, repeatedly divided into classes, provinces, communities, dialects, estates, sects, is always self-colonization: the people turn into a nation, the peasants into the French. The process goes from the capitals to the frontiers, stopping only where it collides with a counter process of equal strength. The peculiarity of Russia was only its geographical extent and underpopulation, which made it difficult for people and symbols to move, as well as a special configuration of cultural features to be mixed. The cultural distance between the upper and lower classes, inherited from an agrarian society, remained a paramount factor. The two worlds (the state and the rural community) were separated by an abyss, but all the resources of the state, financial and human, came from the communities. Communication between them, if possible, was distorted, risky and limited.

To find new lands, it was not at all necessary to go on distant wanderings. There was enough unused land in Europe itself. Another thing is that it was not easy to master them, because for the most part they are forests, swamps. Forests had to be cut down, swamps drained, and such work is very hard.

And yet, over the course of several centuries, the face of Europe has changed. Through the efforts of many generations of peasants, vast territories were cleared that were previously completely unsuitable for agriculture. More arable land means more grain, less danger of famine.

In this internal colonization, the peasants were often assisted by sovereigns and, in general, by large lords. They exempted from taxes for a certain period of time the villages that arose on the cleared lands. It was beneficial for the lords that more peasants lived in their possessions, more land was cultivated, more villages and villages appeared that generated income.

The monks also took a serious part in the development of new lands. Monasteries arose, as a rule, in the most remote corners of Europe. A few decades later, these abbeys were surrounded by well-groomed fields, orchards, orchards, mills and vineyards. The order of the Cistercians (from the name of the main monastery - Cistercium) became especially famous for such work. The diligence of the Cistercian monks knew no bounds. They turned the terrible forest jungle into exemplary farms. But the monks did not spare the forces of dependent peasants either.

The Cistercian monks are felling the forest. Miniature (XIII century)

In some parts of Europe, for example in the Netherlands, every piece of land was used for agriculture, but it was still not enough. The peasants in those parts even launched an attack on the sea. To protect themselves from floods, they built dams, and sometimes poured real islands of stones and debris, on which they later arranged pastures.

As a result of internal colonization by the labor of many generations, Europe gradually began to acquire an increasingly common appearance.

"Onslaught to the East"

From such overpopulated regions of Europe as the Netherlands and some regions of Germany, a gradual movement of the population to the East began - across the Elbe River.

Beyond the Elbe lived Slavic tribes that appeared there after the Germans left during the Great Migration of Nations. The Slavs between the Elbe (Laba) and the Oder (Odra) were pagans. Their state has not yet arisen, although large tribal unions have already appeared. The fate of these Slavic tribes turned out to be difficult. From the east, aggressive campaigns in their lands were arranged by the Polish kingdom every now and then. But even more dangerous was the pressure from the West - from the German princes.

Christian and Arab playing chess. Miniature (XIII century)

Large German lords, both secular and church, really wanted to expand their possessions in the East at the expense of the lands of the Slavic tribes. A struggle began, which took several centuries, to conquer the Slavs between the Elbe and the Oder. Both sides were shown full of deceit and cruelty. Already seemingly conquered Slavs rebelled many times and abandoned the imposed Christianity. Slavic leaders either led these uprisings or began to support the Germans.

The decisive word in this struggle was said by the peasants, the very ones who went to seek a better life in the lands conquered from the Slavs. The German dukes, counts and bishops invited settlers in every possible way, because they understood that the conquered lands still had to be kept, and for this they needed to be settled. The settlers received a lot of land on good terms and for the sake of it they were ready to live for many years in the restless German-Slavic borderlands.

So the German princes conquered, and the alien settlers occupied and held the lands of the Slavic tribes. Many Slavs, as well as Germans, died or fled during these centuries. But many remained and gradually merged with the new settlers, passing on some of their customs to them. Their lands became part of the empire in the same way as once, after even more stubborn resistance, the lands of the Saxons were included in the power of Charlemagne. In both cases, the conquest was accompanied by the conversion of the conquered to Christianity.

From the 13th century German military colonization also began in the Eastern Baltic - Prussia and Livonia.

Reconquista

At the opposite end of Europe - the Iberian Peninsula - there was also military colonization. Even in the VII-VIII centuries. almost the entire peninsula, except for the northern mountainous part, was occupied by the Arabs (or, as they were called in Europe, the Moors). But soon the Christians began a centuries-old struggle to reclaim these lands. Reconquista is Spanish for Reconquest. The reconquista continued until the end of the 15th century, but the main successes were made in the 11th-13th centuries. This is the very time when the crusaders were rushing to Jerusalem, and the German princes and peasants were pushing out the West Slavic tribes. It was like a simultaneous offensive in all directions. The reconquista was not the work of the Spaniards and the Portuguese alone - knights from all over Europe went to war with the Moors. The peasants mastered what was conquered by the sword.

Christians not only fought with the Moors - they learned a lot from them. Islamic culture in the X-XII centuries. was very developed, the Arab sages were famous all over the world. Many Europeans went to Arab Spain for knowledge.

Stages of the reconquista

Here is just one example of how Europe learned from the Moors. The whole world now uses numbers that are called Arabic (although they were invented in India). These figures came to Christian Europe, apparently from Spain.

Internal colonization and conquests of Christians in the West and East, as it were, "expanded" the boundaries of Western Europe. Acquaintance with other peoples and their customs gave a lot of useful things to European culture.

Questions

1. Show on the map of Europe the main directions of military colonization movements in the Middle Ages.

2. In the old monastic orders - Benedictine and Cluniac - the hardest work was done by peasants dependent on monasteries. Whether it arose by chance at the very end of the 11th century. order of the Cistercians obliged the monks themselves to raise the virgin lands?

3. Is it possible to decide who is right and who is to blame for the endless clashes between Germans and Slavs in the 11th-13th centuries?

4. Why did the Europeans fail to hold Palestine, but managed to win back Spain from the Saracens?

From the Spanish epic "Song of my Side" (XII century)

The Spanish heroic epic about Side is dedicated to real events and real people. Its main character is the Spanish knight Rodrigo (Ruy Diaz) (c. 1040-1099), nicknamed by the Arabs Cid (Lord). Ruy Diaz, at the head of a detachment of desperate warriors, successfully fought with the Moors either as a vassal of the Spanish king, or even at his own peril and risk. Sometimes he went to the service and to one of the noble and wealthy Moors. As a result of his campaigns and raids, a significant part of Spain was again under the rule of Christians.

To the sea it became known about Side. With vassals he is in great fun: The Almighty sent him victory. At night, a squad goes on raids with him, Into Guhera with Khativa, she entered with a fight, In the day she broke in, descending to the south. To the sea he plundered the Saracen region, Peña Cadella submitted to him. Peña Cadella submitted to Cid. Xativa groans, Guhera mourns, Valencia is also in immeasurable grief. So, plundering enemies, ruining the whole region, Sleeping during the day, raiding at night, Taking cities, he lived for three years. My Sid taught the Valencians a lesson: Do not leave them from the gates of the city. He cut down their gardens, he repairs them. It interferes with the delivery of bread to the city. Valencians in grief: what should they do? Do not bring bread from any side. Neither a father's son, nor a parent's son, nor a friend will teach how to be. It's a bad thing, gentlemen, if there is no food, If wives and children die of hunger. The Valencians do not know how to save themselves. They send a message to the King of Morocco, But he has no strength to help them - He must wage a war for the Atlas. Glad Campeador * this news was ... He ordered that the cry be called in Casgilla: He who wants to be rich, not beggar, Let him hasten to join Campeador - he decided to master Valencia. “Whoever wants to go to Valencia with us Of good will - I don’t need others, - I’m waiting for those in the Selfish Gorge for three days.” Said this Campeador, Returned to Murviedro, which is subdued by him. Everywhere his cry is spread by rumor. Hearing how generous and successful he is, Christians flock to him in droves. There are rumors all over the place about him. Who joined him, he will not leave. My Cid de Bivar * is getting richer in the treasury. He is glad that his army is growing, He does not hesitate, he leads it into the field. Valencia was taken by a Bivarian in the ring, Approaches were taken from all sides, Mavram cut off both the exit and the entrance, The Valencians gave him a rebuff Nine months exactly - a considerable period. The tenth came - their army surrendered. Great merriment reigned all around, When Sid entered Valencia. The one who has been on foot until now has become an equestrian. All got hold of gold and silver. Anyone became rich there. My Sid took a fifth of everything - Thirty thousand marks he had, And who knows the rest of the booty? My Sid rejoices, that in a good hour he was born: His banner soared over alysasar*... The exiles* are rich, happy with everyone, All are generously exacted by Campeador, Homes and lands are given to anyone. Pays my Sid, not skimping at all, Even those who came to Valencia later. But my Sid sees: everyone wants to leave And take their prey with them. On the advice of Minaya*, he gave the order: Kohl, without kissing his hands, go home without asking Someone will leave and be caught, Let them take away all the goods from such a person, They will impale them mercilessly and immediately. My Sid arranged all the affairs as it should, Called Minaya, so he said to him: “If you agree, I want to know, How much wealth was given to me. Let all people be rewritten according to the account, And if someone wants to run away, Let them take away what he has acquired And give it back to those who did not leave the city. "Here is a wise order" - Minaya approved. My Sid called the squad to the gathering, He ordered to count the fighters who came. There were thirty-six hundred in all. My Sid smiled - and he is glad and proud. “Glorified is our Lord forever and ever! Not so many of us left Biwar. We are rich, and we will become richer still. I'll send you, Minaya, if you don't mind, I'll send you to Castile: we have a house there, There is our lord, King Don Alphonse. From what we managed to get here, Take a hundred horses with you as a gift to him. Kiss his hands for me, Ask him to allow me to take my wife and children away from here. Tell me that I will send for the family, That Doni Ximena, Elvira and Sol With great honor and great honor Will be delivered to the land that is subdued by me. Minaya answered: "I will fulfill everything." And began to gather without further ado. The ambassador took a hundred soldiers with him, To know neither worries nor anxieties on the way ... While my Sid was having fun with the squad, A worthy cleric came to them from the east, Bishop Jerome, the Lord's servant, Reasonable and versed in the wisdom of the book, Brave and on foot and on horseback. He heard a lot about the exploits of Sid And longed to measure his strength with the Moors: Let him only grapple with them - Christians would never shed tears. My Sid Ruy Diaz was very happy with him. “For God's sake, Minaya, listen to me. In gratitude to the Creator for the great mercy of the Diocese here on the land of Valencia For Don Jerome, I decided to establish, And you deliver this message to Castile. Minaya liked Sid's speech. The bishop's table was occupied by Jérôme. He received land, lived in abundance. O God, how glad all Christians are that a bishop in Valencia has been appointed to them!

(Campeador ("warrior") - the nickname of Cid.)

(Bivar is the name of Cid's castle.)

(Alcazar - in Spain the name of the city's citadel, the Kremlin.)

(Cid and his vassals were expelled from Castile by King Alphonse VI, but later forgiven for victories over the Moors.)

(Minaya is Sid's relative and most loyal companion.)

Questions

1. Show on the map in which region of Europe the action of the poem takes place.

2. Try to determine what kind of people went to Sid's detachment and for what purposes?

3. Why does Sid, expelled by the king, send him gifts, and then even give him the conquered Valencia?

4. Is it only the incredible generosity of Cid that explains his desire to give houses and lands even to those who did not participate in the siege of Valencia? By the way, where did Sid get these houses and lands from?

5. Why is Cid so strict with those who want to leave the conquered city?

6. Where do you think Bishop Jerome came from?

7. Why does Sid create a bishopric without even asking permission from church authorities?

8. Why did Sid need to call his family to the city that had just been recaptured from the Arabs?