Medieval universities and features of their development. Abstract: Medieval universities. Paris Medieval universities in Western Europe

No one founded the first universities. They arose spontaneously at the turn of the 12th-13th centuries. Then this ready-made form was borrowed by opening new universities in different European lands, and later in other regions. Moreover, even in modern and contemporary times, the founders of universities sometimes unconsciously, and sometimes quite deliberately, copied traditional European forms.

Over the past hundred years, many books have been written about the “mission of the university,” about the “spirit of the university,” about the “end of the university,” about the “rebirth of the university.” In the debate about the role and place of universities in the modern world, there are more and more authors, but there is less and less agreement between them. But if we accept the medieval origins of universities, then perhaps it is worth first understanding why they arose in the medieval West and what were their functions?

Doctor of Historical Sciences, Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Head of the Department of Western European Middle Ages and Early Modern Times at the Institute of General History of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Professor at the School of Historical Sciences at the National Research University Higher School of Economics, Executive Editor of the journal "Middle Ages"

Abstracts

The medieval West gave us universities. The thread connecting the medieval universities of Bologna, Paris, Oxford or Prague with Moscow State University, Higher School of Economics or National Research Nuclear University MEPhI is long and winding, but continuous. The same cannot be said about the Byzantine Pandidacterione Pandidakterion- an educational institution founded in 855 or 856 in Constantinople and existed until the Turks took the city in 1453., about Moroccan Al-Qaraouine Al-Qaraween- the oldest institution of higher education in the city of Fez, was founded in 859. or about the Chinese Academy Hanlin  Hanlin (“Forest of Brushes”)- a court academy founded in China in 738 and existed until 1911. It served as a high school, a censorship committee, a library, and an imperial office, as its members often became advisors to the emperor. The Academy was the highest level of the entire system of Confucian education and the place for conducting job examinations.. The history of such institutions is extremely interesting and undeservedly forgotten, but in these regions themselves it will be the Western university form of obtaining and preserving knowledge that will later be borrowed.

The continuity of tradition creates the effect of recognition: “They were almost the same as we are now!” And indeed, a lot seems familiar: there, like us, there was a rector, a dean, a faculty, lectures, courses, exams, bachelors, masters, doctors, professors. Students entered the university, listened to lectures, practiced defending their opinions, took exams and, if successful, received degrees. Having achieved a bachelor's degree, they could leave the university, or, having achieved a master's degree, they could move on to more advanced levels of study at higher faculties. A person with a university degree was valued quite highly in society, although not nearly as highly as he would like. University positions were elective; the most important issues were decided by councils of faculties or the entire university. Among the masters there were great scientists, but there were also stupid retrogrades. The latter, as a rule, are more numerous - and yet universities often became catalysts for change, generating a rebellious spirit. Students always complained about lack of money, about the fact that they were malnourished and lacking sleep, but they demonstrated a violent temperament, a penchant for fun, tricks and practical jokes. Student folklore, for example, the poetry of vagants, invariably interests our contemporaries, especially if they are familiar with it only from translations by Lev Ginzburg.

But you won’t hear any of this from professional university researchers: the deeper a person dives into the material, the more the picture changes. The vagantas were not poor students at all, but very respectable prelates - that is, high-ranking clergy, cardinals, archbishops, bishops, etc. Although the rector was respected, he was elected for only three months. Medieval universities did not at all set themselves the task of developing science or training specialists needed by society. The motivations of students and masters, their sources of funding and living conditions were completely different from modern ones.

Moreover, if the line of continuity between medieval and modern universities exists (which not all experts are sure of), it is only in the form of a dotted line. “Men are more like their times than their fathers” - this Arabic proverb also applies to the history of universities, which were fully dependent on the world around them and changed with it. At times, universities consciously tried to reject their own past. Renaissance, Reformation, Enlightenment - each era sought to establish its own, fundamentally new type of education.

And yet, university history has some unity. Universities have developed a special culture capable of self-reproduction. No matter how well they are rooted in their own era and their own country, be it the imperial universities of Russia or the universities of Madagascar, university people have a special cultural code that is manifested in their behavior and in the peculiarities of their thinking. Somehow university traditions are reproduced “by themselves”, an internal logic that is different from the surrounding world is traced, and the constants of university culture appear again and again. One of these constants is the statement about the crisis of the university. This crisis is often discussed in the 21st century, but it was first discussed at the beginning of the 13th century. University culture is still surprisingly constant. And this is her eternal mystery.

Interview with lecturer

— Please tell us why and how you got involved in the history of universities.

- Everything is quite predictable. In my second year I chose a course topic about medieval students. The topic is of eternal interest, but for me this choice was also a compromise. Yes, I was interested in the Middle Ages, and I read their history at our Moscow State Pedagogical Institute MGPI— Moscow State Pedagogical Institute named after. Lenin, now Moscow Pedagogical State University. Pavel Uvarov graduated from the Faculty of History of Moscow State Pedagogical Institute in 1978. good (professor Alexandra Andreevna Kirillova Alexandra Andreevna Kirillova(1904-1984) - medievalist historian, specialist in the history of cities in medieval England. She headed the department of history of the Ancient World and the Middle Ages at the Moscow State Pedagogical Institute., right person). In addition, from childhood I was interested in what today is called ethnology. I also became acquainted with the book of Mikhail Bakhtin, with his ideas of carnival culture The most famous and influential book by Mikhail Bakhtin (1895-1975), a Russian philosopher, philologist, theorist and cultural historian, is “The Work of Francois Rabelais and the Folk Culture of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance,” dedicated to the study of laughter culture and carnival.. So I decided to combine several topics: the Middle Ages, everyday life, rituals, folk culture. The students seemed to me like such a tribe, worthy of the attention of Miklouho-Maclay. Personal experience with fellow students strengthened me in this opinion. I stuck to the university topic for a long time; my coursework, diploma work, and candidate's dissertation were devoted to it. Then the flow of life carried me quite far from this plot. But I haven’t lost sight of universities and I hope not to. It's like an ace in the hole. If I need to quickly move on to another topic or delve into the history of another region, I start looking for university people or their “homologues” Homologues- chemical compounds that have different compositions, but similar structure and properties. living in that era, be it absolutist France, the Russian Empire, the Soviet Union or the Song Empire Song Empire- a state that existed in China from 960 to 1279; considered a time of economic and cultural prosperity.. And then they themselves will tell me the next steps.

“City life and activities of citizens” (“City in the medieval civilization of Western Europe.” Vol. 2, 1999. Executive editor A. A. Svanidze).

Exhibition for the lecture

For the lecture, employees of the Manuscripts Department of the Russian State Library and the Research Department of Rare Books of the Russian State Library prepared a mini-exhibition. It will present an astronomical collection of the first quarter of the 15th century with tables that guided all European scientists until the 16th century; a manual on Latin grammar of the late 15th century; as well as Cicero’s philosophical work “On Duties,” which served as a textbook.

In the 12th century. As a result of the increased need for scientific knowledge and the people who possess it - scientists - the process of education began on the basis of cathedral schools in the largest cities of Western Europe of higher schools - universities. Initially, the concept of “university” (from the Latin universitas - totality) meant a corporation of teachers, professors and students, “scholars”, the purpose of which is to study and increase united Christian knowledge.

The first universities appeared in Bologna (1158), Paris (1215), Cambridge (1209), Oxford (1206), Lisbon (1290). It was in these educational institutions that the basic principles of academic autonomy were formulated and democratic rules for managing higher education and its internal life were developed. Thus, universities had a number of privileges granted to them by the Pope: issuing teaching permits, awarding academic degrees (previously this was the exclusive right of the church), exempting students from military service, and the educational institution itself from taxes, etc. Every year, the university elected rector and deans.

Typically, the structure of the university included four faculties: artistic, legal, medical and theological. In medieval higher schools, a hierarchy was established: the theological faculty was considered the eldest, then the law, medicine and artistic faculties. On this basis, the artistic faculty, where the “seven liberal arts” were studied, is called junior or preparatory in some historical and pedagogical studies, however, the university rules did not require this. At the theological faculty they studied mainly the Holy Scriptures and the “Sentences” of Peter of Lombardy (beginning of the 12th century - 1160), the training lasted about 12 years, students, continuing their studies, could teach themselves and hold church positions, at the end of their studies they were awarded the title of master theology, and then a licentiate (a teacher admitted to lecturing, but who has not yet defended his doctoral dissertation).

At the Faculty of Law, Roman and Catholic law were considered; after four years of study, students received a bachelor's degree, and after another three years, a licentiate. Studying at the Faculty of Medicine included studying the works of Hippocrates, Avicenna, Galen and other famous doctors. After four years of study, students were awarded a bachelor's degree, and for two years they were required to practice medicine under the supervision of a master's degree. Then, after five years of study, they were allowed to take exams for the title of licentiate.

Based on the school trivium course, students of the artistic faculty studied the quadrium, especially geometry and astronomy; in addition, the course included scholasticism, the works of Aristotle, and philosophy. After two years, students received a bachelor's degree; master's preparation lasted from three to ten years. The main goal of education in all faculties was to achieve academic degrees.

Classes at universities lasted throughout the whole day (from 5 am to 8 pm). The main form of education was lectures given by the professor. Due to the insufficient number of books and manuscripts, this process was labor-intensive: the professor repeated the same phrase several times so that the students could remember it. The low productivity of training is partly explained by its duration. Once a week a debate was held, aimed at developing independent thinking; students were required to attend the debate.

The student’s responsibilities included attending lectures: mandatory during the day and repeated in the evening. An important feature of universities of that era was debate. The teacher assigned a topic. His assistant, a bachelor, led the discussion, that is, answered questions and commented on the speeches. If necessary, the master came to the aid of the bachelor. Once or twice a year, debates were held “about anything” (without a strictly defined topic). In this case, pressing scientific and ideological problems were often discussed. The participants in the debate behaved very freely, interrupting the speaker with whistles and shouts.

As a rule, a wonderful career awaited a university graduate. Yesterday's students became scribes, notaries, judges, lawyers, and prosecutors.

UDC 1(091)+94(4)"Ш12" Bulletin of St. Petersburg State University. Ser. 17. 2013. Issue. 2

O. E. Dushin

MEDIEVAL UNIVERSITIES: AT THE ORIGINS OF EUROPEAN HIGHER EDUCATION

Theology, law and the liberal arts - these are the three pillars on whose backs the social order and the entire European civilization rested in the 12th and 13th centuries, that is, at a time when Europe was experiencing the period of its fastest growth in population and prosperity until the 19th century, a period general enthusiasm.

R. W. Southern, "Scholastic Humanism and the Unification of Europe"

The dynamic transformations of the modern education system, associated with the Bologna process, not only determine the need to identify new forms and strategies for organizing higher education, but also raise an urgent need to rethink the dominant cultural traditions and their historical verification. Turning to the genesis of European educational structures, one should agree with the statement that “the formation of an institutional framework around the cause of education was a unique event unique to Europe. This kind of pattern did not exist in the Asian world, nor did it exist either in Byzantium or in the Arab world, where institutions of higher education were dependent on the local ruler or emperor.” At the same time, universities, along with such events in the cultural space of the medieval world as the dissemination of the texts of Aristotle and his Orthodox Byzantine, Islamic and Jewish commentators and the formation of mendicant orders, served as a kind of foundation for the development of synthetic teachings of the 13th century - the “golden age” of European scholasticism.

As is known, the most important feature of the structure of corporations of schoolchildren and masters and the organization of university life was their high degree of democracy1. “The essence of the new type of institution - the university - was relative openness to people of different countries and social classes,” notes D. C. Hyde. The university was a free guild of teachers

Dushin Oleg Ernestovich - Doctor of Philosophy. Sciences, Professor, St. Petersburg State University; e-mail: [email protected]

1 The figure and personality of Jean Gerson (1363-1429) is indicative in this regard. Coming from pain

from a peasant family, he became not only a doctor of theology, but after an inspired speech before

Charles VI in 1391 - and the king’s personal preacher, and in 1395 the chancellor of the University of Paris

theta. It is known that he hatched plans for a fairly radical reform of the system of theology.

logical education at the Sorbonne, focusing on the priority of mystical practice. However, later, due to his moral uncompromisingness, the thinker, condemning the murder of his brother Charles

VI - Duke of Orleans Louis, came into conflict with the party of the Duke of Burgundy John the Fearless and, as a result, was forced to leave Paris.

© O. E. Dushin, 2013

and students who were involved in the dual process of education and learning2. In this sense, the university appears to be a natural result of the development of the educational system in medieval Europe - from the original urban cathedral and monastery schools to the institutes of higher education, the so-called Studium Generale, and from them to the Universitas itself. Teachers and students fought desperately for their rights, and pretty soon the university guilds achieved appropriate state and public recognition. The corporate ethics of medieval university professors and students was more secularized than that of teachers of monastic schools, since it was focused on the interests of people involved primarily in the educational process. Schoolchildren form a specific social cohort, located between the two main power structures of that time - the Church and the monarchy3. In this context, it should be emphasized that medieval European intellectuals developed a special moral disposition: they developed an appropriate code of moral requirements and rules of conduct for the new elite - populus politiores. It is noteworthy that the university corporation in Bologna was created almost in parallel with the formation and development of craft workshops of shoemakers, money changers, etc., while the structure of the university hierarchy (student - bachelor - master) was partly reminiscent of the gradation of craft workshops (apprentice - master - shop manager) . Thus, the emergence of universities reflects certain essential social processes that unfolded in Western European culture in the 12th-13th centuries, which were determined by the development of cities and the corresponding new challenges and requirements of the era.

The creation of universities begins simultaneously in three main European centers - Bologna, Paris and Oxford. And each city had its own political or economic basis for opening a university. Paris has been famous for its academic traditions since the time of Peter Abelard4. In addition, the University

2 A remarkable definition of the medieval concept of “university” is offered by one of the modern scholars: “University (Latin universitas) in the corresponding medieval sense is a legal term meaning a guild, corporation or group of people involved in a common activity of a certain kind, having a collective status, i.e. .legally recognized to be self-governing and to exercise control over its own members." The idea of ​​equality of members of a scientific corporation in the search for truth was clearly stated in the rules for conducting discussions adopted in 1344 in the collegium founded by the confessor of the French king Louis XI, Robert de Sorbonne in 1257. This collegium subsequently acquired such high authority and influence that in XIX century the entire university began to be called the Sorbonne. These statutes dictate that “there should be complete equality between the members of the college, since in this house all are comrades and fellow students.”

3 The outstanding French medievalist, representative of the legendary Annales school, Jacques Le Goff, notes in this regard that “the knowledge embodied by universities very soon took on the form of power and order. It was learning elevated to the same level as Priesthood and Authority. Universities also sought to define themselves as an intellectual aristocracy, with their own special morality and their own value system. This desire was especially widespread among supporters of the teachings of Aristotle and Averroists, who tried to establish and theoretically legitimize the class of philosophers (university sages), whose main virtue should be the greatness of the soul (cf. the circle of Siger of Brabant at the University of Paris in the 13th century).”

4 The famous researcher Hastings Rushdahl, in his classic work on the history of European universities, notes that “from the time of Abelard, Paris became, undoubtedly, the same center of European thought and culture as Athens in the time of Pericles or Florence in the era of Lorenzo

was actively supported by the French crown - however, this later turned into severe persecution for scientists, brought down on the nominalists5. In addition, the University of Paris was under the special tutelage of the Roman Curia, and in controversial situations, teachers had the right to appeal to the authority of the Holy See6. Bologna, in turn, seemed less suitable for a university

Medici". Indeed, not only the spiritual atmosphere, but also the well-organized provision of food and wine for students and their mentors, as well as the general situation in the city, were so favorable for students that Paris (Parisius) was compared to paradise (Paradisus). The advantage of the capital was that the royal court was located here, and learned men harbored vague hopes that they would be noticed and attracted to responsible public service. In addition, the king and royal power were considered as a source of all kinds of privileges, which was fully justified in 1200, when the charter of Philip II Augustus was published, proclaiming the legal autonomy of the university. It should be noted that Paris would never have become the educational center of Europe without a thoughtful policy of support from the French crown, which saw the university as an attribute of broad European fame and special international recognition. The growth of the political authority of the French monarchs was associated, in particular, with the establishment of the Sorbonne as the main center of the European educational system, especially in the field of theology; translatio imperii was also perceived as translatio studii. Paris seemed to be a city that seemed to have inherited the traditions of ancient capitals, but there were even more scholars and scientists in it: “neither Athens nor Rome have ever had as many scientists as Paris now,” the royal chronicler wrote in 1210 William of Brittany (quoted in:). It should be noted that in Bologna until 1353 there was no faculty of theology at all, and in philosophical terms this university did not play a noticeable role. The symbol of the Bologna alma mater was Gratian's famous Decretals, or Concordia canonum discordantium, written around 1140 and which became a classic textbook on canon law. The main textbook on theology was the “Sentences” of Peter of Lombardy. Thus, the main competitor to Paris in the matter of university education and scholastic learning was the University of Oxford. It is symbolic that at the Sorbonne members of the Dominican Order acquired a significant role, while at Oxford the Franciscans traditionally prevailed.

5 In 1473, Louis XI issued a decree according to which all teachers at the Sorbonne were ordered to swear an oath to profess realism. The decree was formally canceled only in 1841.

6 The relationship between the scientific corporation of the University of Paris and the papacy also had its downside. Events developed especially dramatically during the 13th century, when, within the framework of medieval scholasticism, a kind of “Aristotelian revolution” took place, which caused many doubts and questions among priests, which in turn led to the adoption of protective measures. Thus, in 1210, at a meeting of the Paris Local Council chaired by Archbishop Sens Peter of Corbeil, a ban was imposed on lecturing on the natural philosophical works of the Stagirite. In addition, the teaching of David of Dinant, a former university teacher, who, however, at that time was already in Rome and did not fall under the jurisdiction of these decisions, was condemned. In 1215, the papal legate Cardinal Robert de Courson confirmed the ban on the study of Aristotle's texts on natural philosophy and metaphysics, while lecturing on ethics and logic was permitted. In 1231, Pope Gregory IX addressed the Parisian masters with a special letter, where, on the one hand, he confirmed the previous prohibitions, but, on the other hand, he called for rethinking the legacy of the ancient sage and reconciling his ideas with the postulates of Christian doctrine. For this purpose, a special commission was created, which existed for no more than a year, without achieving success - nevertheless, the corresponding fundamentally important task was set. In 1263, Pope Urban IV confirmed the previous restrictions. The severity of protective measures, as often happens, was softened by their less zealous observance, and yet the condemnation of 219 so-called “Averroist theses”, adopted in 1277 at the Paris Council under the leadership of Bishop Etienne Tampier, became a decisive event in the history of relations between the university and the Church. It significantly influenced the subsequent development of theology and scholastic science, since it was not only directed against teachers of the Faculty of Arts, keen on the philosophical ideas of Aristotle and Averroes, but also affected some of the teachings of Thomas Aquinas, one of the leaders of the Dominicans. A different situation developed in Oxford: both Robert Grosseteste and Roger Ba-

place in comparison with Milan, Padua or Salerno due to its economic backwardness. However, the main trump card turned out to be the location: the city was located between strong trading centers and agricultural areas, which was fundamentally important for providing food for a large population by medieval standards. It is worth recalling that large cities in Europe in the Middle Ages were considered centers with a population of 20-40 thousand people, so feeding a group of several thousand young people was really difficult.

It is fundamentally important that emerging universities carry a new spirit. Traditionally, monastery schools were focused on training clergy, future priests and monks. They preserved certain elements of the ancient cultural heritage and corresponding educational practices, taught the basics of grammar, rhetoric, exegesis, and presented a certain general set of encyclopedic knowledge. From the time of Abelard, the era of the development of free education began, as teachers (“philosophers”, as they called themselves) began to take money for training, causing genuine anger from colleagues from monastery schools, who believed that true knowledge is given by God and cannot be sold7 . Moreover, already at the beginning of the 12th century. The teachers of the Cathedral School of Paris were considered the most knowledgeable and authoritative. And by the middle of the century there was a need to institutionalize and unite disparate schools. Thus, based on the combination of the cathedral school and the schools of the monastery of St. Victor on Mount St. Genevieve, the University of Paris arose. This begins the era of professionalization of the higher education system, which reflects well-defined trends in the development of the Western European world in the Middle Ages.

In the 13th century in England and France, there was a gradual strengthening of public recognition and the hierarchical status of royal power, which is expressed, in particular, in the establishment of the institution of local representatives and in the expansion of the practice of written law, in the widespread dissemination of various orders, regulations, decrees, etc. d. Now the guarantees and rights of nobility are also secured on the basis of written documents, which creates a widespread need for lawyers and notaries who could correctly and competently interpret the law and draw up the necessary papers. “By 1300 England had become a nation dependent on legal professionals,” notes one modern scholar. Thus, universities become a kind of sine qua non of European culture. At the beginning of the XIII century. Universities are appearing in many cities of Western Europe - in Padua, Naples, Montpellier, Toulouse, Salamanca, Cambridge, etc. In addition, with the support of the mendicant orders, new Studium Generale8 are being actively created.

Kon, although they were keen on questions of natural philosophy and mathematics and studied the works of Aristotle and other ancient thinkers, strictly distinguished between the paths of scientific knowledge and theology, which would become the fundamental principle of the entire subsequent Oxford academic tradition.

7 Arguing their position, they, in particular, appealed to the texts of Holy Scripture: “Buy the truth, and do not sell wisdom and teaching and understanding” (Prov. 23:23).

8 A feature of Studium Generale was the attraction of students from abroad, while Studium Particulare covered only the local level, attracting students from a certain territory, the immediate surroundings.

It should be noted that the first medieval universities differed markedly in their system of organization and structure. In Paris, the university was governed by masters, and the rector was elected from representatives of the Faculty of Arts, the largest in terms of the number of students and teachers. The faculty system of the University of Paris developed at the beginning of the 13th century and served as a model for other universities in Europe. The primary faculty was the Faculty of Arts, then one could specialize in medicine, law or theology. At the same time, the Faculty of Arts included four associations by nationality: Gallic, English, Picardy and Norman. The University of Bologna was run by scholars who hired professors. Thus, the university included two associations - foreign students and teachers, so university life was determined by the interaction of these unions. “The first university of scholars,” writes D. K. Hyde, “was composed of foreign students. Bolognese students were prohibited from adjoining the university, as this would subject them to the jurisdiction of the rector, and not the city. The doctors, on the other hand, banded together partly to protect themselves from an oath that forced them to reside only in Bologna. But they also united to regulate the examination procedure and the issuance of scientific degrees. From these various student and faculty concerns, essentially two organizations, the University of Bologna began to develop."

The emigration of teachers was not welcomed by the townspeople, but it was a widespread practice of university life in the Middle Ages. Quite often, in defense of their rights, if there were no other arguments, university students moved to other cities. This is how new universities appeared: in 1209, the teachers of Oxford moved to Cambridge, in 1204 the doctors of Bologna moved to Vincenza, then in 1215 to Arezzo, in 1222 to Padua, and from Padua in 1228 to Vercelli. The people of Bologna eventually passed a law that prescribed the death penalty for anyone who plotted to move the studium, and for all masters over fifty who wanted to leave the city to teach elsewhere. However, after the mass emigration of university students to Siena in 1321, the commune of Bologna found a more positive way of attracting professors and students. In 1322, the townspeople, in order to accommodate masters and students, built at their own expense a special chapel for scientists - in fact, this was the first university building proper.

Teachers at the University of Paris, when defending their rights, also resorted to threats of emigration to other cities. The first known case is the events of 1200, when German students were killed as a result of a brawl. They quarreled with the innkeeper and beat him. In response, the police chief sent his men to the German community, and several students were killed. University teachers refused to work and threatened to move. As a result, the French king Philip II Augustus was forced to make concessions and grant numerous rights and privileges to scholars and masters, in particular: teachers were not subject to the usual city court, they should have been transferred to church authorities or to the discretion of the community of professors. The police chief was punished. Citizens were ordered to report all crimes against scientists and help identify and apprehend the criminals. As we see, the royal authorities sided with the university students. Subsequently, teachers of the University of Paris left the city in 1218-1219, but the largest emigration of professors and students took place

in 1229, when the Parisian masters went en masse to various French cities - Angers, Orleans, Toulouse. The reason was a conflict with the townspeople: during the carnival holidays in the suburbs of Paris, schoolchildren quarreled with an innkeeper over the cost of wine. The magistrate joined the investigation into the incident. In general, the situation was ambiguous, but teachers and students acted as a single corporation, defending the inviolability of their legal rights in the face of city authorities. The return of scientists to Paris required two years of approvals and negotiations. It is noteworthy that Pope Gregory IX personally played an important role in restoring the full functioning of the University. He issued a special encyclical, Pareus scientiarum, dated April 13, 1231, which called for the start of negotiations between representatives of all interested parties - the king, the bishop and the university corporation. In addition, special appeals from the pope were sent out calling for the restoration of the status quo in relations between the townspeople and the community of scientists on the basis of the relevant regulations of 1200. Thus, only in 1231 did the pope force the king to guarantee professors and students the safety of living in Paris, after which they began to return .

The formation of universities and the entire system of higher education in medieval Europe in the 12th-13th centuries. was a necessary element of the cultural evolution of that time and was determined by many complex social reasons and challenges of the era: contradictions between secular and spiritual authorities, centralization of statehood, the growth of cities and the needs of communal life, and the development of the Church. In general, it should be recognized that from its very origins, Universitas as a corporation of scientists, a union of like-minded people committed to the search for truth, acquired a special social status. Scientists demonstrated not only their passion for abstract “studies”, but also the real social strength of their guild. They shaped society, created its intellectual and legal basis. In this sense, today the university remains a symbol of moral generosity, scientific uncompromisingness and dedication to its work.

Literature

1. Southern R. W. Scholastic humanism and the unification of Europe. T. I: Fundamentals / trans. M. V. Semikolennykh // URL: http://turba-philosophorum.narod.ru/transl/Southern/Scholastic_Humanism_1/Contents.html (access date: 12/03/2012).

2. Hyde J. K. Universities and Cities in Medieval Italy // The University and the City. From Medieval Origins to the Present / ed. by T. Beuder. New York; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988. pp. 13-21.

3. Shishkov A. M. Medieval intellectual culture. M.: Publisher Savin S. A., 2003. 592 p.

4. Ferruolo S. C. Parisius-Paradisus: The City, its Schools, and the Origins of the University of Paris // The University and the City. From Medieval Origins to the Present / ed. by T. Beuder. New York; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988. pp. 22-43.

5. Anthology of pedagogical thought of the Christian Middle Ages: in 2 volumes. T. 2: The world was refracted in the book. Education in the medieval world through the eyes of learned mentors and their contemporaries. M.: JSC "Aspect Press", 1994.

6. Le Goff J. Another Middle Ages. Time, labor and culture of the West. Ekaterinburg: Ural University Publishing House, 2000. 328 p.

7. Rashdall H. The Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages: 3 vols. Vol. I. Oxford: Oxford University Press,

8. Kurantov A.P., Styazhkin N.I. William Occam. M.: Mysl, 1978. 192 p.

9. Marrone S. P. The rise of the universities // The Cambridge History of Medieval Philosophy: 2 vols / ed. by R. Pasnau. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010. Vol. I.P. 50-62.

The first universities in Western Europe appeared precisely in the classical Middle Ages. So, at the end of the XII - beginning of the XIII centuries. Universities were opened in Paris, Oxford, Cambridge and other European cities. Universities were then the most important and often the only source of information. The power of universities and university science was exceptionally strong. In this regard, in the XIV-XV centuries. The University of Paris especially stood out. It is significant that his students included adults and even old people: everyone came to exchange opinions and get acquainted with new ideas.

University science - scholasticism - was formed in the 11th century. Its most important feature was its boundless faith in the power of reason in the process of understanding the world. Over time, however, scholasticism increasingly becomes a dogma. Its provisions are considered infallible and final. In the XIV-XV centuries. scholasticism, which used only logic and denied experiments, became an obvious obstacle to the development of natural scientific thought in Western Europe. Almost all the departments in European universities were then occupied by monks of the Dominican and Franciscan orders, and the usual topics of debates and scientific papers were: “Why did Adam eat an apple and not a pear in paradise? and “How many angels can fit on the head of a needle?”

The entire system of university education had a very strong influence on the formation of Western European civilization. Universities contributed to progress in scientific thought, the growth of social consciousness and the growth of individual freedom. Masters and students, moving from city to city, from university to university, which was a constant practice, carried out cultural exchange between countries. National achievements immediately became known in other European countries. Thus, the Decameron by the Italian Giovanni Boccaccio was quickly translated into all European languages, it was read and known everywhere. The formation of Western European culture was also facilitated by the beginning of book printing in 1453. Johann Gutenberg, who lived in Germany, is considered the first printer.

FERDINAND AND ISABELLA

Europe is the beautiful face of the world: important in Spain, cute in England, playful in France, sensible in Italy, rosy in Germany. “These words belong to the Spanish writer Baltasar Gracian, who lived in the 17th century. However, they are still true today, and were even more true at the end of the 15th century - when the brow of Spain acquired this significant importance.

Isabella, the daughter of King Juan II of Castile, as often happened among the crowned heads of Europe, was intended to be the wife of the Portuguese monarch Alfonso V. There were other contenders for her hand and heart, but... The 18-year-old princess daringly challenged traditions and court etiquette. Few knightly novels of that era could compare in the sharpness and unpredictability of the plot with the story of her marriage.

Renaissance, Florence, Medici - three words inextricably linked. Renaissance is a time of brilliant flowering of culture that came in Europe after the long bloody unrest of the early Middle Ages. Florence is a city-republic that became one of the centers of the Renaissance. The Medici family is a famous Florentine family, many of whose members were typical people of modern times - talented, enterprising, cruel, inspired, like all true Florentines, by the ideas of freedom and devotion to the homeland.

Woolen fabrics made in Florentine factories are sold in many cities in Europe, Asia and Africa. Enterprising urban merchants establish shopping centers all over the world. No wonder Pope Boniface VIII ironically said that the Florentines, like earth, water, air and fire, represent the basis of the universe.

Medieval universities

The goal of science and education was the same as in Ancient Greece, but was not the concern of private people, but was proclaimed a universal and obligatory task. Caring for the soul was not carried out independently, but under the control of the church.

The most characteristic form of educational organization has become the university - a corporation, a community of people of learning. The first universities appeared in the 12th century. They were created to bring order, as clashes often arose between townspeople and arriving students.

Organizational structure of the university. Education was not divided into disciplines. Among the general education faculties there were faculties of law, medicine, liberal arts, but the main one was the faculty of theology. Here theology is the science of the Holy Scriptures, attempts to formalize the conversation about God and the other for the purpose of definition, determination. At the University of Paris, the duration of study was 8 years. The medieval university was similar to a professional workshop; nations stood out. The training began with a long apprenticeship, the exam took the form of a public debate, successful performance at which was admission to lecturing. University education was free, but he himself embodied poverty; Usually the university was located at the monastery. New knowledge was not developed in medieval universities. The purpose of education was to organize, preserve and transmit existing knowledge.

University management. There was no unified funding system, but there were sponsors who represented rival church and royal authorities. State authorities began to found universities in the 14th and 15th centuries, previously only the church did this. University support was provided not in the form of salaries, but in the form of gifts, sometimes scholarships, and not necessarily money: for example, libraries were presented as gifts. One of the sources of funding was duties. In the 16th century, the paid position of royal lecturer appeared. The medieval university is a self-governing organization; Each faculty has its own seal. But such a right was achieved gradually and not always completely. The Bull of Gregory IX of 1231 established the subordination of the University of Paris only to the church, in particular, only to the ecclesiastical court.

Sources: www.bibliotekar.ru, murzim.ru, otherreferats.allbest.ru, lects.ru, revolution.allbest.ru

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Introduction

The early Middle Ages are sometimes called the "dark ages". The transition from antiquity to the Middle Ages was accompanied in Western Europe by a deep decline in culture. It was not only the barbarian invasions that destroyed the Western Roman Empire that led to the destruction of the cultural values ​​of antiquity. No less destructive than the blows of the Visigoths, Vandals and Lombards was the hostile attitude of the Church for the ancient cultural heritage. Pope Gregory I waged an open war against culture. He banned the reading of books by ancient authors and the study of mathematics, accusing the latter of being associated with magic. The most important area of ​​culture – education – was going through particularly difficult times. Gregory I once proclaimed: “Ignorance is the mother of true piety.”*2

Truly ignorance reigned in Western Europe in the 5th-10th centuries. It was almost impossible to find literate people not only among the peasants, but also among the nobility. Many knights put a simple cross instead of a signature. Theodoric of Ostrogoth, unable to write, used a tablet on which his name was carved to sign. Until the end of his life, the founder of the Frankish state, the famous Charlemagne, was never able to learn to write. But the emperor was clearly not indifferent to knowledge. Already in adulthood, he resorted to the services of teachers. Having begun to study the art of writing shortly before his death, Karl carefully kept waxed tablets and sheets of parchment under his pillow, and in his free time he diligently learned to write letters. The sovereign patronized scientists. Charles issued a decree on the creation of schools in monasteries, and then a capitulary on education, which prescribed compulsory education for free children. This was not accomplished due to the lack of a sufficient number of literate people. A special school was organized at the court, where people were trained to govern the state. Charles invited educated people from all over Europe and placed them in high government and church positions. Many of them formed a scientific circle, called the Academy after the name of the philosophical school of the ancient Greek philosopher Plato. This academy was something between a gathering of friends and a learned community, where philosophical and theological issues were discussed in free conversation and at a feast, and Latin poetry was written and read.

Members of the academy bore special nicknames, which clearly demonstrated the combination of ancient and Christian ideas in the views of Charles and his circle. Charles himself had the nickname David, in honor of the biblical King David, the prototype of all God-loving monks.

By his order, the cathedral was built in Aachen. He ordered a grammar of the Frankish language to be compiled and German songs to be collected. His court in Aachen became a center of education. In a specially created school, the famous scientist and writer Alcuin (Flaccus Albinus, c. 735-804, Anglo-Saxon scientist, author of theological treatises, textbooks of philosophy, mathematics, etc.; figure in the Carolingian Renaissance, advisor to Charlemagne, abbot of the Tours monastery), who taught the sons of Charles himself and the children of his associates. A few educated people from all over illiterate Europe came to Aachen. Following the example of antiquity, the society of scientists gathered at the court began to be called the Academy. Alcuin became abbot of the rich monastery of St. Martin in the city of Tours, where he also founded a school, many of whose students later became famous teachers in monastic and church schools in France.

The cultural upsurge that occurred during the reign of Charlemagne and his successors was called the “Carolingian Renaissance.” However, it was short-lived. Soon cultural life again concentrated in the monasteries.

Monastic and church schools represented the very first educational institutions of the Middle Ages. And although the Christian Church preserved only selective, necessary remnants of ancient education (primarily Latin), it was in them that the cultural tradition that connected different eras continued.

But time passed. Growing cities and strengthening states required more and more educated people. Judges and officials, doctors and teachers were needed.

The time has come for the formation of higher schools - universities.

Medieval universities

In the 12th century, the world's first higher schools - universities - began to appear in Europe. Some universities, for example, in Seville, Paris, Toulouse, Naples, Cambridge, Oxford, Valencia, Bologna, were founded in the 12th - 13th centuries. The rest, for example, in Uppsala, Copenhagen, Rostock, Orleans, were founded later - in the 14th - 15th centuries.

Let's imagine that we are in the auditorium of a medieval university. It resembles a university auditorium today: in the same way, benches are arranged in stepped rows, and below there is a massive oak pulpit, behind which stands a professor giving a lecture. Some students listen intently and from time to time write something with a stylus on waxed tablets. Others whisper or, tired, doze off. The diversity of the audience is striking: a variety of camisoles, raincoats, berets. Seventeen-year-old boys and men beginning to go bald are visible. If you look closely, you can see people of different nationalities: Spaniards, Germans, French, English.

It’s strange: the listeners speak different languages, and yet they understand everything. Why? But the fact is that for all European (especially Western European) countries, the language of science, as well as of worship, was Latin. Thousands of schoolchildren were required to learn Latin at that time. Many could not stand it and ran away from the cramming and beatings. But for those who did endure, Latin became a familiar and understandable language, and therefore the lecture in Latin was understandable to listeners from different countries.

On the professor's lectern, supported by a triangular music stand, lay a huge book. The word “lecture” means “reading.” Indeed, a medieval professor read a book, sometimes interrupting his reading with explanations. Students had to perceive the contents of this book by ear and assimilate it by memory. The fact is that books in those days were handwritten and were very expensive. And not everyone could afford to buy it.

Thousands of people flocked to the city where the famous scientist appeared. For example, at the end of the 11th century in the city of Bologna, where the expert on Roman law Irnerius appeared, a school of legal knowledge arose. Gradually this school became the University of Bologna. The same was true of Salerno, another Italian city that became famous as a major university center for medical science. Opened in the 12th century, the University of Paris gained recognition as the main center of theology. Following several higher schools of the 12th century. most medieval universities arose in the 13th and 14th centuries. in England, France, Spain, Portugal, Czech Republic, Poland and Germany.

It was often difficult for a foreign student to come to an agreement with local residents. Sellers, innkeepers and hotel owners cheated the newcomers, and the guards and judges turned a blind eye to this and even... subjected the students to unfair punishments!

The struggle to protect their rights forced students and teachers to unite. So, outraged by the insults and oppression, students and professors left Bologna for 10 years, and the city immediately lost not only its glory, but also the income that the university brought it. The ceremonial return of the university followed only after the city recognized its full independence. This meant that professors, students and university employees were subject not to city authorities, but to elected deans of faculties and the rector.

Over time, faculties appeared at the medieval university: law, medicine, and theology. But training began with the “preparatory” faculty, where the so-called “seven liberal arts” were taught. And since in Latin art is “artes,” the faculty was called artistic. The “artist” students first studied grammar. then rhetoric, dialectics (by which logic was meant); only after this did they move on to arithmetic, geometry, music and astronomy. The “artists” were young men, and according to the university regulations they could be flogged, like schoolchildren, while older students were not subject to such punishments.

Medieval science was called scholastic (literally - school). the essence of this science and its main flaw was expressed by the old proverb: “Philosophy is the handmaiden of theology.” And not only philosophy, but all the sciences of that time had to strengthen with every conclusion, with every word, the truths of religion, blind trust in the teachings of the church.

Disputes occupied a large place in the educational life of a medieval university. At the so-called master's debates, the master who taught the students skillfully drew them into the dispute. Offering to confirm or challenge the theses he put forward, he forced students to mentally compare these theses with the opinions of the “church fathers,” with the decrees of church councils and papal messages. During the debate, each thesis was contrasted with the opponent's counterthesis. The offensive tactic is to lead the enemy, through a series of interconnected questions, to such a forced confession, which either contradicted his own statement or diverged from the unshakable church truths, which was tantamount to an accusation of heresy.

But even in the Middle Ages there were people of bold thought who did not want to repeat the same church truths day after day. They sought to break out of the shackles of scholasticism and open up a wider field for science.

In the 12th century, the young scientist Peter Abelard spoke out against the University of Paris professor Guillaume Champeau. In the heated debate that ensued, the professor was unable to gain the upper hand over his young rival. Champeau demanded that Abelard be expelled from Paris. But this did not stop Abelard. He settled in the suburbs of Paris and continued to follow the professor's every word. After each lecture, in the cold and rain, in winter and autumn, the tireless students covered at least 30 km per day, making their way from Paris to the suburbs and back to report to Abelard everything that Champeau had said and to baffle the latter in the face of Abelard’s new objections. This dispute, which lasted for months, ended in a brilliant victory for Abelard. The gray-haired professor recognized not only that the young opponent was right, but also considered it necessary to transfer his department to him.

Abelard was not satisfied with the opinion of the scholastics, who believed that “faith precedes understanding.” He argued that “you can only believe a truth that becomes understandable to the mind.” Thus, belief in incomprehensible, meaningless and fantastic things was rejected. Abelard taught that “through doubt we investigate, and through investigation we know the truth.”

In the bold teaching of Abelard, the church saw a dangerous threat, since the unshakable truths of the church, the so-called dogmas, would not stand the test of doubt and criticism.

Abelard went through a difficult journey. Physically crippled by his enemies, expelled from Paris, he found himself in a remote monastery. At the end of his life, he was condemned by a church council as a heretic, and the threat of execution constantly hung over him.

But since the time of Abelard, the auditoriums of medieval universities increasingly became an arena for the struggle for reason and science.

Since the 13th century, the school has acted as a university. Universitas is a typical product of the Middle Ages. If the model of schools were ancient analogues, which medieval schools imitated and updated in some ways, then the university did not have its own prototype. This kind of corporate formations and free associations of students and mentors with their privileges, established programs, diplomas, titles were not seen in antiquity either in the West or in the East.

The term “university” itself did not initially indicate a center of learning, but rather a corporate association, or, in modern language, it was a kind of “syndicate” protecting the interests of a certain category of persons. Paris is a model of organization that other universities have more or less oriented towards. In Paris, the Universitas Magistroum et Scolarum, a united corporation of masters and students, prevailed. The Cathedral School of Notre Dame was noted for its particular excellence in the 12th century, attracting students from all over Europe and soon becoming the object of attention of the Roman Curia. Autonomy took place under the direct tutelage of the king, the bishop and his chancellor. A fact worthy of mention is that the desire for freedom of teaching, as opposed to pressure from local authorities, found tangible support in the form of papal protection.

2. University and its mitigating effects

Two effects accompanied the activities of universities. The first is the birth of a certain class of scientists, priests and lay people, to whom the church entrusted the mission of teaching the truths of revelation. The historical significance of this phenomenon lies in the fact that to this day the official doctrine of the church should and can be entrusted only to church hierarchs. Magisters were officially allowed to discuss matters of faith. Saint Thomas, Albertus Magnus and Bonaventure would later be called "Doctors of the Church". Along with the traditional two powers - church and secular - a third appeared - the power of intellectuals, whose influence on social life became more and more noticeable over time.

The second effect is associated with the opening of the University of Paris, where students and teachers of all classes flocked. University society from the very beginning did not know caste differences; rather, it formed a new caste of heterogeneous social elements. And, if in subsequent eras the university acquires aristocratic features, the medieval one was initially “national”, in the sense that the children of peasants and artisans, through a system of privileges (in the form of low tuition prices and free housing), became students, taking on the burden of the most severe obligations , inevitable on this thorny path. Goliards and clerks constituted, as it were, a world within themselves. Their “nobility” was no longer determined by class origin, but depended on their accumulated cultural baggage. A new meaning of the concept of “nobility” and “refinement” has emerged in the sense of aristocracy of mind and behavior, subtlety of the psyche and refinement of taste. Boccaccio will rightly speak about this: “an educated person is not the one who, after a long study in Paris, is ready to sell his knowledge on trifles, as many do, but the one who knows how to find out the reasons for everything at the very origins.”

General characteristics of the University of Paris

All classes were conducted in Latin, so the Germans, French, and Spaniards could listen to the Italian professor with no less success than his compatriots. The students also communicated with each other in Latin. However, in everyday life, “strangers” were forced to communicate with local bakers, brewers, tavern owners and housing providers. The latter, of course, did not know Latin and were not averse to cheating and deceiving a foreign student. Since students could not count on the help of the city court in numerous conflicts with local residents, they, together with teachers, united in a union, which was called the “university”. The University of Paris included about 7 thousand teachers and students, and in addition to them, booksellers, manuscript copyists, manufacturers of parchment, quills, ink powder, pharmacists, etc. were members of the union. In a long struggle with the city authorities, which went on with varying success (sometimes teachers and students left the hated city and moved to another place), the university achieved self-government: now it had elected leaders and its own court. The University of Paris was granted independence from secular authorities in 1200. charter of King Philip II Augustus.

Life was not easy for schoolchildren who came from poor families. This is how Chaucer describes her:

Having interrupted my hard work on logic,

A Parisian student trudged along next to us.

There could hardly be a poorer beggar... To endure

Need and hunger have become accustomed to steadfastness,

He placed the log at the head of the bed.

He prefers to have twenty books,

What an expensive dress, a lute, food...*5

But the students did not lose heart. They knew how to enjoy life, their youth, and have fun from the heart. This is especially true for vagants - itinerant students moving from city to city in search of knowledgeable teachers or opportunities to earn extra money. Often they did not want to bother themselves with studying; the vagantes sang with pleasure at their feasts:

Let's throw away all wisdom,

Teaching aside!

Enjoying in youth -

Our purpose.*6

University teachers created an association of subjects - faculties. They were led by deans. Teachers and students elected a rector - the head of the university. The medieval higher school usually had three faculties: law, philosophy (theology) and medicine. But if the preparation of a future lawyer or physician took five to six years, then a future philosopher-theologian took as much as 15.

However, before entering one of the three faculties, the student had to graduate from the preparatory - artistic - faculty (it studied the “seven liberal arts”; from the Latin “artis” - “art”). During the classes, students listened to and recorded lectures (in Latin - “reading”) by professors and masters. The teacher's learning was manifested in his ability to explain what he read, connect it with the content of other books, and reveal the meaning of terms and scientific concepts. In addition to lectures, debates were held - arguments on previously raised issues. Hot in intensity, sometimes they developed into hand-to-hand combat between the participants.

In the 14th – 15th centuries. so-called collegiums (hence colleges) appear. At first this was the name of the student dormitory. Over time, they also began to host lectures and debates. Collegium. Founded by Robert de Sorbon, the confessor of the French king, the Sorbonne gradually grew and gave its name to the entire University of Paris.

THE UNIVERSITY OF PRAGUE was the largest school of the Middle Ages. At the beginning of the 15th century, students in Europe attended 65 universities, and at the end of the century - already 79. *7 The most famous among them were: Paris, Bologna, Cambridge, Oxford, Prague, Kakovsky. Many of them exist to this day, deservedly proud of their rich history and carefully preserving ancient traditions.

XIII century: University of Paris and its translations.

A) Dominicans and Franciscans

Medieval schools were often taught by people of different nationalities. Some of these schools, organized on a more or less international basis, fell into disrepair and ceased to exist. Others became universities.

Over time, however, some centers of learning, with faculties of theology, law and medicine, became universities in a different sense: they had charters, statutes and established forms of government, and their professors had the right to teach everywhere. The University of Paris grew out of the cathedral school of Notre-Dame de Paris, and although the date of its foundation is often given as 1215, when its statutes were approved by the papal legate Robert de Courcon, it is clear that these statutes existed before. The University of Paris has developed a system of boards controlled by doctors or teachers. In the 13th century, the University of Paris was undoubtedly at the forefront of theology and speculative philosophy. An important event in the life of this university was the establishment of educational institutions created by new monastic orders. The Order of Preachers, commonly known as the Dominicans, showed an understandable interest in the study of theology. But St. Francis of Assisi, with his commitment to literally following Christ and the apostles along the path of poverty, did not even dream of being followed by owning educational institutions and libraries and teaching in universities.*8 However, the transformation of the original community of followers, or brothers of this saint, into an organized community, by members which were priests, made it necessary to take care of studies. Moreover, the Holy See was quick to recognize the potential of the new ardent mendicant orders. In particular, Gregory IX, who when he was a cardinal was concerned about the development of education among the Franciscans, did everything possible to introduce the Dominicans and Franciscans into the life of the University of Paris and strengthen their positions there. In 1217, the Dominicans settled at the University of Paris, and in 1229 they received the chair of theology there. In the same year, the Franciscans, who settled in Paris a little later, also received a see, and their first professor was the Englishman Alexander of Gaels.

The penetration of monastic orders into the University of Paris did not occur without serious opposition from the clergy. From the standpoint of the orders, this opposition was undoubtedly an expression of prejudice and a desire to protect their legitimate property rights. From the point of view of their opponents, the monks claimed unjustified benefits and privileges. Opposition to the monastic orders lasted for quite a long time, sometimes turning into attacks on monastic life itself. But the Dominicans and Franciscans enjoyed the protection of the Holy See, and although the opposition they encountered was strong, they were overcome. The overwhelming majority of famous philosophers of the 13th century were members of monastic orders.

The training course was designed for a long time. However, in those days, younger students came to the university than today.*9 So in the 13th century in Paris, students first studied for six years at the Faculty of Arts. During this period, a student could become a "bachelor" and help in supporting roles in teaching others. But he could not begin teaching until he was twenty years old. The content of the training course was “liberal arts”; literature was practically not studied, but much attention was paid to grammar. Logic was, of course, mainly the logic of Aristotle, although Porphyry's Introduction was also studied.

As already stated, the theology course was taught at first for eight years, but tended to be lengthened. After completing a course at the Faculty of Arts and several years of teaching, the student devoted four years to the study of the Bible and two to the study of the Sentences of Peter of Lombardy. After that, he could become a bachelor and lecture on the Bible for two years, and on “Sentences” for one year. He received his master’s or doctor’s degree in another four to five years.

Some students, of course, endured such long studies in the hope of moving up the church ladder. However, the training course itself was clearly oriented towards teaching, towards producing teachers or professors. And since training in the “arts” prepared one for the study of the higher sciences and theology, which was considered the queen of all sciences, the acquisition of a master's or doctorate in theology, qualifying for teaching, was naturally regarded as the pinnacle of an academic career. From this it is easy to understand why the most prominent thinkers of the Middle Ages were theologians.

B) Banning Aristotle from the Faculty of Arts

The increasing knowledge of Aristotelianism had a huge impact on the intellectual life of the 13th century. Thanks to translations, Aristotle transformed from a more or less pure logician into the creator of a comprehensive system. Since this system clearly owed nothing to Christianity, it became, one might say, the embodiment of philosophy, and its author was known as the Philosopher. It is only natural that Aristotle should be read in the light of commentaries and studies written by Islamic and Jewish thinkers.

In 1210, the local Council in Paris, under threat of excommunication, banned the use of Aristotle's work on Natural Philosophy in the Faculty of Arts, either publicly or privately. In 1215, the recently approved charter of the University of Paris prohibited professors of the Faculty of Arts from giving lectures on the works of Aristotle on metaphysics and philosophy of nature, or on their expositions. In 1231, Pope Gregory IX issued a bull in which he declared that works prohibited in 1210 should not be used in Paris until they had been cleared of all suspicious places.

In 1245, Innocent IV extended the prohibitions of 1210 and 1215. To the university in Toulouse, which had previously been so proud of its freedom. But it is clear that in Paris these laws were observed for some time. However, starting from about 1255, lectures were given in Paris on all the famous works of Aristotle - a fact all the more surprising because in 1263 Urban IV confirmed the bull of Gregory IX with regard to supporting the prohibitions of 1210. This fact was explained by differently; in particular, it was suggested that the pope reissued the bull of his predecessor, without paying attention to the fact that this meant a repetition of the ban of 1210. This sounds strange. But the confirmation of the ban is strange in itself, since Urban IV must have been well aware that William of Moerbeke was translating Aristotle at his own curia. Be that as it may, in 1263 lectures on Aristotle in Paris were given freely.

The whole point was that Aristotle's philosophy as a whole seemed to be a comprehensive naturalistic system and that, in particular, some of Aristotle's theories were incompatible with Christian theology. In other words, Aristotelianism was perceived by some minds as a potential threat to the Christian faith. Professors of theology could be trusted to correct all errors or misconceptions. The teachers of the Faculty of Arts could not be allowed to instill known doctrines or sow doubts in their young students. This seems to be the most plausible explanation.*10

The Greatness and Weakness of University Politics

Following the departure of many Englishmen during the Hundred Years' War and numerous Germans during the Great Schism, the University of Paris became increasingly French in its composition. At least since the reign of Philip the Fair, he has played a significant political role. Charles V called her the eldest daughter of the King.*11 The university is officially represented in the national cathedrals of the French church, at the assembly of the Estates General. He acts as a mediator during the struggle of the court and the Parisians, led by Etienne Marcel, during the Mayotin uprising; The signature of the university representative is on the agreement in Troyes.

The prestige of the university is enormous. It is explained not only by the number of students and teachers, but also by all the masters who graduated from it, who occupy senior positions throughout France and beyond, maintaining close ties with the university.

At the same time, he is also connected with the papal throne. In addition, all the Avignon popes are French, they clearly patronize the university, binding it to themselves with generous gifts. Every year a scroll is sent to the Avignon Palace with the names of the mayors, for whom the university graciously asks the pope for a feeding or ecclesiastical benefice. If he was the eldest daughter of the King, then he was also the first school of the Church and played the role of international arbiter in theological matters.*12

Schism shook this balance. At first, the university sided with the Avignon pope, but then, tired of the growing extortion of the pope, caring about restoring the unity of the church, the university leaves the decision to the king of France, and he tirelessly calls for a conciliar reunification to put an end to the schism through the abdication of rival high priests. At the same time, the university defends the supremacy of the Council over the pope, the relative independence of the national church from the Holy See, i.e. Gallicanism. But if the first demand raised the prestige of the university in the Christian world, the second led to a cooling in relations with the papacy and to the growing influence of the monarchy on it.

It seemed that complete success had been achieved. The Cathedral of Constance, where the university played a leadership role, sanctifies this triumph. By the way, it shows the curious positions of some university masters. The English masters take the side of the papacy on the issue of granting benefices. They think about their own interests, and they were better served by this party.

At that time, a purely French crisis broke out, which undermined the position of the Paris university.

After the uprising, Paris becomes the capital of the English king. Of course, the university did not immediately go over to the side of the Burgundians, and those who went over were part of it. The Duke relied on the mendicant orders, with which the university traditionally did not get along. The university condemned and prosecuted Jean Petit, an apologist for the assassination of the Duke of Orleans. When the city was captured by the British, many masters left Paris. But those who remained in Paris became Burgundian and submitted to the will of the British. The most famous episode of this English period of the University of Paris was its actions against Joan of Arc. By declaring its hostility towards her, the university wanted not only to please its foreign master. Here he followed popular opinion, which was extremely hostile to the Maid of Orleans. It is known that the university led the trial against the Virgin and with undisguised satisfaction reported her conviction to the English king.

The ashes of the fire in Rouen tarnish the prestige of the university. Having retaken Paris, Charles VII, and after him Louis XI, were distrustful of the “collaborator,” although the university stood on the side of their Gallican policy and strongly supported the pragmatic sanction.

In 1437, the king deprived the university of tax privileges and forced it to contribute to increased taxes to recapture Montero. In 1445, his judicial privilege was taken away and he became subject to the decisions of Parliament. The king supports the reorganization of the university carried out by the papal legate, Cardinal d'Etoutville, in 1452. In 1470, Louis XI obliges the masters and students from Burgundy to swear allegiance to him. Finally, in 1499, the university lost the right to strike. From now on it is in the hands of the king.

What happened to the spirit of education during all these battles? Education has undergone a twofold evolution, which will allow us to better understand the relationship between scholasticism and humanism, to discern the nuances in this opposition, to trace the passing of the torch of reason in the transition from one period to another.

Conclusion

So, we know that until the 13th century, when the formation of universities began, schools were: monastic (at abbeys), episcopal (at cathedrals), and courtly (“palacium”). During the period of barbarian invasions, schools at monasteries and abbeys were something like shelters and repositories of monuments of classical culture, places for making lists; Episcopal schools were places of primarily elementary education. However, court life brought the greatest revival to cultural life. So, the director of one of these schools was Alcuin of York (730-804), advisor to King Charlemagne on issues of culture and education. A three-stage training was organized:

reading, writing, basic concepts of vernacular Latin, general understanding of the Bible and liturgical texts;

the study of the seven liberal arts (first the trio of grammar, rhetoric and dialectics, then the quartet of arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music;

in-depth study of scripture.

Alcuin boldly formulated the spirit of his innovations: “Thus a new Athens will grow on the land of the Franks, even more brilliant than in antiquity, for our Athens has been fertilized by Christ’s teaching, and therefore will surpass the Academy in wisdom.”*13

Whether he was able to fully implement his program or not, his merit in writing and preparing textbooks on each of the seven liberal arts is beyond any doubt.

Only Scotus Eriugena restored dialectic and philosophy in the second generation to their rights through the inclusion of the liberal arts in the context of theology. From forms of erudition, they turned into a tool for research, comprehension and development of Christian truths in general. In this sense, the term “first scholasticism” is acceptable, outlining the period from Scotus Eriugena to Anselm, from the philosophers of the Charts and Saint-Victorian schools to Abelard.

University of Paris

So the seven liberal arts were included in the context of theology. Theology separated itself into separate departments at the University of Paris. The University of Paris is the largest university of the Middle Ages. The University is a united corporation of masters and students. The University of Paris had a faculty of theology and arts, the latter serving as preparation for the former. The universal language is Latin. In the 13th century he played an important role in politics. The second name is Sorbonne.

In 1970, it was reorganized into an independent network of universities. By 1985, there were 230 thousand students.

Footnotes

*1 – Encyclopedia: “World History”. Volume 1. Ch. Editor Maria Aksenova. Moscow "Avant +" 1997. Page 350

*2 - Encyclopedia: “World History.” Volume 1. Ch. Editor Maria Aksenova. Moscow "Avant +" 1997. Page 351

*3 - Encyclopedia: “World History”. Volume 1. Ch. Editor Maria Aksenova. Moscow "Avant +" 1997. Page 351

*4 – Western philosophy. “From the Origins to the Present: The Middle Ages.” Giovanni Reale and Dario Antiseri. TK Petropolis LLP St. Petersburg 1995. Page 87

*5 - Encyclopedia: “World History”. Volume 1. Ch. Editor Maria Aksenova. Moscow "Avant +" 1997. Page 352

*6 - Encyclopedia: “World History”. Volume 1. Ch. Editor Maria Aksenova. Moscow "Avant +" 1997. Page 352

*7 - Encyclopedia: “World History”. Volume 1. Ch. Editor Maria Aksenova. Moscow "Avant +" 1997. Page 352

*8 – “History of medieval philosophy.” Frederick Copston. "Enigma" Moscow 1997. Page 182

*9 – “History of medieval philosophy.” Frederick Copston. "Enigma" Moscow 1997. Page 183

*10 – “History of medieval philosophy.” Frederick Copston. "Enigma" Moscow 1997. Page 187-188

*11 – “Intellectuals in the Middle Ages.” Jacques Le Goff. Allergo – Press. Dolgoprudny 1997. Page 185

*12 - “Intellectuals in the Middle Ages.” Jacques Le Goff. Allergo – Press. Dolgoprudny 1997. Page 186

*13 - Western philosophy. “From the Origins to the Present: The Middle Ages.” Giovanni Reale and Dario Antiseri. TK Petropolis LLP St. Petersburg 1995. Page 87

Bibliography

Encyclopedia: "World History". Volume 1. Ch. Editor Maria Aksenova. Moscow "Avant +" 1997.

Western philosophy. “From the Origins to the Present: The Middle Ages.” Giovanni Reale and Dario Antiseri. TK Petropolis LLP St. Petersburg 1995.

"History of Medieval Philosophy". Frederick Copston. "Enigma" Moscow 1997.

"Intellectuals in the Middle Ages". Jacques Le Goff. Allergo – Press. Dolgoprudny 1997.

“History of the Middle Ages” A. Ya. Gurevich, D. E. Kharitonovich. Moscow, INTERPRAX 1995

Encyclopedia: “From the history of human society.” Volume 8. Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the USSR. Publishing house "Prosveshchenie" Moscow 1967

Great Soviet Encyclopedia. Moscow "Big Encyclopedia". Ch. Editor A. M. Prokhorov. Moscow 1989.