5 groups of words by use and origin. The main groups of Russian vocabulary. Proper nouns and common nouns

6. Vocabulary and phraseology. Synonyms. Phraseological turns. Groups of words by origin and use

Vocabulary is the whole set of words of the language, its vocabulary. The section that studies vocabulary is called lexicology (gr. lexikos - vocabulary + logos - teaching). She is interested in the lexical meaning, the meaning of the word. Lexicology considers the historical changes taking place in the vocabulary of the language, studies words from the point of view of their origin and use.

A word is the basic unit of a language, which is a sound or a complex of sounds that has a meaning and serves to name objects, phenomena, actions, signs, quantities, states, etc.

The totality of all words forms its vocabulary.

The lexical meaning of a word is the correlation of the word with certain phenomena of reality.

Words that have one lexical meaning are called single-valued (smell of flowers, pleasant smell), and words that have two or more lexical meanings are called polysemantic (dress sleeve, river sleeve, fire hose).

The direct meaning of a word is its main lexical meaning.

A figurative meaning is its secondary meaning, which arose on the basis of a direct one (a ribbon in the hair, a conveyor belt, a road ribbon).

Synonyms are words of the same, close or identical in meaning, but different in sound and spelling (cultural - civilized - developed).

Several words of synonyms form a synonymous series in which words differ in shades of lexical meaning (look, look - neutral, look - bookish, stare - colloquial).

Phraseology is a branch of the science of language, which studies stable and indivisible phrases that are integral in their meaning. These indivisible phrases are called phraseological units (phraseological phrases). Phraseologism in meaning is equal to either one word or a sentence.

Word groups

origin and use

By origin, all words in are divided into borrowed and native Russian.

Originally Russian are words that arose in the Russian language (boat, life).

Borrowed words are words that came into Russian from other languages ​​(shoe, kitchen, lecture).

Words that have gone out of active use are called obsolete (sergeant, chelo).

Among the obsolete words are:

- words denoting the names of objects and phenomena that have gone out of use (chain mail, educational program); - words that have fallen out of use because they have been replaced by new ones (forehead - forehead).

New words that have arisen in the language are called (cybernetics, algorithm). Neologisms can be author's (frivolous head (V. Mayakovsky)).

According to the sphere of use, words in the Russian language are divided into commonly used and limited in use.

Common - these are words that are used by all people, regardless of profession and place of residence (daughter, good).

Restricted uses include:

- words used by the inhabitants of a particular area (bulba - potatoes, beetroot - beets). professionalisms - words used by people of a particular profession (knights - fastening boats on ships to protect them from breaking off); jargon - expressively colored words that denote well-known concepts in a narrow, socially limited circle of people (truncate - understand (youth jargon)).

What is the unit of the Russian language? Certainly a word. With its help, we communicate, transmit thoughts and experiences to each other. The article deals with thematic groups words, allowing to classify the richness of the Russian language, which has more than 150 thousand nouns, verbs and adjectives in its literary dictionary.

Word meanings

The Russian language does not study actions, not signs, but the words that call them. They have two meanings:

• Grammatical (the ending of the word is responsible).
• Lexical (the basis is responsible for it).

To understand what thematic groups of words are, let's dwell on the second point. Lexical meaning is the content, or the correlation between the sounding shell and the phenomenon of reality, historically fixed in the minds of people, designed according to the laws of grammar. A person is able to think in concepts, that is, abstractly from objects, while the word lexical meaning separates one concept from another.

Generic and specific concepts

When a person pronounces the word “desk”, everyone represents exactly a desk - a piece of furniture for students to sit during classes. No one represents ordinary or dinner table, because the word contains a set hallmarks- a generalization. But when the teacher invites the student to sit at the desk, the actual meaning appears in the speech. Before the student is a specific object of a certain color, size, shape. This suggests that in the meaning of each word there is a denotation (generalization) and a referent (specification).

Among nouns, one can distinguish more generalized concepts (generic) and more specific (specific). An example can be seen in the picture above. Thematic groups of words are a set of specific concepts that are combined into a more general - generic. For understanding, let's consider a diagram (shown below), which considers how the lexical meaning of a specific concept is formed. It is explained through a generic concept with the addition of specific differences. What sneakers? These are shoes (generic concept) designed for sports. What else can be attributed to shoes? Shoes, boots, slates, slippers, clogs, sandals, boots. All these words are combined into a single thematic group - "shoes".

Thematic inclusions

What concept can be attributed to the words: fishing rod, net, spinning, bait, bloodworm, mormyshka, fishing, hooking, biting? Fishing. The above example is a sample of thematic inclusions. Game: Find superfluous word» best helps to understand what thematic groups of words are. Examples of the game are offered in the table below:

In each column, you need to find an extra word that is not included in the thematic group. Answer: hare, worm, fox.

Synonyms

One thematic group, as inclusions, may include different parts of speech. The "Fishing" example includes nouns and verbs. Synonyms are distinguished by the fact that they are one part of speech: film, motion picture, film, film; run, rush, rush, drape; funny, amusing, hilarious, amusing. Do they form thematic groups of words? The examples show that synonyms coincide in their lexical meaning and are used by the author only to give the text or statement a certain expressiveness. Most linguists refer the synonymic series to thematic groups. On average, they consist of several words, but there are exceptions. So, the word "very" has 26 synonyms.

The association occurs on the basis of a common feature. Take the adjective "red" as an example. The group will consist of such synonyms as: ruby, coral, scarlet, red.

For this you need to know:

• The lexical meaning of the word.
• Have a certain vocabulary.
• Have a broad outlook.

What can help a student? An explanatory dictionary, where an explanation is given for each word used in the Russian language. The most famous authors who have collected all the wealth of Russian vocabulary are S. I. Ozhegov and D. N. Ushakov, although there are more modern editions that have incorporated changes associated with the use of English expressions. For example, T. F. Efremova collected 160 thousand articles.

Thematic groups of words are easy to compose for those who read a lot of fiction, actively use synonyms and are able to highlight words that are similar in meaning in the text. You can take an excerpt from a work of art as an example to search for synonyms. This task will also help:

It is necessary to highlight common (generic) concepts for the following words: mother, cow, ruler, calculator, sister, horse, eraser, pencil case, pig, brother, pen, grandfather, goat, grandmother, father, sharpener, sheep, dog.

The following thematic groups of words are distinguished: "Relatives", "Animals", "School supplies".

Examples on the topic "Seasons"

What words can be used to describe phenomena such as seasons? To make it easier to cope with the task, subgroups should be distinguished, for example: weather, nature, activities, clothes. They can be expanded. The principle of selection is the choice of generic concepts that underlie the differences between winter, autumn, summer and spring. How to make thematic groups of words? The names of the seasons are presented in the table, comparing the subgroups.

	Summer	Autumn	Winter	Spring
Weather		dankness frost	Snowfall	warming Thaw Changeability
Nature	forbs	leaf fall Gilding Bad weather Withering		Awakening snowdrops thawed patches Bloom
Lessons		Blanks		Subbotnik Arrival of birds
clothing	Swimsuit Sandals	Gloves		Cardigan windbreaker Ankle boots

The example describes only objects and phenomena, but by analogy it is quite easy to add actions and signs of objects.

By origin, all words in the Russian language are divided into borrowed and native Russian.

Originally Russian- these are words that arose in the Russian language (boat, life).

Borrowed words- these are words that came into Russian from other languages ​​​​(shoe, kitchen, lecture):

a) Greek (bed, ship, sail);
b) Latin (exam, student, excursion);
c) French (broth, compote, perfumery);
d) German (kitchen, assault);
e) English (football, sports, tram).

A special group of borrowed words is made up of Old Church Slavonicisms - words that entered the Russian language from the Old Church Slavonic language.

Old Slavic prefixes (pre-, through-, bottom-), suffixes (-usch, -yushch, -ashch, -yashch, -zn, -ynya) and roots (-la-, -ra-: enemy, sweet) are so widely penetrated into the Russian language, that with their help new words are created in the language (refreshment, health care).

Some of the Old Slavonicisms do not have external distinguishing features (truth, slander).

The fate of the Old Slavs:

• some of them supplanted cognate Russian words (moist, brave);
• others diverged in meaning from the original Russian words (ignorant - impolite person, ignoramus - uneducated);
• still others were supplanted by Russian words (gold).

The appearance of borrowed words in the Russian language is associated with economic and cultural relations between Russia and various peoples of the West and East.

Borrowed words appear in the language along with the emergence of new objects, concepts, giving them names. In addition, they help to distinguish between the semantic shades of words (export - any shipment, export - sending abroad).

Many of the foreign words are used in book styles of speech. In this case, errors should be avoided:

• stylistic (He sadly stated. - Inappropriate use in artistic and colloquial style, appropriate - in official business);
• lexical (At the end of school, many have dilemmas. - The choice of one of two possibilities, it is appropriate - problems arise).

Words that have gone out of active use are called obsolete (sergeant, chelo).

Among the obsolete words are:

• historicisms- words denoting the names of objects and phenomena that have gone out of use (chain mail, educational program);
• archaisms- words that have fallen out of use because they have been replaced by new ones (forehead - forehead).

Types of archaisms:

a) lexical-phonetic(night - night, gold - gold);
b) lexical and derivational (fisherman - fish);
in) lexico-semantic(words with obsolete lexical meaning: "London scrupulous").

Obsolete words are used in various styles of language to refer to concepts from a particular era.

New words that appear in the language are called neologisms (from the Greek neos - new) (cybernetics, algorithm). This is due to the fact that all changes that occur in public life are reflected in the language. Some words go out of active use (obsolete words), at the same time new words appear.

Types of neologisms:

• neologisms used by everyone (airbus);
• author's neologisms (two-meter tall snake, frivolous little head ”(V. Mayakovsky); laughers (V. Khlebnikov)).

Neologisms serve to designate concepts that have appeared in connection with the development of science, technology, and culture. As a rule, they are found in journalistic and scientific styles of speech.

A few years after the appearance, neologisms can become common (TV set, nuclear-powered ship).

According to the sphere of use, words in the Russian language are divided into common and non-common.

Common- these are words that are used by all people, regardless of profession and place of residence (daughter, good).

Uncommon words include:

1. Dialectisms- words used by the inhabitants of a particular area (bulba - potatoes, beetroot - beets).

Types of dialectisms:

• proper lexical (dialectal synonyms of modern commonly used words: kubyt - maybe);
• ethnographic (names of local objects: bulba - potatoes in Belarus);
• semantic (existing both in the literary language and in the dialect, but having a special meaning: an arbor in Siberia is a shop in front of the gate).

Stylistic functions use of dialectisms:

• show the features of the area where the events take place;
• create an image of a character, convey the features of his speech.

“Dialecticisms are not deviations from accepted language norms to be eliminated as errors, but raisins that bring life to the language,” said Russian linguist V.I. Chernyshev. Indeed, dialectisms have become an integral part of the literary language. They are used by writers and poets for various ideological and aesthetic purposes. So, the role of dialectisms in the work of Sergei Yesenin is great: Greenery shone. ("Green Hairstyle", 1918); GREEN - shoots of young bread, most often winter. Explanatory Dictionary of Ozhegov).

2. Professionalism- words used by people of a particular profession (knights - fastening boats on ships to protect them from breaking off).

Special words- these are words used in the sphere of people engaged in one type of labor activity.

3. Argo(jargon) - expressively colored words that denote well-known concepts in a narrow, socially limited circle of people (truncate - understand (youth slang)).

jargon- words characteristic colloquial speech a certain group of people (for example, student jargon: tail - an exam or test not passed on time).

Argotisms- words used by people who belonged to isolated social groups, often in order to hide the meaning from others (wet business - murder).

Jargon and argotism can be found in fiction when describing a particular social environment.

Depending on the style of speech, words can be bookish and colloquial:

• poetisms (charm) - vernacular (ish);
• exoticisms (aul) - barbarisms (yap);
• terms (morphology) - colloquial and literary (beautiful).

Terms- words or phrases that precisely define concepts (syntax is a section of the Russian language that studies phrases and sentences.)

In the vocabulary of the Russian language, there are words inherited from previous periods of the development of our language, Ukrainian proper, as well as borrowed from other languages.

Among those inherited, the most ancient are the words of Indo-European origin. They are common in certain phonetic and derivational modifications in almost all European languages. These are the names of body parts, natural phenomena, plants, animals, necessary actions and processes: mother, son, brother, eye, tooth, nose, tree, cat, day, sit, stand, eat.

Words of common Slavic origin are used in all Slavic languages, undergoing certain phonetic changes: tribe, person, forehead, soul, thought, horse, dog, bear, millet, cold, bitter, sour, coast, side, beard. The names of abstract concepts also have a common Slavic origin: miracle, sin, soul, truth, lie, honor. Joint East Slavic origin have words that are in the Ukrainian language joint with Russian and Belarusian: squirrel, dog, bag, forty, bullfinch, lark, cheap.

Actually Russian vocabulary - these are words that got out in the Ukrainian language after the common Slavic linguistic unity, certified in historical monuments, works of art Ukrainian people. They form the basis of the Ukrainian vocabulary and form the national features of the language. These words include: man, state, society, premises, borscht, grove, house, retinue, snowstorm, diary and many others. It is easy to single them out as follows: if a word does not have distinct signs of borrowing and is translated in Russian by others, then there is reason to consider it as its own Ukrainian: wave, dream, good, quiet, straight.

Actually Russian vocabulary has:

Sound combinations oro, olo, ere, barely: head, coast, gold, city;

Initial sound combinations ye: one (one), Elen (deer), firs (oil);

Nominal suffixes -tel, -stvo: teacher, thinker, brotherhood;

Prefixes vho-, co-, pre-: raise up, love, repay, wise, reverend;

Suffixes -usch, -ashch, -yashch: working, coming.

The Ukrainian language borrowed words and individual elements from other languages.

Borrowings were oral and written and in different historical periods. Therefore, many borrowings have already lost signs of their original speech and have become completely Ukrainian words. These are the Greekisms: cherry, cucumber, firth, Levada like. Only a scientific etymological (by origin) analysis can show from which language the word came and what it meant in that language.

Most modern Ukrainian names are also borrowings. In addition to the initial sounds a, f, Greek borrowings can be affected by the presence of sound combinations ps, ks (psychologist).

Groups of words by use: commonly used, stylistically colored words, dialectisms, professional words and word-terms, vernacular words, jargon

The most thematically stylistic layer of the vocabulary of the language is made up of commonly used words, used freely, without any restrictions. These words are associated with concepts common to most native speakers, at the same time they are the usual names of objects and phenomena of the surrounding reality that are understandable to the general public: homeland, freedom, goodness, earth, milk, no, one, air, son, so, me.

They are characterized by the stability of the main meanings, that is, most words are retained in modern language the same meanings that are recorded in the oldest written monuments (run, water, mother, first, three). At the same time, this composition can change, replenished with new concepts that become well-known (nuclear, bank, ecology, computer, dream, president, robot), or due to a change in the stylistic marking of the word, its lexical and syntactic compatibility. Common vocabulary mainly refers to stylistically neutral, interstyle, but not identical to it, has in its composition a certain part of freely used emotionally expressive words: mother, crazy, despite.

Common (or nationwide) vocabulary includes both proper Ukrainian vocabulary and well-known borrowed ones.

Dialect (gr. dialektos "adverb") dialect, a local variety of a language.

Words (stable phrases) that are not part of the lexical system of the literary language, but are elements of the vocabulary of a certain dialect, are called dialectisms. These are local names for the concepts of the national language: leather (short fur coat), potato (potato), zhaliva (nettle), squirrel (squirrel), rooster (cock) names of objects and concepts that do not extend beyond a certain dialect: puddles (type of belt), pants (kind of trousers) words that differ in meaning from the words of the common language: mountain (attic), pies (dumplings).

Dialectisms enrich the Russian language, especially synonyms. They are used in works of art to reflect the life and speech of people in a certain area. “When Ivan was seven years old, he already looked at the world differently. He knew a lot. He knew that an evil spirit dominated the world, an aridnik (evil spirit) ruled over everything; that the forest is full of goblin who grazed their margin: deer, hares and Serena; a cheerful chugaistyr wanders around there, who now asks the one he meets to dance and tear apart the yavkas; the voice of an ax living in the forest. Above, in the waterless distant weeks, the nyavkas breed their endless tanks, and the devil is hiding on the rocks ”(M. Kotsyubinsky).

Professional vocabulary

Professionalisms (lat. professio "occupation, specialty")- words and phrases characteristic of the language of people of certain professions. These are mainly the names of production tools, the names labor processes, special professional expressions. Since professionalisms are used to designate special concepts only in the sphere of a particular profession, craft, trade, they do not always correspond to the norms of the literary language. Professionalisms act as informal synonyms for deadlines. From professionalism, one can single out scientific and technical, vocational, colloquial-slang.

1. Words and phrases inherent in the language of sailors: cook - cook; galley - kitchen; kubrick - crew rest room tank - bow of the ship, go to sea - swim.

2. Professionalism of employees in the banking, financial, trade and similar areas: remove the cash register, sum it up, estimate the balance.

3. Names of aerobatics figures for pilots: corkscrew, barrel, loop, pike, etc.

4. Professionalism of personal computer users: mother - motherboard; clave - keyboard; reset information - rewrite; screw - hard drive.

5. Professionalism of musicians: plywood - phonogram; remix - an old melody in a new treatment to promote (song, name) - to advertise.

6. Some professionalisms are characterized by a shift in emphasis from a traditionally normalized position to a different composition: atoms, compasses, Murmansk, report similar.

Basically, professionalisms are used in the oral informal speech of people of a certain profession. In written speech, professionalisms are used in publications intended for specialists (booklets, instructions, tips).

Professionalisms are also used by writers in order to create a professional color, to reproduce the vital activity of a certain professional environment in their works.

Dates are taken by scientists, military, athletes, figures. art in its professional activity. These are words that name certain concepts:

— Sciences: (sound, ecology, simplification, psychoanalysis);

– Techniques: (detector, processor, speaker)

- Arts: (arioso, intermezzo, roles).

Words that are used only in oral everyday speech are called vernacular. In works of art, they are used to provide a derogatory, rude characterization to the depicted.

The vernacular words also include Russianisms (Rusisms) - words borrowed from the Russian language, located outside the Ukrainian language and not fixed by its dictionaries: next (instead of next).

Outside the common language are jargon (from the French. Bird language) - words or expressions used by a small group of people. When communicating, these people add specific emotionally charged words to their speech: cool, hang out, cool.