The specificity of the religious worldview. Abstract features of the religious worldview What is the specificity of the religious worldview

Moreover, this is no longer a genetic principle, as in mythology, but an initial principle - a creative, creative, producing. Its characteristic features include: 1 belief in the supernatural beginning - God is the absolute who acts as the Creator of the world; 2 transcendence of the absolute inaccessibility of the outside world of God given to man in revelation; 3 consciousness of the individual I as the principle of the individual's moral responsibility before God for all actions and thoughts; 4 dogmatism the primacy of faith over knowledge strict adherence to the Scriptures the subordination of man to the will of God...

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Page 17

Exercise 1

Religious type of worldview

The second historical type of worldview, after mythology, was religion.Religious worldviewthis is a way of mastering reality through its doubling into natural, earthly, this-worldly and supernatural, heavenly, other-worldly.The religious worldview differs from the mythological one in the way of spiritual development of reality.. Mythological images and representations were multifunctional: they intertwined cognitive, artistic and evaluative assimilation of reality in an as yet undeveloped form, which created a prerequisite for the emergence of not only religion, but also various types of literature and art on their basis.Religious images and representations perform only one function - evaluative-regulatory. One more a feature of religious images and ideas is that irrationality is hidden in them, which is subject to perception only by faith, and not by reason. The central place in any religious worldview is always occupied by the image or idea of ​​God. God is considered here as the origin and fundamental principle of all that exists. Moreover, this is no longer a genetic principle, as in mythology, but an initial principle - creating, creating, producing. Religion is characterized by the recognition of the primacy of the spiritual over the physical, which is not in mythology. The historical significance of religion consisted in the fact that in both slave-owning and feudal societies it contributed to the formation and strengthening of new social relations, and the formation of strong centralized states.

So, religious worldview (religion) is a set of beliefs accompanied by an emotional experience of a mystical union with God.Its characteristic features include:

1) belief in the supernatural beginning - God, the absolute, who acts as the Creator of the world;

2) the transcendence of the absolute (inaccessibility, outside the world of God, given to man in revelation);

3) consciousness of the individual, I as the principle of the moral responsibility of the individual before God for all actions and thoughts;

4) dogmatism (primacy of faith over knowledge, strict adherence to Scripture, submission of a person to the will of God, obedience).

Task 2

Name/years life	Main Artworks	Introduced Concepts	The subject and tasks of philosophy	Doctrine of Being/Nature	Theory of knowledge	The doctrine of man and society	Understanding God
Socrates (c. 469 BC - 399 BC)	Socrates expressed his thoughts orally, in conversations with different persons; We have received information about the content of these conversations in the writings of his students, Plato and Xenophon (Memories of Socrates, Defense of Socrates at the trial, Feast, Domostroy), and only in an insignificant proportion in the writings of Aristotle.	The idea of ​​self-consciousness: "know thyself"; The idea of ​​philosophical modesty: "I know that I know nothing"; The idea of ​​the identity of knowledge and virtue: "virtue is knowledge." Socrates is one of the founders of dialectics, an idealist.	Socrates, whose teaching marks a turn in philosophy from considering only inanimate nature and the world to considering nature as a whole, including the nature of man, and Man, including his Personality.	Socrates opposed the study of nature. The philosopher believed that a person should not interfere with his mind in the creation of the gods, especially since the latter is so diverse and great that it can only be comprehended with the help of fortune-telling - for example, from the Delphic oracle.	The theory of knowledge was the problem of the relationship between knowledge and opinion, truths and delusions. The main interest of the discussion was to elucidate the process by which an object is brought into a state of knowledge.	With its method of analyzing concepts (maieutics, dialectics) and identified By ignoring the positive qualities of a person with his knowledge, he directed the attention of philosophers to the importance of the human personality. For the first time he approached the soul as a source of reason and morality. Knowing the difference between good and evil, a person begins to know himself.	He considered the three principles of all things to be God, matter and ideas. Of God he said, "What He is I do not know; I know what He is not." Matter he defined as a substance that arises and annihilates; ideas - as an indecomposable substance, the thoughts of God.
Aquinas Thomas (1226-1274)	« Sum of Theology ” and “Sum against the Gentiles” (“ The sum of philosophy"); Comments on: several books of the Bible; 12 treatises Aristotle ; "Sentences" by Peter Lombard; treatises Boe-tion; treatises Pseudo-Dionysius; the anonymous "Book of Causes"; poetic texts for worship, for example, the work "Ethics".	It was Thomas Aquinas who introduced the concepts of faith, hope and love as the main theological some virtues. They are followed by prudence and justice. valor, courage and moderation, with which the rest of the virtues are connected.	He was, in fact, the last theologian who paid attention to the psychological and philosophical problem tick. In his system, called Thomism, he sought not only a system- to typify the knowledge accumulated at that time by science, but also to reconcile theology with science, including the science of antiquity, primarily with the theory of Aristotle, whose follower he was.	God the highest principle is being itself. Thomas Aquinas distinguishes between being (existence) and essence (only in God, being and essence coincide), but does not oppose them, but, following Aristotle, emphasizes their common root. Essences have independent existence in contrast to accidents (properties, qualities) that exist only due to substances. Hence the difference between substantial and accidental forms is derived. The first communicate to every thing a simple being, the second only qualities. Following Aristotle, distinguishing between the actual and the potential, Thomas Aquinas considers being as the first of the actual states.	In the theory of knowledge, Thomas Aquinas says that universals really exist in the mind of God before things, and through things they arise in the mind of man. At the same time, the form in cognition does not mean what is known, but through what it is known, that is, the form is the beginning for the knowledge of a thing by an individual. Cognition is born when an image of the object under study is created in the human mind, produced both by the object and by the person. The cognizing subject, in some way, is likened to an object, but perceives not the entire existence of the object, but only that in it that can become like a person, be perceived by him.	Man, the philosopher asserts in his work "The Sum of Theology", is the unity of the body and soul, as the form of the body; thus containing two worlds material and spiritual.	Thomas argued - being the root cause of all things, God, at the same time, is the ultimate goal of their aspirations. The ultimate goal of good human actions is the attainment of bliss, which consists in the contemplation of God. All other goals are evaluated depending on their direction to the final goal, the evasion of which is evil.
Spinoza Benedict (1632-1677)	About God, Man and His Happiness, "A Treatise on the Improvement of the Mind and on the Way in which it is Best to Lead to the True Knowledge of Things" "Fundamentals of the philosophy of Descartes, proved by a geometric method", "Theological-Political Treatise", "Political Treatise" (not finished), "Ethics proven in geometrical orderand divided into five parts, "Hebrew Grammar".	Spinoza introduced concept of free necessity.	Spinoza saw the main task of his philosophy in substantiating ethical questions, in the development of the theory of individual behavior. ethical the orientation of Spinoza's philosophical interests is emphasized by himself, the main The philosopher's work is called Ethics.	Spinoza considered nature in general and human nature in particular. but also impartially, as if they were geometrical problems, and tried to eliminate as far as possible the humanly understandable tendency to wishful thinking, for example, to assume the existence of goals or final causes in nature.	The main problems for the Theory of Knowledge were the problems of the connection between the "I" and the external world, external and internal experience . T. p. acted not only as an analysis of philosophical and metaphysical knowledge, but also as a critical study of scientific knowledge. During this period, the problematic of T. p. occupied a central place in philosophy, being the starting point in the construction of philosophical systems (and sometimes coinciding with these systems)	Man is a part of nature, therefore he is included in necessity, but he is a creature of a special kind, since in addition to extension he has the attribute of thinking, reason. Thus, the free will of a person is limited, it is essentially reduced to a certain degree of rational behavior. Freedom and necessity in man act as related concepts, conditioning each other.	Spinoza's monism was pantheistic: he identified God with nature.
Marx Karl (1818-1883)	Marx K., Engels F., Works « Philosophical and economic manuscripts of 1844». "The Poverty of Philosophy"	His work has shaped the philosophy dialectic and historical materialism, in economics theory surplus value, in politics theory class struggle. These directions became the basis of the communist and socialist movement and ideology, called " Marxism".	K. Marx wrote: “Philosophers only in a different way explained world, but the point is to change his". Thus, for the first time in history, the task of philosophy was set and formulated in a new way.	Being determines consciousness (c) K. Marx	Theory of knowledge in Marxist-Leninist philosophy: rejecting all forms of epistemological idealism, the Marxist-Leninist Theory of Knowledge proceeds from a consistently materialistic solutionfundamental question of philosophy, that is, considers the cognizable material world, objective reality as existing outside and independent mo from consciousness. From the fundamental thesis about the material conditionality of cognition, it follows that the process of cognition is carried out not by some "pure" consciousness or self-consciousness torn off from a person, but by a real person through his consciousness. Dialectical materialismproceeds from the position that the world is knowable, and resolutely rejects the assertion that it is unknowable, that is, agnosticism.	Marx talks about the essence of manas an "ensemble of social relations". His understanding of human nature as a social one includes an explanation of the causes and ideal, positive ideas about a person, and egoistic characteristics of individual consciousness and praxis. It also uses the concept of alienation. According to Marx, in a person all his basic (sensual-emotional, bodily and intellectual) characteristics are not something natural, natural or somehow given from the outside. Everything in a person is "humanized", since a person as an individual exists in connections and relationships with other people. Historical traditions, customs, cultural schematisms and stereotypes, inherited by behavior and thinking, actively influence any individual. The deep, "generic" characteristics of a person and this is his "essence" constitute, according to Marx, the result of world history, the result of social influences.	Marx is far from the sweeping, complete, uncompromising denial of religion that his supporters and opponents often ascribe to him., and which was characteristic, in fact, for the French materialists of the 18th century and for the Russian "militant atheists" of the 20s. Of course, Marx, being a materialist, is an opponent of religion, but at the same time, from his statements it directly follows, among other things, the senselessness of the physical persecution of religious people and organized persecution of religion. Marx believes that religion can be defeated only by eliminating its social foundations, such specific relations between people as relations of alienation, alienation to each other, inconsistencies between a person and his own essence, which, according to Marx, give rise to religion. Marx's theoretical and practical struggle with religion is not directed against religion as such, but against social institutions and social phenomena that produce alienation, against the bourgeois state, bourgeois culture, bourgeois morality. “The criticism of heaven is thus transformed into a criticism of the earth, the criticism of religion into a criticism of law, the criticism of theology into a criticism of politics”
Fedorov N.F. (1929-1903)	"Philosophy of the common cause", Fedorov N. F. Collected works: in 4 vols.	One of the foundersRussian cosmism». Fedorov laid the foundations worldview capable of openingways to understand the place and role man in the universe. Fedorov can rightfully be considered the forerunner and prophet of the noospheric worldview, the foundations of which are laid in the worksV. I. Vernadsky and P. Teilhard de Chardin. Emerged at the end of the 20th century movement of transhumanism "also considers Fedorov his forerunner	He sees the tasks of philosophy in one thing: in ideal-forming creativity (however, for the author of the "Philosophy of the Common Cause" religion is in the first place here, active Christian philosophy only specifically explains the essence of the religious ideal, projects directions for the divine-human cause).	Nature is imperfect, it is dominated by death and disease. The reason for the imperfection of nature the refusal of man to “own” (manage) the land("original sin"). Deprived of the guidance of Reason, Nature began to degrade.	Fedorov decisively opposes his theory of knowledge to the ancient one."Know yourself". He who begins with the knowledge of himself already renounces kinship, sonship. "Know thyself means do not believe the fathers (i.e. tradition), do not trust the brothers (the witness of others), but believe only yourself, know only yourself ("I recognize means I exist") Fedorov counterposes this individualistic, egoistic theory of cognition with the principle of conciliarity, brotherhood, and sonship in cognition.	Thought about man as a consciously creative being, as an agent of evolutionresponsible for all life on the planet, the idea of ​​the earth as a “common home” is important in the modern era, when, more than ever, humanity faces questions about the attitude to nature, its resources, to the most imperfect mortal human nature, which gives rise to individual evil and social. The task of man is the regulation and salvation of everything natural from Death.	N. F. Fedorov was a believerparticipated in the liturgical life of the Church. At the heart of his life position lay the commandment of St.Sergius of Radonezh: "Looking at the unity of the Holy Trinity, overcome the hated division of this world."In the works of Fedorov The Holy Trinity mentioned many timesit was in the Trinity that he saw the root of the future immortality of man

Task 3

Dualism

Dualism (from Lat. dualis dual) a philosophical doctrine based on the recognition of equality and irreducibility to each other of the two main principles of the universe material and spiritual, physical and mental, body and soul. Dualism can be distinguished:

1) epistemological, emphasizing the opposite of two ways of considering being;

2) ontological, insisting on the heterogeneity and fundamental irreducibility of two substances;

3) anthropological, emphasizing the opposition of the soul and body.

The term was introduced by X. Wolf.R. Descartes is considered the founder of dualism as a philosophical doctrine. He introduced into philosophy the idea of ​​two qualitatively different and irreducible substances extended (res extensa) and thinking (res cogitans). Properties of a material substance corporality and extension. The thinking substance is the soul, spirit, consciousness.

In this idea of ​​two qualitatively different substances in the new European culture, the idea of ​​the ontological bifurcation of the universe, of the radical opposition of man and nature, sounded. The material substance, presented as a mechanism where the law of immutability of the momentum dominates, was considered as the opposite of the thinking substance, which is free and autonomous, capable of creatively carrying out intellectual activity.

Dualism in modern European philosophy expressed the active role of the thinking substance, its ability to create ideal schemes and models of the universe.. It was objectively necessary to reveal the possibilities of the rationalistic type of philosophizing and answered the tasks of the formation of science, which was based on the opposition of subject and object. The subject is determined by the ability to think, put forward and substantiate ideas and hypotheses. The object has its inherent properties and qualities that are "transparent" to the cognizing subject.

The ontological duality of the universe also gives rise to epistemological dualism, the opposition of subject and object. Occasionalists, B. Spinoza tried to overcome ontological dualism, considering spirit and matter as attributes of a single substance. G. Leibniz, moving from dualism to pluralism of monads, defined the material as a way of manifestation of the spiritual and introduced the principle of "pre-established harmony".

Philosophy in the 19th and 20th centuries dualism is epistemological rather than ontological. Consideration of the problems of correlation between empiricism and rational schemes, a priori and a posteriori, etc. all this had as its basis the epistemological dualism of thinking and being. At the same time, if pre-Kantian philosophy was dominated by the idea of ​​the identity of the order and connection of ideas and things, then in the epistemological teaching of I. Kant, attention is drawn to the gap between thinking and things. He already realizes that the nature of things is not given in its immediacy to thinking, whose claims are only accessible to their phenomenal form. Cognition is considered as a constructive process of thinking, coupled with experience. Neo-Kantians (G. Rickert and others) introduce the dualism of "values" and "reality", A.O. Lovejoy, describing the "rebellion against dualism" in the history of philosophy, insists on the need for dualism in thinking and the nature of things.

In modern philosophy (R. Rorty and others) the idea of ​​the need to overcome dualism as a tradition of new European thought is being carried out.

Task 4

1. Philosophical anthropology(from philosophy and anthropology ; philosophy of man) in a broad sense philosophical doctrine of nature and essence human ; in a narrow direction (school) in Western European philosophy (mainly German ) first half XX century coming from the ideas Dilthey's philosophy of life, Husserl's phenomenology and others, striving to create a holistic doctrine of man through the use and interpretation of data from various sciences psychology, biology, ethology, sociology, as well as religion, etc.
2. The nature and essence of mana philosophical concept that denotes the essential characteristics of a person that distinguish him and are irreducible to all other forms and genera being , or its natural properties,in one way or another for all people.
3. Being in the broadest sense Existence .

1. The concept of being is the central philosophical concept. Genesis subject of study ontology . In a narrower sense, characteristic offundamental ontology M. Heidegger , the concept of "being" captures the aspect of existence existing , unlike his entities . If the essence is determined by the question: “What is the existent?”, then being is the question: “What does it mean that the existent is?”. The concept of being in the Russian philosophical language introduces Grigory Teplov in 1751 as a translation of the Latin term "ens"
2. Philosophy of life (German: Lebensphilosophie) irrationalisticcurrent in European philosophy, which received a predominant development in Germany in the late XIX early XX centuries.
3. Wilhelm Dilthey(German Wilhelm Dilthey; November 19, 1833, Biebrich am Rhein October 1, 1911, Seys) German cultural historian and idealist philosopher, representative of the philosophy of life, literary critic who first introduced the concept of the so-called sciences of the spirit (German) Geisteswissenschaft), which had a huge impact both on modern historical sciences in Germany (Rikkert, Windelband, Spranger and others), and literary criticism ( Unger, Walzel (German: Oskar Walzel), Gundolf (German: Friedrich Gundolf) and others).
4. Phenomenology (German) Phänomenologie the doctrine of phenomena ) direction to philosophy of the 20th century , which defined its task as an unconditional description experience of knowing consciousness and highlighting its essential features.
5. Edmund Husserl (German: Edmund Husserl; April 8, 1859, Prosnitz, Moravia (Austria) April 26, 1938, Freiburg) German philosopher, founder of phenomenology.

1. Psychology (from other Greek ψυχή "soul"; λόγος "knowledge") science , studying structures and processes inaccessible to external observation, in order to explain human and animal behavior , as well as the behavior of individuals, groups and collectives. Unites in itself humanitarian and natural scienceapproaches. Includes fundamental psychology, revealing the facts, mechanisms and laws of mental activity,applied psychologywhich studies, based on the data of fundamental psychology, mental phenomena in natural conditions, and practical psychology dealing with the application of psychological knowledge in practice
2. Biology (Greek βιολογία; from other Greek. βίος life + λόγος teaching, science ) system of sciences, the objects of study of which are living beings and their interaction withenvironment. Biology studies all aspects life in particular the structure, functioning, growth, origin, evolution and distribution of living organisms Earth . Classifies and describes living beings, their origin species , interaction with each other and withenvironment.
3. Ethology field discipline zoology studying genetically determined behavior (instincts) ) animals, including of people . The term was introduced in 1859 by a French zoologistIsidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire. Closely associated with zoology, evolutionary biology, physiology , genetics , comparative psychology, zoopsychology and is also an integral partcognitive ethology. Founder of ethology, laureateNobel Prize Konrad Lorenz , called ethology "the morphology of animal behavior."
4. Konrad Zacharias Lorenz(German Konrad Zacharias Lorenz; November 7, 1903, Vienna February 27, 1989, Vienna) outstanding Austrian scientist, one of the founders ethology Animal Behavioral Sciences, laureateNobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine(1973, together with Carl von Frisch and Nicholas Tinbergen).
5. Sociology (from lat. societas society + other Greek λόγος science) is the science of society, systems , composing it,patternsits functioning and development, social institutions, relationships and communities . Sociology studies society, revealing the internal mechanisms of its structure and dynamics; formation, functioning and development of its structures (structural elements: social communities, institutions, organizations and groups); laws of social actions and mass behavior of people, as well as the relationship between the individual and society.
6. Religion a special form of awareness of the world, due to faith in supernatural, which includes a set moral norms and types of behavior, rites , cult actions and bringing people together in organizations ( church, religious community.
7. Max Scheler (German: Max Scheler; August 22, 1874, Munich, Kingdom of Bavaria, German Empire May 19, 1928 Frankfurt am Main, German Empire) German philosopher and sociologist, one of the founders ofphilosophical anthropology
8. Helmut Plesner (German: Helmuth Plessner, September 4, 1892, Wiesbaden June 12, 1985, Göttingen) German philosopher and sociologist , one of the foundersphilosophical anthropology.
9. Arnold Gehlen (German: Arnold Gehlen, January 29, 1904, Leipzig January 30, 1976, Hamburg) German philosopher and sociologist , one of the foundersphilosophical anthropology, representative technocratic conservatism.
10. Papoul Ludwig Landsberg(German: Landsberg, December 3, 1901, Bonn April 2, 1944, Oranienburg) German philosopher, representative philosophical anthropology and personalism.
11. Karl Loewit (German: Karl Löwith; January 9, 1897, Munich May 26, 1973, Heidelberg ) German philosopher.
12. Hans Lipps (German Lipps, November 22, 1889, Pirna October 10, 1941, Russia) German philosopher. From 1911 he was a student of Husserl. In 1912 defended his dissertation "On the structural changes of plants in a modified environment." Died in RussiaWorld War II.
13. Otto Friedrich Bolnow(German: Otto Friedrich Bollnow, March 14, 1903, Stettin February 7, 1991, Tübingen ) German philosopher and teacher, continuer of traditions philosophy of life. Works on anthropology, ethics , philosophy of life,existential philosophy, hermeneutics.

Task 5

Pragmatism

One of the directions of philosophy in foreign literature can be called pragmatism , which took shape in the 70s of the 20th century, thanks to the activities of three scientists: Pierce - "Consolidation of beliefs," How to make our ideas clear "; James - "The pattern of faith from the will", "Pragmatism is the beginning of psychology"; Dune - "Principles of Psychology", "Experience and Nature", "Psychology and Pedagogy of Thinking".Today, pragmatism in the United States is the dominant philosophical current. Pragmatism subjugated the philosophy of education, became the semi-official philosophy of the American way of life..

The Americans compared the formation of the concept of pragmatism with the "Capernican coup", a complete reconstruction of philosophy, believing that pragmatism is the ideal key to solving the eternal problems of philosophy.

The central task of pragmatism- lower abstract philosophical concepts to the ground and look for the meaning of philosophical problems in their relation to human life. It is those philosophical problems that are significant that are directly related to human life, so they must be stated and considered in terms of human action and its success.

According to them, a person acts in an irrational world. Attempts to achieve objective truth are meaningless, therefore, any concept, any concept, any theory and social teachings, as well as moral requirements, should be approached instrumentally, from the standpoint of the expediency of specific things. What brings success is true - this is the general concept of this theory.

a). "The Doubt Theory of Faith"

b). "Theory of Meaning"

" Belief Doubt Theory", according to her - this does not reflect reality in the human mind, but the development of innate life instincts, i.e. a biopsychological function aimed at developing the habit of responding to environmental conditions - this habit constitutes belief. And the achievement of stable belief is the only goal of thinking. The movement is not from ignorance to knowledge, but from doubt to firm opinion and stable belief, which is the main function of knowing thinking.Steady belief is achieved in 3 ways and methods: persistence, which involves adhering to a once accepted view.The method of authority - relying on widespread authoritative judgments and views.The method of apriorism - general beliefs, justified by impersonal pre-experimental principles.

The subjectivism of beliefs is allowed by the adoption of Shpotera, and thus unity and universality are ensured.

" Belief Doubt Theory"justifies the rejection of understanding cognitive activity as essentially reflective activity and aimed at achieving true knowledge of objective reality. Cognitive activity is considered by Peirce as a non-cognitive activity that is aimed at providing intellectual comfort. This theory denies that a person has a cognitive interest. Thus. the achievement of faith entails the passivity of the mind, but ensures the activity of the body, because faith, from the point of view of the pragmatist, is a habit of acting.

"Theory of Meaning "- Pierce solved the problem of establishing the meaning of concepts not in the dictionary sense, but in the practical actions of a person, i.e. to understand the idea of ​​a term and make it clear, therefore Pierce correlates the concept with a person. Without this, one cannot speak of "meaning" in meaning is what the content of the concept means for a person as a community of people, i.e. pragmatism has carried out a pragmatic interpretation of concepts with practical consequences of actions.

The concept of truth pierce connects and identifies with success. Truth, in his opinion, is future utility for a purpose. Truth is what we believe, or a firm belief. And in order to be stable, belief must be universal, i.e. be shared by all who are interested in it.

James - puts a person at the center of philosophy, and the significance of all philosophical problems is evaluated by the role that they can play in the life of an individual.

The philosopher should not be interested in the structure of the world, but what significance it has for a person, which follows from his knowledge for him. We incline to one or another philosophical direction not because of its truth, but because it best suits our frame of mind, emotional state, our interests. Truth, according to James, is usefulness or success, and proniaism is the method of settling disputes. Human consciousness is a selective activity aimed at selecting what meets the goals of the individual, their feelings, moods and emotions.

According to James, it is necessary to give preference not to the arguments of reason, but to believe in any hypothesis and take risks. At the center of his concept is the will to faith: on the one hand, faith sets one's convictions, in the perfect irrationality and unknowability of the surrounding world, on the other hand, it helps to live comfortably in the chaos of unrelated events, a pluralistic universe. The will to believe determines a person's success in theory and practice. Because the objects of faith are the essence, the only realities that can be spoken of, but they become objects only when, in this or that faith, they are subjected to stresses or efforts of the will in experience. Experience is characterized as a certain set of sensations, emotions, experiences. In experience, we do not deal with reality, therefore the concept of ideas, theories created in the process of experience are devoid of objective content and must be evaluated pragmatically, i.e. from the point of view of practical consequences, therefore the truth of concepts and ideas lies in their usefulness.

He systematized and turned into a universal doctrine that embraced pedagogy, ethics, sociology, history - that was Dewey. He did this on the basis of science and democracy. He developed the logic of science, the theory of scientific inquiry, and applied the scientific method he created to human problems in all areas of social life. Criticizing the philosophy that existed before him, Dewey insisted that the only way to solve social, practical and theoretical problems is in the method of reason and science, which, in relation to nature and technology, has already given brilliant results known to all. He considered the scientific method not as a method of cognition, but as a method that ensures the successful behavior of a person in the world, objective knowledge, which is impossible. Dewey's scientific method does not recognize objective reality as a subject of study. He argues that it arises in the process of cognition, therefore, knowledge about the subject is regarded as the creation of reality. From his point of view, to be the object of scientific research. Scientific research puts a person in problematic uncertain situations, the task of philosophy is to transform an uncertain situation into a definite, unsolved problem into a solved one. For this purpose, concepts, ideas, laws are created that have instrumental significance. Science is a set of tools that are used in certain circumstances, so some scientists called Dewey's pragmatism instrumentalism. It includes 5 stages of research:

1. feelings of embarrassment

2. awareness of the problem

3. marking her solution (proposing her hypothesis)

4. development of the idea, its solution to imperial consequences

5. observation and experiment that are carried out for the sake of solving a problem

Dewey conclusion: the true solution is the one that most ensures the success of human actions. Dewey understands truth like other representatives of pragmatism, Pierce and James.

2301. Philosophy as a type of worldview 46.41KB As a result, people noticed that it is possible to cultivate and cultivate not only the land, but also the person himself. Subsequently, this meaning deepened and in the modern sense, culture means everything that is done by human hands. Everything that is subjected to human processing this is culture. The exact opposite of culture that which has not been processed by man is called nature. 15981. CONTINUAL THEORY OF WORLD VIEW 2.1MB The modern scientific worldview has been formed as a philosophy. It has developed as a general basis for scientific evidence based on the necessary facts of reality, using specially developed data processing methods based on the open laws of nature to obtain ... 7563. Formation of the worldview, moral, aesthetic and civic culture of the individual 26.44KB Formation of the worldview of the moral, aesthetic and civic culture of the personality Requirements for competence on the topic □ to know and be able to reveal the essence of the personality's worldview and its internal structure; know and be able to substantiate the pedagogical conditions and age-related possibilities for the formation of the scientific worldview of students; □ know and be able to reveal the essence and structure of the moral culture of the individual; to know and be able to determine the goal of the task, the content of educating the moral culture of students of different ages; □ know and be able to disclose... 20521. The role of sports and health technologies in the formation of an anti-drug worldview among children and youth 33.9KB Theoretical aspects of studying the role of sports and health technologies in the formation of an anti-drug worldview among children and youth. Drug addiction among children and youth in Russia as a social problem. Physical culture and health technologies in social work among children and youth on the formation of an anti-drug worldview.

In primitive society, mythology was in close interaction with religion, however, they were not inseparable. Religion has its own specifics, which is not a particular type of worldview. The specificity of religion is due to the fact that the main element of religion is a cult system, that is, a system of ritual actions aimed at establishing certain relations with the supernatural. Therefore, any myth becomes religious to the extent that it is included in the cult system, acts as its content side.

Worldview constructions, being included in the cult system, acquire the character of a dogma. What gives the worldview a special spiritual and practical character. With the help of rituals, religion cultivates human feelings of love. Kindness, tolerance, duty, etc., linking their presence with the sacred, the supernatural.

The main function of religion is to help a person overcome the historically changeable, transient, relative aspects of his being and to elevate a person to something absolute, eternal. In the spiritual and moral sphere, this is manifested in giving the norms, values ​​and ideals the character of an absolute, unchanging character.

Thus, religion gives meaning and meaning, and hence stability to human existence, helps him overcome everyday difficulties.

Within the framework of any religion there is a system (a system of answers to questions). But philosophy formulates its conclusions in a rational form, while in religion the emphasis is on faith. Religion presupposes ready-made answers to questions.

Religious doctrine does not tolerate criticism. Any religion offers a person ideals and is accompanied by rites and rituals (specific actions). Each developed religious doctrine contains imprints of a pronounced systemic character. The religious worldview is also characterized by the following features:

• 1. Symbolism (every significant phenomenon in nature or history is considered as a manifestation of the Divine will), through the symbol, a connection is made between the supernatural and natural worlds;
• 2. It has a value-based attitude towards reality (reality is the spatio-temporal extent of the struggle between good and evil);
• 3. Time is also connected with Sacred history (time before and after the Nativity of Christ);
• 4. Revelation is recognized as the word of God and this leads to the absolutization of the word (logos), the logos becomes the image of God.

Mythological consciousness historically precedes religious consciousness. The religious worldview is more systemic than the mythological one, it is more logically perfect. The systemic nature of religious consciousness presupposes its logical ordering, and continuity with mythological consciousness is ensured by using the image as the main lexical unit.

Religious outlook and religious philosophy are a kind of idealism, i.e. such a direction in the development of social consciousness, in which the original substance, i.e. the foundation of the world is the Spirit, the idea. Varieties of idealism are subjectivism, mysticism, etc. The opposite of a religious worldview is an atheistic worldview.

The first historical type of worldview was mythological, the second historical type of worldview was religion. The religious worldview had many common features with the mythological worldview that preceded it, but it also had its own characteristics. First of all, the religious worldview differs from the mythological one in the way of spiritual assimilation of reality. Mythological images and representations were multifunctional: they intertwined cognitive, artistic and evaluative assimilation of reality in an as yet undeveloped form, which created a prerequisite for the emergence of not only religion, but also various types of literature and art on their basis. Religious images and representations perform only one function - evaluative and regulatory.

An integral feature of religious myths and ideas is their dogmatism. Having arisen, religion retains a certain stock of ideas for several centuries.

Religious images are ambiguous: they allow their various interpretations, including absolutely opposite ones. Therefore, on the basis of one system of religious dogmas, there are always many different directions, for example, in Christianity: Catholicism, Orthodoxy, Protestantism.

Another feature of religious images and ideas is that irrationality is hidden in them, which is subject to perception only by faith, and not by reason. The latter reveals the meaning of the image, but does not refute or destroy it. This feature of the religious image underlies the recognition of the priority of religious faith over reason.

The central place in any religious worldview is always occupied by the image or idea of ​​God. God is considered here as the origin and fundamental principle of all that exists. Moreover, this is no longer a genetic principle, as in mythology, but an initial principle - creating, creating, producing.

The next feature of the religious and ideological way of mastering reality is the universalization of the spiritual-volitional connection, the idea of ​​which is gradually replacing the mythological ideas of universal kinship. From the point of view of the religious worldview, everything that exists and happens in the world depends on the will and desire of God. Everything in the world is governed by divine providence, or a moral law established and controlled by a higher being.

Religion is characterized by the recognition of the primacy of the spiritual over the physical, which is not in mythology. The attitude to reality, determined by the religious worldview, differs significantly from the illusory-praxeological mode of action associated with the mythological worldview. This is a passive attitude towards reality. The dominant position in religion is occupied by propitiatory actions (veneration of various objects endowed with supernatural properties, prayers, sacrifices and other actions).

Thus, the religious worldview is a way of mastering reality through its doubling into natural, earthly, this-worldly and supernatural, heavenly, other-worldly. The religious worldview has passed a long way of development, from primitive to modern (national and world) forms.

The emergence of a religious worldview was a step forward in the development of human self-consciousness. In religion, the unity between different clans and tribes was comprehended, on the basis of which new communities were created - nationalities and nations. World religions, such as Christianity, even rose to the point of realizing commonality and proclaiming the equality of all people before God. At the same time, each of them emphasized the special position of their followers.

The historical significance of religion consisted in the fact that in both slave and feudal societies it contributed to the formation and strengthening of new social relations and the formation of strong centralized states. Meanwhile, there have been religious wars in history.

It is impossible to unequivocally assess the cultural significance of religion. On the one hand, it undoubtedly contributed to the spread of education and culture.

Man is a rational social being. His work is worthwhile. And in order to act expediently in the complex real world, he must not only know a lot, but also be able to. To be able to choose goals, to be able to make this or that decision. To do this, he needs, first of all, a deep and correct understanding of the world - a worldview.

Man has always had a need to develop a general idea of ​​the world as a whole and of man's place in it. Such a representation is usually called a universal picture of the world.

There are 4 types of worldview:

1. Mythological 3. Worldly

2. Religious 4. Philosophical

mythological worldview. Its peculiarity is that knowledge is expressed in images (myth - image). In myths there is no division into the human world and the world of the gods, there is no division into the objective and apparent world, the myth gave an idea of ​​how to live. today the myth is like a manipulator (the myth in the USA about the equality of all before the law)

Close to the mythological, although different from it, was the religious worldview, which developed from the depths of the not yet dissected, not differentiated social consciousness. Like mythology, religion appeals to fantasy and feelings. However, unlike myth, religion does not "mix" the earthly and the sacred, but in the deepest and irreversible way separates them into two opposite poles. The creative almighty force - God - stands above nature and outside nature. The existence of God is experienced by man as a revelation. As a revelation, a person is given to know that his soul is immortal, eternal life and a meeting with God await him beyond the grave.

Religion is an illusory fantastic reflection of natural phenomena that acquire a supernatural character.

Components of religion: faith, rituals, social institution - the church.

Religion, religious consciousness, religious attitude to the world did not remain vital. Throughout the history of mankind, they, like other cultural formations, developed, acquired diverse forms in the East and West, in different historical eras. But all of them were united by the fact that at the center of any religious worldview is the search for higher values, the true path of life, and the fact that these values, and leading to them life path is transferred to a transcendent, otherworldly realm, not to earthly, but to "eternal" life. All deeds and deeds of a person and even his thoughts are evaluated, approved or condemned according to this highest, absolute criterion.

First of all, it should be noted that the representations embodied in myths were closely intertwined with rituals and served as an object of faith. In primitive society, mythology was in close interaction with religion. However, it would be wrong to unequivocally state that they were inseparable. Mythology exists separately from religion as an independent, relatively independent form of social consciousness. But in the earliest stages of the development of society, mythology and religion formed a single whole. From the content side, that is, from the point of view of worldview constructions, mythology and religion are inseparable. It cannot be said that some myths are "religious" while others are "mythological." However, religion has its own specifics. And this specificity does not lie in a special type of worldview constructions (for example, those in which the division of the world into natural and supernatural prevails) and not in a special relationship to these worldview constructions (the attitude of faith). The division of the world into two levels is inherent in mythology at a fairly high stage of development, and the attitude of faith is also an integral part of the mythological consciousness. The specificity of religion is due to the fact that the main element of religion is the cult system, that is, the system of ritual actions aimed at establishing certain relations with the supernatural. And therefore, every myth becomes religious to the extent that it is included in the cult system, acts as its content side.

Worldview constructions, being included in the cult system, acquire the character of a dogma. And this gives the worldview a special spiritual and practical character. Worldview constructions become the basis for formal regulation and regulation, streamlining and preserving mores, customs, and traditions. With the help of rituals, religion cultivates human feelings of love, kindness, tolerance, compassion, mercy, duty, justice, etc., giving them a special value, associating their presence with the sacred, the supernatural.

The main function of religion is to help a person overcome the historically changeable, transient, relative aspects of his being and elevate a person to something absolute, eternal. In philosophical language, religion is called upon to “root” a person in the transcendent. In the spiritual and moral sphere, this is manifested in giving norms, values ​​and ideals an absolute, unchanging character, independent of the conjuncture of the spatio-temporal coordinates of human existence, social institutions, etc. Thus, religion gives meaning and knowledge, and hence stability of human existence, helps him to overcome worldly difficulties.

1. worldview 3. integrative

2. cognitive (through the bible) 4. recreational (satisfaction)

5. compensatory (help)

philosophical outlook.

The emergence of philosophy as a worldview refers to the period of development and formation of the slave-owning society in the countries of the Ancient East, and the classical form of the philosophical worldview took shape in Ancient Greece. Initially, materialism arose as a kind of philosophical worldview, as a scientific reaction to a religious form of worldview. Thales was the first in Ancient Greece to rise to the understanding of the material unity of the world and expressed a progressive idea about the transformation of matter, one in its essence, from one of its states to another. Thales had associates, students and followers of his views. Unlike Thales, who considered water to be the material basis of all things, they found other material foundations: Anaximenes - air, Heraclitus - fire.

Phil. the worldview is wider than the scientific one. scientific is built on the basis of the data of particular sciences and relies on reason, phil. worldview also on sensations. It reflects the world through concepts and categories.

Peculiarities:

This is a rational explanation of reality

Phil-ya has a conceptual and categorical apparatus

Phil-ya is systemic

Phil-ya is reflexive

Phil-ya is valuable

Phil-ya requires a certain level of intelligence

Philosophical thought is the thought of the eternal. But this does not mean that philosophy itself is ahistorical. Like any theoretical knowledge, philosophical knowledge develops, enriched with new and new content, new discoveries. At the same time, the continuity of the known is preserved. However, the philosophical spirit, philosophical consciousness is not only a theory, especially an abstract, dispassionately speculative theory. Scientific theoretical knowledge is only one side of the ideological content of philosophy. Another, undoubtedly dominant, leading side of it, is formed by a completely different component of consciousness - spiritual and practical. It is he who expresses the life-meaning, value-oriented, that is, worldview, type of philosophical consciousness as a whole. There was a time when no science had ever existed, but philosophy was at the highest level of its creative development.

Man's relation to the world is an eternal subject of philosophy. At the same time, the subject of philosophy is historically mobile, concrete, the "Human" dimension of the world changes with the change in the essential forces of man himself.

The innermost goal of philosophy is to take a person out of the sphere of everyday life, to captivate him with the highest ideals, to give his life a true meaning, to open the way to the most perfect values.

The organic combination in philosophy of two principles - scientific-theoretical and practical-spiritual - determines its specificity as a completely unique form of consciousness, which is especially noticeable in its history - in the real process of research, development of the ideological content of philosophical teachings that are historically, in time connected among themselves, not by accident, but by necessity. All of them are just facets, moments of a single whole. Just as in science and in other areas of rationality, in philosophy new knowledge is not rejected, but dialectical “removes”, overcomes its previous level, that is, it includes it as its own special case. In the history of thought, Hegel emphasized, we observe progress: a constant ascent from abstract knowledge to more and more concrete knowledge. The sequence of philosophical teachings - basically and most importantly - is the same as the sequence in the logical definitions of the goal itself, that is, the history of knowledge corresponds to the objective logic of the object being known.

The integrity of human spirituality finds its completion in the worldview. Philosophy as a single integral worldview is the work not only of every thinking person, but of all mankind, which, as an individual, has never lived and cannot live only by purely logical judgments, but carries out its spiritual life in all the colorful fullness and integrity of its diverse moments. The worldview exists in the form of a system of value orientations, ideals, beliefs and convictions, as well as a way of life of a person and society.

Philosophy is one of the main forms of social consciousness, a system of the most general concepts about the world and the place of man in it.

The relationship between philosophy and worldview can also be described as follows: the concept of "worldview" is wider than the concept of "philosophy". Philosophy is such a form of social and individual consciousness, which is constantly theoretically substantiated, has a greater degree of scientificity than just a worldview, say, at the everyday level of common sense, which is present in a person who sometimes does not even know how to write or read.

If there is no God, as atheists claim, then science, when studying religion, has no subject of study, that is, there is no God himself.

And if there is a God, as believers are convinced, then God, as a supernatural being, cannot become a subject of research for science, since it, science, is engaged only in the study of natural phenomena.

Given the above, we will not dwell on the idea of ​​God, but will focus our attention on what religion is for believers.

7.1. Religion as a type of worldview.

In religious studies today there are several dozen definitions of religion. Some have studied both among believers and non-believers, and even believe that it is impossible and unnecessary to give definitions of religion. But to give religion at least some initial definition of religion is necessary and possible. There are no and cannot be such things and phenomena in the world that could not be defined.

In this respect our language is great and omnipotent. Already in the words themselves: "Wolf", "Excitement", "Infinity" there are definitions of our concepts and ideas. In our opinion, the most accurate - both in scientific terms and in terms of our consideration of the issue - is the following definition:

Religion is a type of worldview
based on faith in God.

In the spiritual life of society and believers, religion performs all the functions that the worldview in general performs.

An attempt to ignore or eliminate the religious worldview is an attempt to ignore and eliminate the personality of the believer in general. The religious worldview of a believer can change and be replaced, but the personality of a person - we repeat, because this is very important!

It cannot be without a worldview. If we take a person as such, we must perceive him with the worldview that he has.

The worldview of a believer is not limited to the elements of a religious worldview. In organic connection with faith in God are his, the believer, cultural, moral, scientific and other knowledge and beliefs. In the spiritual life of the believer outside, the religious elements, being such, enter - and cannot but enter!

In conflict with the content of faith in God. Internal conflict creates psychological discomfort that forces the believer to "reconcile" his faith in God with other elements of his spiritual life. In each individual case, this is done either by finding harmony between faith in God and other elements of spiritual life, or by adapting the former to the latter, or by concessions on one side or the other.

Be that as it may, a believer (and in his place - anyone and everyone) cannot calm down until he gets out of an uncomfortable state.

7.2. Social Factors and Social Ideals in the Believer's Worldview

The worldview of the believer - as already mentioned - the believer in the ideal - is dominated by faith in God. But it, faith in God, dominates the worldview of the believer nominally. On closer examination, it turns out that this belief is always derivative. It is formed in the believer not by itself, but under the influence, first of all, of family education, and then - the influence of others, and, finally, under the influence of the believer's own efforts.

With all this, the dominant system-forming factor here, as in each individual case, is not a purely religious factor, but a social one. This factor is born both by the character, the state of the society in which the believer is, and the social status of the believer's family, and the personal social rank of the believer.

Worldview, of course, is the spiritual basis of the personality of each person. But man himself with his worldview is nothing but a set of social relations, which was first shown by Marxism with scientific certainty. These public relations and "look out" from the religious worldview of the believer, and at the same time the believer himself looks at society through the prism of his religious worldview.

Thus, the elements of morality, law, politics, science, art, philosophy, developed and tested by the practice of social life, which are perceived by the believer or the whole society in one way or another receive religious approval, rise to the level of postulates given by God (commandments, dogmas, canons) .

From the fact that certain elements of social life have received sanctification in the name of God, they have by no means become either worse or better in their essence. Religious sanctification only strengthens or weakens certain aspects of social life. What aspects of social life does religion sanctify? This can be specifically determined in each individual case. Here, conclusions like: “Religion in general sanctifies this and that in the name of God” are unacceptable, because the essence of the matter lies not in the religious sanctification / condemnation of the aspects of public life, but in the very sides of public life that are sanctified / condemned in the name of the Lord God.

In the dramatic history of mankind there is not a single aspect of social life that, to one degree or another, for certain conditions, was not sanctified and at the same time was not cursed in the name of God. In religion, only the God of his religion remained outside the curses. But God is not a social being.

He is a being that is outside of nature and outside of society. And since in every society the lower classes, humiliated and insulted, quantitatively dominate, their natural aspirations are also sanctified by religion, find support in the system of its beliefs.

We will not now prove the obvious fact that the engine of social progress at the turning points of history was not the top, not the "elite" of society, but precisely the demands and the measure of the possible implementation of these requirements from the bottom ...

These demands were expressed in the indirect and perverse form in the content of religious beliefs. The lower classes were constantly dissatisfied with their social position, they considered it to be one that did not correspond to their nature, and hence it did not correspond to their convictions, did not correspond to human nature in general. Hence, social factors act not only as the formative nature of the religious beliefs of the simple masses of believers.

In their worldview, social life-meaning ideals have the greatest practical value, serve as the main, and in crisis states - the only motive for behavior in society and in relation to society. All this is best seen in the history of the relationship of religion with the ideals of social order, in particular, with the ideals of communism.

7.3. The place of the ideals of communism in the religious worldview of the believer.

Communism has been presented and defined in many different ways over the centuries. In general, communism is a society in which there is no exploitation of man by man, there is no private ownership of the means of production, all members of this society are socially equal and enjoy equal social security. Such a society is most in line with human nature, because only it can give all people a guarantee for their happy, meaningful life; in a society based on justice.

Only such communism ensures the highest productivity of labor - labor, which is the only source of wealth for both the individual and the whole society. Only thanks to the communist way of life did primitive people finally break away from the animal world. Only the road that leads to communism, in the meaning of the word defined above, is that only faith, the road by which man and God and nature are destined to move forward and higher, all forward and higher.

To the extent of deviating from this path, humanity moves along the roadsides contrary to its natural (from nature) destiny, as an unbeliever should realize this, contrary to divine design, as a believer should tell himself.

Of course, ideal communism, the features of which, taken from the existing social concepts, we have listed above in a generalized form, being realized, raises before its citizens a number of previously unseen problems, the solution of which requires the adoption of difficult decisions. Real communism - or real approaches to it - can turn out to be as far from ideal communism as the life of a particular religious church, community, movement from the ideals of Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, and so on.

Is it the fault of Jesus Christ (Mohammed, Sakya-Muni, Moses and others like them) that his followers, contrary to the warning of their divine founders, throw beads of the teaching of the Gospel (Koran, Tripitaka, Torah) to desecrate swine (Matthew, 7:6; 2 th Peter, 2:22) for dogs to devour (Proverbs, 26:11; Philomon, 3:2; Apocalypse, 22:15).

Communism historically will always be forced to take a person as he is by nature, which he inherits as a historical legacy. Vladimir Ilyich Lenin wrote very aptly about this: “We want to build socialism from those people who have been brought up by capitalism, who have been corrupted and corrupted by it, but on the other hand, they have been tempered for struggle ...

We want to build socialism immediately from the material that capitalism has left us from yesterday to today, now, and not from those people who will be cooked in greenhouses if we amuse ourselves with this fable" (PSS, 32, p. 54). In this Communism takes man the way Nature created him, in other words, the way he came out of the hands of God the Creator.

Modern communism has never claimed that it has such a miraculous stone, with the help of which it "and in two moments, if not in an instant" turn animal instincts and its sinful nature into the gold of social behavior.

Man is the most tragic being in the world,
but God himself did not create anything better for man.

Does anyone really hope that the racketeers, members of mafia structures, fat cats, the well-fed "elite" of the modern way of life, multiplied by those in power in less than 10 years, who have become our relatives, will remember the biblical commandment: "In by the sweat of your face you will eat your bread" (Genesis 3:19; Psalm 127:2; Ecclesiastes 3:22, 5:18, 11:6), crawl out from his vipers, built on the sweat and blood of believers and unbelievers, and screaming "Hooray!" start turning into workaholics?!

Not under any weather! In advance and publicly, in order to reach all corners of the CIS residents, they loudly declared: "Now there is not only something to protect, but also something to protect." And believe that they, unfortunately, speak the purest truth. In order not to get dirty in public dirt, they do not even burden themselves with somehow managing public life.

What for? This is a dirty and dirty business. They entrusted this matter to their politicians. Recently, Russian oligarch Boris Abramovich Berezovsky shamelessly boasted that "bare-assed" people would never run the country again. In the end, one must understand a simple truth, he explained to the politicians of the SND, that in our civilized country the one to whom the capital entrusts it rules, and elections are a public form of handing over our government to people whom we have identified in advance.

Communism is a normal human society. To maintain and reproduce their existence, the people of this society, like any other, must consume material and spiritual goods. And in human society, these benefits are produced by labor. And just as society and a person cannot stop consuming, in the same way they cannot stop producing with their labor everything that is necessary to satisfy their material and spiritual needs.

And this is unfair. In this regard, communism fully shares the New Testament principle: "If anyone does not want to work, then do not eat" (2 Thessalonians, 3:10. Compare also: "In the sweat of your face you will eat your bread" Genesis, 3:19; " There are no wicked at work" - Psalm, 72:5; "Only in the grave there is no work" - Ecclesiastes, 9:10; "Better a worker than a needy" - Proverbs, 12:9; "Try to work with your own hands" - 1st Thessalonica 4:11 etc.).

Only communism makes the most efficient use of human labor. Under it there is no unemployment: everyone works and everyone enriches the social wealth with their work. Only communism is able to organize and use human labor most effectively. I can't help but cite an example. During the occupation of Donbass, the Nazis failed to put into operation at least one blast furnace for 2.5 years. But when the Donbass was liberated from the fascist evil spirits, the Soviet government launched all sectors of the economy.

Because this power was the power of the people, because the people worked for the common good, ultimately for themselves.

Isn't it outrageous, isn't it reasonable that there is now unemployment in all CIS countries? That the candidate of sciences gets up at 3-4 o'clock in the morning so that no one sees, and looks through the trash, let's say in the biblical way, "crumbs falling from the tables of the rich" (Gospel of Luke: "The parable of the poor and Lazarus" - 16:19- 31)? That a peasant stands 3-5 hours at the market to sell 4-5 kilograms of milk or meat, and during this forced and soul-exhausting standing, he could with great pleasure produce ten times more of the products he sells?

Such a criminal waste of manpower and labor can be avoided only on the principles of communism.

Under him there is neither unemployment nor the use of a Ph.D. as a hawker or scavenger. Or one more example now observed in abundance. At the bazaar, a livestock breeder spends two to three hours to sell the 20 liters of milk he has produced. And for these three hours of labor in a recent collective farm pig farm, he produced two centners of meat. And where are these two centners of meat now?

What did the peasant produce during the sale of the meat or milk produced by him. Social production in communism is based both on collective labor and on the division of labor. And collective work, as proven both by practice and economic calculations, without any additional effort increases productivity by one and a half to two times. Secondly, only communism can make the best use of and organize work according to a person's inclinations and specialties.

Communism not only proclaims the social equality of its members, it promotes social progress to the highest degree by facilitating and organizing the most efficient application of human labor for the production of material and spiritual goods.

It is well known that labor is the source of human wealth. And therefore, for the greatest progress of society, it is necessary to create conditions for the most efficient use of human labor, its labor force.

It is necessary to make sure that the use of labor power is directed to the maximum extent to increasing the production of material and spiritual goods, material and spiritual commodities.

The reader may say, why haven't the communists done all this in 70 years? Firstly, the communists did a lot in this direction and advanced very far, or, as Churchill admitted, the communists accepted Russia completely illiterate, in bast shoes and with a plow, and after 40 years it became a country of complete literacy, a high level of scientific and technological progress and "with the atomic bomb".

And this despite the fact that Russia bore the brunt of the two world wars, was in a constant blockade, was subjected to economic, military, diplomatic, sabotage, ideological sabotage by all the so-called developed and civilized countries. What country in the world and what nation in history has endured such external and internal pressure? What country, what people have ever achieved such stunning successes in their socio-economic and cultural development? There are no such countries, there are no such peoples!

The bandocracy of the CIS multiplies and multiplies homeless people, beggars, prostitutes, drug addicts, rapists, alcoholics, thieves of all levels, medicine men and "healers", leaving them no other prospects. Looking at our social pitch hell, the Great Alligieri Dante would say: "Abandon hopes, everyone who enters here!" But communism in the Soviet Union, China, the former countries of the socialist bloc has proved in practice that even from this kind of social garbage it is able to make worthy members of society.

Let us not in vain recall at least the results of the activities of F. E. Dzerzhinsky and A. S. Makarenko. And the higher capitalism established in the countries of the former Soviet Union throws worthy people into the cesspool of public life.

Of course, communism has gone down roads that have not yet been traveled in practice. The highway was not paved for him. He made his way through marshy swamps, ravines and potholes. Moreover, communism is a living human society and personal tragedies will exist and arise in it ( unrequited love, the death of a loved one) and problems for the solution of which it will be necessary to look for new solutions.

Communism is an imperfect society, but mankind throughout

For thousands of years no other better society has come up with for itself.

8. Religion and the concepts of communism in their historical development.

The term "Communism" and one of the first concepts of communism in human culture was introduced by the ancient Greek philosopher Plato (428-348 BC). And the great scientist came to this concept in the process of searching for answers to the question: "What is the meaning of human life?" According to Plato, the meaning of human life is happiness; we come into this world in order to receive our measure of happiness in order to live

Happily. But the happiness of every person, Plato noted even at that ancient time, depends on the social structure. Therefore, it is necessary to create a society in which all people, without exception, will have equal rights to happiness and equal opportunities to live happily. It is this society of equally happy people that Plato called the communist society.

Plato refers to the ideals of communism in a number of his works. He described it most fully in his work "The State" (Politika) and in the myths about Atlantis. In Platonic communism there is no private property, no exploitation of the little man by man; the processes of social life are under the control of the sages-philosophers, and all the hard and unprincipled work is done by slaves, helots. As you can see, in Plato's communism there were slaves...

The great Plato, ignoring the slaves, foresaw that in his ideal society social equality would come into conflict with the spiritual inequality of people. And here he sarcastically emphasized that the inhabitants of communist society would not feel comfortable in the presence of talents and geniuses and, for the sake of their social peace and comfort, would be forced to expel such "highly unequal" people from their communism.

That is, Plato understood well that social equality is only a material prerequisite for a happy life for everyone; that communist society will have its own internal problems, for the solution of which new and new situational solutions will be needed. Communism is not the end goal of humanity's aspirations, but only the beginning of a new, complex way of life.

The idea of ​​communism has not disappeared from the arena of the spiritual life of the Greek, Greco-Roman and later Christianized peoples since the time of Plato. And the practical embodiment of the imperfect concepts of communism found their embodiment in the lives of believing working people of all religions and continents. Christianity is exemplary in this regard. It began its existence as a communist society, in which the generalization of the personal property of believers and the distribution of consumer products were carried out according to the principle - "to each according to his needs" (Acts of the Holy Apostles, 4:32 - 5:16).

True, the communism of the original Christians could not establish itself in the Christian Church, although later such prominent figures and later recognized as saints spoke out in its favor, such as Archbishop Ambrose of Milan, Blessed Augustine, Basil the Great, John Chrysostom, translator of the Bible in Latin language Jerome. All monasteries in all Christian churches were organized on the principles of communism.

Heretical and revolutionary movements of the Cathars, Hussites, Moravian Brethren, Münsterians - in the West; strigolnikov, antitrinitarians, socinians, old believers - on the lands Kievan Rus inspired by the ideals of biblical communism. In general, it should be said that Marxist communism historically originates from those concepts that were first developed by deeply believing Christians.

The first detailed concept of communism was created by the Chancellor of England, martyr and saint of the Catholic Church, Thomas More (1478-1535), the content of which, the concept of communism, was outlined in the work "Utopia". It will not be superfluous to recall that the Catholic Cathedral (main) cathedral in New York is marked by the name "Cathedral of St. Thomas More".

The most prominent leader of the Peasant War in Germany, Thomas Müntzer (1490-1525), called for the use of force to fight for the establishment of the Kingdom of God, Communism, on earth. A significant contribution to the development of the ideas of communist society was made by the leader of the uprising in Calabria, the Dominican monk Tomaso Campanella (1568-1639), writing in the dungeons of the Inquisition, which kept him in a damp and dark basement for 18 years, a wonderful work with the joyful title "City of the Sun".

Famous French communist ideologists Gabriel Bono Mably (1709-1785) and his contemporary Morelli were both Catholic priests. The first of them substantiated the ideas of communism in the works: "Doubts proposed to philosophers-economists regarding the natural and essential order of political societies", "The Beginnings of Morality" and "On the Study of History", and the second most thoroughly - in "The Code of Nature, or the True Spirit of Her laws", and most fascinatingly - in the poem "Basiliada".

The immediate predecessor of the Marxist concept of communism, Claude Henri Saint-Simon (1709-1785), called his main work on communism (socialism) "New Christianity". Another prominent representative of utopian communism, Etienne Cabet (1788-1856), outlined his understanding of the ideals of communism in the book The Journey of Icarus (published in 1840) and immediately left for North America to implement his communist ideals.

He stopped his choice on the Mormons, who were mercilessly persecuted by local authorities for their religious beliefs. In the end, all the Mormons were gathered and sent to the reservation - to the Utah desert, allowing them to settle around the salt lake. There was only sand and salt water around - and not a single living animal, not a single living plant. Cabet joined the persecuted Mormons and offered the persecuted his ideas of the communist structure of public life.

The Mormons incorporated these ideas into their religious beliefs and, through their combined efforts, turned the desert into a flourishing, prosperous land inhabited by physically and spiritually healthy people. 60% of today's leading white athletes in the US are from Mormon families. The ardent communist Kaabe created communist societies not only among the Mormons, but also among other religious communities, which flourished everywhere until their forced dispersal in 1879 and their complete liquidation in 1895.

The most prominent pre-Marxist communist, an atheist by personal convictions, Robert Owen (1771-1858), closely related to the ideas of which Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels insistently emphasized, received support for his attempts to create communist communities primarily among believers in the United States.

It is impossible not to recall a whole cohort of Christian socialists and Christian communists who demanded the reorganization of their contemporary society on the basis of a Christian worldview, which organically contains the social ideas of communism. Among these were various kinds of preachers.

From the French abbot Albert Laminnet (1828-1875) with his book The Poor Man's Gospel, Louis Blanc (1811-1882), the Anglican priests Morris and Kingsley, the American Peabody, to the prominent representatives of Christian communism, the Lutheran pastor Dittrich Bonhoeffer.

Executed by the Nazis in 1945, rector of Canterbury Cathedral Hewlett Johnson, modern Latin American Catholic priest Frey Bretto and left-wing Christian figures in all countries of the capitalist West.

It would be useful to recall that the young Marx, as he himself later admitted, "cleansing his conscience" of Hegelianism, wrote an introductory article to the work he had not written, which he had conceived: "Toward a Critique of the Hegelian Philosophy of Law." This "Introduction" was published in the only issue of the magazine "German-French Yearbook" in 1844 published by Marx together with A. Ruge.

Marx at that time was only just passing from the philosophy of Hegel to the philosophical views of Feuerbach and was not yet, if I may say so, a Marxist. In this article, Kar Marx used the expression that later became famous: "Religion is the opium of the people." During the years of Soviet power, the expression "Religion is the opiate of the people" was passed off as a Marxist definition of religion. But this expression does not belong to Marx himself.

These words were first proclaimed and launched into the masses by the Christian socialist, the priest of the Anglican Church, Charles Kingsley (Charles Kingsley). Why Karl Marx liked the expression of the Anglican priest and why he used it in his unfinished work is another matter that should be dealt with separately. And now it should be emphasized that neither Karl Marx nor Friedrich Engels anywhere else - neither in their vast manuscript heritage, nor in their printed publications, nor in oral speeches - used the expression: "Religion is the opium of the people", but the article "Towards a Criticism of Hegelian Philosophy rights.

Introduction." During the lifetime of Marx and Engels, it was not republished.

9. Atheism and religion in the concepts of Marxist communism.

Marxism made the greatest contribution to the development of the ideas of communist society.

In search of an answer to the question of a society that would best meet human nature, relying on the ideas of communism of its predecessors and developing them, Marxism gave a scientific answer about the ways of transition from capitalism to communism, based on their contemporary socio-political conditions. , about the patterns of building a communist society and gave a description of the general features of the future communist society.

Marxism left all the details of the practical implementation of its social ideas of communism to those who will practically create a communist society. In our opinion, Marxism in this respect did not bind its followers to any pre-established dogmas, but only claimed to be a guide to action.

True, Marxism, in addition to the doctrine of communism, contains a number of important ideas, ideals and concepts. Lenin at one time singled out three main components in Marxism: the social doctrine (actually, the doctrine of communism), his system of philosophical views (later this system was called dialectical and historical materialism), and economic doctrine(Marxist political economy).

In the views of Marx and Engels, in the views of all their orthodox followers (for example, Franz Mehring, Paul Lafargue, Bebel, Kautsky, Bernstein, Plekhanov, Karl Liebknecht, Lenin, Stalin, Trotsky, Bukharin, Morris Thorez, John Holland, Palmiro Togliatti, Mao Dzeduna, and as a parody - all the First Secretaries of the Central Committee of the CPSU from Khrushchev to Misha Raika) all three parts of Marxism not only organically intertwined with each other, but also organically followed one of one.

(In our opinion, this is not the case, as will be discussed below.). And then more, according to the well-known domino law. Adepts and epigones of Marxism, in accordance with the level of their non-independent thinking, eventually began to consider every phrase of Marx, and then Engels, Lenin, Stalin, the General / First Secretaries of the Communist Parties of each country, to be considered absolute truth in the last instance.

Marx himself resolutely dissociated himself from such foolish followers and once, according to Franz Mehring, rhetorically uttered: "I am Marx, but not a Marxist!" Engels and Plekhanov called such brainless Marxists priests of a Marxist parish.

Extending all three components of Marxism to the social concept of communist society, a significant part of the communists began to consider it an integral and universal part of social and spiritual life under communism. Such statements and actions in the corresponding direction were not only, as they once liked to say, "running ahead", but also a fundamental mistake. It is impossible - it should not be and it is harmful!

Imagine that all citizens of communist society will rise to the level, and even higher, of the brilliant Karl Marx. If under communism everyone becomes Marx, then it turns out that under communism the diversity and uniqueness of the personality of each person will disappear. Is it really interesting to live in such a community that, like a mirror room, multiplies only Me, and in every mirror there is only Me, Me and Me.

People have been and will always remain unique personalities. They are beautiful in their uniqueness. This is first. And secondly, for an individual person, no one will ever solve for him all the problems of his personal worldview, ways to embody his own life-sense ideals in life. Every person, even such geniuses of mankind as Newton, or Einstein, or Marx, or Hegel, or Mozart, or Salvador Dali, or our greatest contemporaries in science Steve Haffkine, Carl Sagan, Richard Dawkins had, are and will have gaps in knowledge , "black holes" in the worldview.

These gaps can be filled with erroneous guesses, in these "black holes" faith in "Something unknown", "Something", "Some higher power", "Supernatural being", "God" can easily find a place for itself. Why not? And finally, thirdly, atheism in Marxism is an organic part of its philosophical outlook. By demanding that the members of the future communist society be Marxist atheists, we cherish the hope that they will all be philosophers.

You can fully share the teachings of Marxism about the communist structure of society and remain a believer. And not only believers, but everyone: a pessimist and an optimist, a married man and a bachelor, a rationalist and a sensualist, a "physicist and a lyricist", just as people are men or women. When we set ourselves the task of making everyone Marxist atheists, we intend to make all members of communist society philosophers of the school of dialectical materialism.

And this task is, in principle, unrealistic to solve even in the most distant future. The religious worldview in this or that modified form will exist, in my opinion, as long as mankind will exist. In favor of such an opinion, I could give reasons, defend it in the course of a purely scientific discussion. But even before discussions, we must firmly realize that in the foreseeable future, religion, to the delight of believers, is not threatened by either the disappearance of faith in the supernatural, or the complete atheization of the middle peasants.

And not at all because God exists, and atheists do not have convincing evidence against him. It's not all about God and not about atheistic evidence. It's about the person and the peculiarities of his worldview. And if so, then believers and non-believers can and should take part in the building of communist society and in its functioning. And let them, believers and non-believers, in competitive impulses prove which ideas work best for society, whose inhabitants it provides all the rights and real opportunities to live happily, enjoy happiness.

People become philosophers according to their innate talents from nature. Philosophical talent is as rare as the talent of a musician, poet or artist. Therefore, real philosophers who have realized their talent from nature, at most, are one in a hundred thousand people. Those who have a natural inclination (not genius or talent from nature, but only a tendency) to philosophical comprehension of the world and through training and self-study have acquired the ability to creatively enrich the treasury of philosophical thought, there are about 1-2% of the world's population in the world.

Another 5-10% of the total population know the essence of the philosophical worldview, passively share certain philosophical concepts, but are not philosophers themselves. 20-30% of people simply, without much thought, know the essence of the philosophical worldview with their minds, take the philosophical views of this or that philosopher on faith, and consider themselves to be supporters of this or that philosophical school.

For other people, philosophical propositions such as "matter is primary, and consciousness is secondary", "being determines consciousness, and social being determines social consciousness are perceived on their everyday consciousness on faith in the same way as a believing Christian the statement of the Gospel of John: "In the beginning it was The Word, and the Word was with God, and God was the Word" (1:1).

The fact is that for the perception of the worldview (both one's own and understanding the worldview of others) at the philosophical level, one needs not only favorable social conditions, but also the corresponding innate data from nature. And the physiological, biological or psychological nature of a person can be improved or spoiled, but it is impossible and should not be redone.

Personally, of course, I am a convinced atheist. I know with absolute certainty that there is no God, that the existence of God in any perspective is not even foreseeable. But this does not mean that in matters of religion and belief in God, everyone should someday become the same as me. In no case! After all, good - as, unfortunately, bad - both theoretically and practically can be and in fact there are countless people who believe in God and those who do not believe in him, and who are completely indifferent to whether God exists or not.

Disputes about what is more conducive to "spiritual wealth, moral purity, physical perfection" (From the Third Program of the CPSU), faith in God or atheism, are completely untenable from a theoretical point of view. The believer and the atheist must in practice, by their lives, prove the advantage of their own attitude towards faith in God. But for the realization of all that good that a religious or atheistic worldview can hold in itself, the most favorable conditions are created in a society built on communist foundations.

In my own opinion, only a communist society creates all the conditions for every person emerging from non-existence in this world to spend his one and only life meaningfully.

May all the various flowers in the greenhouse of communist society bloom with all their colors, and be fragrant with not repeated aromas!

10. Religion and the material foundations of social life under communism.

But in order for the flower of each person's personal life to open with happiness, it is necessary, according to the teachings of the ideologists of Marxist communism, to have the appropriate material prerequisites. Each person coming into the world must have, first of all, all the material conditions for his biological existence, maturation and reproduction of the human race.

Without appropriate nutrition, home comfort, materialized communication with his own kind, a person will not biologically survive, and there can be no question of any of his spiritual life, of any meaning of his life, since there will be no man himself.

Communism considers material security not only a prerequisite, but also one of the most important blessings of a person, and concern for the material support of a person is one of the most important virtues. What kind of happiness can we talk about if we deprive this person of home comfort, doom him to hunger and cold, to physical humiliation and insult?

And talk about the lowlands of people who, tormented by hunger, dream of once - when they were "scoops" - all available pieces of bread and cheap sausage, are, according to the diagnosis of Albert Schweitzer, a pathological manifestation of worldview orientation.

Communist views on the immutable substantial value of material goods, which satisfy the normal physical and biological needs of man, fully coincide with the Gospel teaching of Christianity. Here is what Jesus Christ himself says about his Second Coming and the Last Judgment on all people:

When the Son of Man comes in His glory, and all the holy angels with Him, then He will sit on the throne of His glory.

And all nations will be gathered before Him, and He will separate one from the other, as a shepherd separates the sheep from the goats.

And He will put the sheep on His right hand, and the goats on His left.

Then the King will say to those on his right hand: "Come, you blessed of my Father, inherit the kingdom prepared for you from the foundation of the world:

For I was hungry, and you gave me food; I was thirsty, and you gave Me drink; I was a stranger, and you accepted Me;

I was naked and you clothed me; I was sick and you visited Me; I was in prison, and you came to me."

Then the righteous will answer Him: “Lord, when did we see You hungry and fed? Or thirsty and gave to drink? Or naked and clothed?

When we saw You sick or in prison. And they came to you?"

And the King will answer them: "Truly, I say to you, because you did it to one of the least of these my brothers, you did it to Me."

Then he will also say to those on the left side: “Depart from me, cursed ones, into the eternal fire prepared for the devil and his angels.

For I was hungry, and you gave me no food; thirsty, and you did not give Me drink.

I was a stranger, they did not accept Me; was naked, and they did not clothe me; more and in prison, and did not visit Me."

Then they too will say to Him in answer: “Ho-o-o-sho-o-di! When did we see You hungry, or thirsty, or a stranger, or naked, or sick, or in prison, and did not serve You?”

Then he will answer them: "Truly I say to you, because you did not do it to one of the least of these, you did not do it to Me."

And these will go away into eternal punishment, but the righteous into eternal life.

(Gospel of Matthew, 25:31-46.)

Along with ensuring the physical existence of man, communism must also unswervingly protect its social parameters, more precisely, the communist structure of society. Communism does not guarantee its citizens behavior under the slogan of the Thelema monastery from Rabelais's Gargantua and Pantegruel - "Live as you wish!" No, communism operates according to the universal principles of humanism: "Everything is for Man; everything is in the name of Man!" And in the name of Man, the social behavior of all members of society will be limited to doing everything that materially, socially or spiritually oppresses Man.

We are talking about this insofar as communism is sometimes accused of sacrificing man to society. These accusations are both fair and unfair. The fact is that man, being a biological being, is at the same time even more of a social being. Without society. Without society and outside of society, a person ceases to be a person and turns into an animal of the biological species Homo Sapiens.

In addition, the measure of the biological well-being of a person, as such, is now provided not by external nature, as we see in the animal world, but by society. Outside of society, a person cannot preserve himself even biologically. Society brought man out of the animal world and thereby preserved man biologically. Without organizing his existence on the foundations of social life, a person will not survive even now.

A communist society is a society that is built according to the standards of man in accordance with the needs of his nature. Therefore, by preserving the society, we also preserve the human being as a biological species.

The material and biological well-being and sustainable social parameters of a communist society are the Sine qua non, without which the most important thing in a person does not and cannot manifest itself - his spiritual beginning, originality and originality.

And the spiritual basis of the originality and uniqueness of a person's personality, as we have already said, is his worldview. In order for a person to live a rich spiritual life, it is necessary, first of all, to prevent his, if I may say so, "material" disappearance at any price, to include him in public life and enrich it, as V. I. Lenin said, with all those spiritual riches that humanity has accumulated over the centuries of its existence.

Maybe someone knows how to enrich the spiritual life of a person by isolating him from society or by the collapse of social life? If such attempts were ever

Or are undertaken somewhere now, then their consequences are always, without a single exception!, detrimental to a person and his personal spiritual life.

Only communism can provide real conditions for the free practice of one's own worldview by all members of society, and not just by its top or "elite". This also applies to the freedom of people with a religious worldview.

11. Religion in the system of communist society.

The creators of the ideals of communism defined the place of religion in their society in different ways. Christian socialists of the 19th century, without exception, believed that in the public consciousness of a communist society, the religious worldview and only the Christian denomination should reign supreme. The creators of the Marxist concept, being themselves atheists, believed that after the building of communism, religion would gradually die off by itself, "natural death."

Personally, I consider these thoughts of the classics of Marxism-Leninism their private and unfounded opinion. Unfortunately, the majority of Marxists perceived this private opinion as "the ABC of Marxism" and thus turned out to be out of scientific research and out of discussion. Moreover, such elements of attitude towards religion were introduced into the practice of building communism, which clearly contradicted the provisions of Marxism.

So, in the last decade of Soviet power, the head of the Department of Propaganda and Agitation of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Ukraine, and then the Second (for ideological issues) Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Ukraine Leonid Makarovich KRAVCHUK, advanced to the role of the most prominent theoretician of the CPSU on Marxist atheism. His articles were presented as a model of creative Marxism, and his practical steps to overcome religion were studied at all levels of the country's party seminar.

Against the backdrop of the entire world communist movement, his practice of fighting religion was indeed unique. Leonid Makarovich instructed to study the state and degree of religiosity throughout Ukraine. On the basis of the data obtained, he established that true religiosity remained only in 694 settlements of the republic. A specific plan was drawn up for atheistic work in these not yet extinct centers of religiosity, the work of local party bodies and public organizations was oriented towards it, and atheistic personnel who were bored in the capital and regional centers were thrown to help them, and methodological recommendations were published.

The head of the Committee for Religious Affairs under the Council of Ministers of the Ukrainian SSR Litvin Konstantin Zakharovich shared with me a secret that certain provisions of these recommendations were written by prominent figures of Christian churches (I will not name their names, since they are still striving in the field of God) ... The results are It was not possible to sum up the front-line attack on believers: perestroika began, Leonid Makarovich KRAVCHUK took the post of the first President of Ukraine.

He renounced communism, repented of atheism, confessed his eternal sympathies for the Bandera nationalists, struck up a cordial family friendship with Metropolitan Philaret and his common-law wife Evgenia. Out of old habit and acquired experience, he began to manage divine affairs at the Presidential level, which led to a split in the Orthodox Church, to bloody skirmishes between Orthodox and Uniates, fights between Orthodox autocephalous and Orthodox in the spirit of Ecumenical Orthodoxy...

And now, Kravchuk and his contemporary entourage are publicly blaming the ideology and practice of communism for religious discord between believers.

But the Marxist attitude to religion has nothing to do with either the words or the actions of individuals like Kravchuk. Even K. Marx and F. Engels mercilessly criticized any kind of violence against attitudes in religion, disregard for the essence of the religious worldview of believers.

Thus, F. Engels criticized the petty-bourgeois socialist Eugene Dühring, who at one time wrote: “In a free society there should be no cult, for the socialist system

Must abolish all accessories of spiritual witchcraft and, therefore, all existing elements of the cult. "Calls for a violent administrative prohibition of religion were feature anarchism, which during the 19th and 20th centuries made repeated attempts to unite with the Marxists, and in 1917-1920 with the Bolsheviks.

So their ideologue Mikhail Bakunin wrote: "Replacing the imaginary and gross pleasures of physical and spiritual debauchery with a refined variety of pleasures, the socialist revolution, alone, will have the power to simultaneously close all taverns and churches." To the objection of the communists that a socialist (communist) society is being built for believers and non-believers, with whom one must always go along; that among believers there are not only "primitive believers" but also cultured people and even scientists, Bakunin replied: "Believing scientists?

These are friends that no one needs, and enemies that no one is afraid of."

As for Marx and Engels proper, they set out a scientific vision of the place of religion in the struggle to build communism and existence under the conditions of communism itself. Recall at least some of these provisions:

"Everyone should be able to send their religious, as well as bodily, needs without the police poking their nose into it" (K. Marx. Criticism of the Gotha program.).

"The state should not care about religion, religious societies should not be associated with state power. Everyone should be completely free to profess any religion or not recognize any religion, that is, to be an atheist ... No differences between citizens and their rights in Dependence on religious beliefs is completely unacceptable ...

There should be no issue of state churches, no issue of state funds to church and religious societies, which must become completely free, independent of power, by unions of like-minded citizens. Only the fulfillment of these requirements to the end can put an end to that damned and shameful past, when the church was serfdom from the state, and Russian citizens were serfdom from the state church ... "(V. I. Lenin. Socialism and Religion.) .

"Hotu, the trochiy buildings are sulfurly posed to Marxism, pondered in the yogo fіlosofski il in the dosvіd of the people social-democrates, it is easy to dive, the tactics of Marxism of the Reliboko I was thought out by Marx I Engels; є direct and inevitable vysnovok z dialectical materialism.

It would be deeply pomilkovo to think that the "disgusting fading" of Marxism should be explained by the so-called "tactful" mirkuvannya in the rosy mind of "not scary" and so on. In the midst of that offensive, warlike, atheistic propaganda that unfolded in the early days of Radyansk rule, V.I. strength in one day".

(Promova on the 1st All-Russian Star of the Worker.)

And despite the fact that religious organizations in our country were constantly and actively used by internal and external reaction for anti-Soviet purposes, which provoked local authorities to inappropriate actions, for all the years of Soviet power, no one managed to sow enmity between believers and non-believers, between believers of different faiths.

This is convincingly evidenced by the entire history of building socialism in the USSR, and all the events of the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945.

12. International guarantees of religious freedom and the political activity of believers

The Second World War has ended. In the second half of the 20th century, the ideological picture of the world and the atmosphere around ideological problems changed radically.

A third of modern humanity stands on the positions of a non-religious worldview. If we take into account the political, cultural and scientific potential of this third, then they make up the qualitative majority of the modern population of the earth. In developed countries, the religious population is 30% of the total number of citizens.

The religious worldview has united and divided believers in warring religions, churches, schisms, sects and cults. Enmity between religious groups of believers and persecution for certain religious beliefs have become a threatening factor in the lives of individuals, the country, and the entire international community.

Now the problems of religion cannot be solved within or for the benefit of one religion or country. In modern conditions, they are effectively solved only on a global scale.

In 1945, the United Nations was created, the initiator and one of the founders of which was the USSR. Again, at the initiative of the USSR, the UN Committee on Humanitarian Rights and Freedoms was created. The committee was headed by President Roosevelt's widow, Eleanor Roosevelt. But the work of the Committee was actually led by the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Ukraine Manuilsky.

The Roosevelt-Manuilsky Committee developed a draft of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which was unanimously adopted on December 10, 1948 by the UN General Assembly. spiritual life.

In subsequent decisions of the UN and at the World and Regional meetings of representatives of different continents and countries, the provisions of the UN Declaration of 1948, the content of humanitarian rights and human freedoms were further developed and clarified in the wording. A significant place in these documents is given to human rights and freedoms in the field of worldview and religion.

Thus, the UN Resolution of November 25, 1981 speaks in a complex about "the right to freedom of thought, conscience, religion and belief." It should be said that Soviet Union signed all the above documents. They entered the organic component. Constitutions and Legislation of all CIS countries. But a number of countries "very developed" capitalism, such as the United States.

These documents have not yet been officially signed and they believe that this is what gives them the legal right to drop bombs on the heads of the population of foreign countries in order to prevent ... a humanitarian catastrophe.

Conclusion.

Among all types of worldview, the religious worldview is elevated to the pedestal of the highest authority. Its truth and holiness are sanctified by the name of Absolute Truth, Absolute Holiness - by the name of God. The religious worldview is perceived easily and simply: with mother's milk, according to tradition, on faith. "Believe - and you will be saved," the authors of 77 books of the Bible call on believers on each page.

Recall also that 2/3 of the world's population in one way or another are under the influence of the religious worldview. All these circumstances can provide believers, on the one hand, with a dominant place in solving the most important international, regional and local and personal problems. modern society. But on the other hand, people with a religious worldview can become - and constantly become!

Easy prey for various socio-political speculators. There are more than enough examples of the first and second kind in the history of the past and present.

In order for the believer not to get lost on earth in search of ways to heaven, Jesus Christ gave noteworthy advice, which he stated in an aphoristic form: "Caesar's - to Caesar, and God's - to God" (Matthew, 21:22; Mark, 12:17 ; Luke 20:25). Therefore, it is necessary to separate the service to God from the service to secular affairs.

To communicate with God, a believer goes to church, at a prayer meeting, reads the Holy Scriptures, prays before and after eating, takes a vow of chastity or fasting, baptizes or circumcise his child, goes to worship in holy places, saves his soul - with one in a word, together with his like-minded people, he satisfies all his religious needs according to the laws of the Torah, the New Testament, and the Koran.

And in order to solve important Caesarean, civil and secular problems for the believer, the believer turns to Caesarian methods and means.

In modern conditions, political activity and attitude towards political parties are of decisive importance in arranging all public civil problems. Believers join this or that political party not because they want to get closer to God through this party or find God in it, but seek to find like-minded people on social and political issues in this party.

Thus, people of different social views, but of the same religious faith, communicate with each other within the same religious society; and people who differ from each other in relation to one or another religion, but the same in social views and ideals, unite among themselves in common socio-political actions. Both God (religion) and Caesar (the socio-political state of society) benefit from such behavior of a believer and an unbeliever.

Only with such a religious and social behavior it is possible to protect believers and religious communities from those politicians who are trying to evilly use religion to incite enmity between believers and non-believers and between believers of different faiths.

In the CIS countries, including Russia and Ukraine, there are now parties that express social interests various classes and population groups. Naturally, in all these parties there are believers and non-believers, believers of different faiths. As for the parties of the left direction, and above all the parties of the Communists, they were created and exist to express the social interests of all those who directly with their hands, with their thoughts create all those material and spiritual benefits of society, thanks to which we, as the Apostle Paul said in Athenian Areopagus, "we live and move and have our being" (Acts 17:28).

After all, as was shown above, the concept of communism is the only social concept that is most in line with human nature in general, and especially with the true social ideals and aspirations of all mental and physical workers.

In its original content, philosophy practically coincides with the religious and mythological worldview.

Mythology- a system of legends, tales, legends, with the help of imagination, explaining the course and origin of natural and social processes. Mythology in its origin was a naive philosophy and science.

Myth- a figurative variation of the artistic epic with a pronounced attraction to the heroic-fantastic reproduction of the phenomena of reality, accompanied by a concrete-sensory personification of a person's mental states.

Myth structure:

• cognitive component- worldview: the origin of things, the etiology of the world, etc.;
• prescriptive-incentive component- principles of life: values, attitudes, instructions, directives, ideals;
• practical component- world action: social interaction, interindividual communication, exchange of activities, self-affirmation, cult and ritual-mystical acts, symbolic rites, spells, etc.

In mythology, for the first time in the history of mankind, a number of philosophical questions are posed:

• how the world came into being;
• how it develops;
• what is life;
• what is death, etc.

Mythology was an attempt to explain the phenomena of nature and human life, the relationship of the earthly and cosmic principles.

The main historical types and essence of the worldview

Mythology is the initial form of worldview, it expressed: naive forms of explanation of natural and social phenomena; moral and aesthetic attitude to the world.

Mythological worldview- a system of views on the objective world and on the place of a person in it, which is based not on theoretical arguments and reasoning, but on the artistic and emotional experience of the world, on public illusions born of inadequate perception of large groups of people (nations, classes) of social processes and their role in them.

Close to mythological religious outlook, it also appeals to fantasy and feelings, but at the same time does not mix the sacred and the earthly.

- attitude and worldview, as well as appropriate behavior, determined by belief in existence God, deities; a sense of dependency, bondage, and obligation to a secret power that provides support and is worthy of worship. The basis of living religiosity is the mythological world action and world outlook.

By , religion- this is the law that lives in us, this is morality, turned to the knowledge of God.

Faith is given by God to man:

• through education in a religious family;
• schooling;
• life experience;
• the power of the mind that comprehends God through the manifestation of his creations.

Freedom of Religious Belief is one of the inalienable human rights. Therefore, it is necessary to be tolerant towards representatives of other religions, atheists who are in disbelief: after all, disbelief in God is also faith, but with a negative sign. Religion is closer to philosophy than mythology. They are characterized by: a look into eternity, the search for higher goals, a valuable perception of life. But religion is mass consciousness, and philosophy is theoretical consciousness, religion does not require proof, and philosophy is always the work of thought.

Mythological worldview

From the moment a person “discovered” himself in the surrounding world, he faced a problem related to his attitude to the world. To do this, it was necessary to look for answers to important questions: what is the essence and nature of the surrounding world, what is the essence and nature of the person himself, what is common between a person and the reality around him and what separates them, how should one behave in this world? Similar questions classified as worldview.

The very posing of such questions became evidence of a certain maturity of a person, the development of his worldview. In the course of his observations, a person began to notice regularities and connections in the phenomena and processes around him. Some of them were perceived as the results of internal activity, relatively hidden, but purposeful activity. The conclusion was that not only a person learns and masters the world, but he himself is an object of research, observation and influence.

Not only animals and plants, but also rivers, mountains, steppes, fire, air, earth, water, celestial bodies turned out to be animated in the understanding of man. Each of the essences actualized in this way acquired a personal beginning, and with it - will, aspirations, interests, passions. Each such entity, of course, was endowed with a name. In addition, an idea has formed in the human mind about beings that are not seen in ordinary practice, but supposedly play a significant role in the processes of being, capable of exerting a great influence on human life. Various cultural and ethnic systems are distinguished by the totality of their mythological creatures. The integral characters of ancient myths are the Olympian gods, centaurs, griffins, cyclops, sirens; in the Russian tradition, this is Yarilo, goblin, phoenix bird, etc.

Rice. Worldview and its types.

Some of the people turned out to be talented organizers of their fellow tribesmen, courageous and skillful warriors. Others are sages who influenced the consciousness and way of life of many people. Still others have shown themselves to be skilled artists or artisans. All of them remained in human memory and, in the minds of the next generations, acquired the status of heroes endowed with superhuman abilities, demigods. They were credited with incredible feats, they boldly entered into a struggle with the elements, in partnership or confrontation with supernatural entities, and often came out victorious in difficult and dangerous situations. In the stories and legends about them, real experience, folk wisdom, imagery, fiction, which acquired fantastic forms, were intertwined.

This is how mythology was born. It is considered the first type of worldview and represents a relatively coherent system of myths, as well as an idea of ​​the world and an attitude towards it, based on criteria arising from the content of myths.

Myth in the modern sense, it is a form of a holistic mass experience and interpretation of reality with the help of sensually visual images, which are considered independent phenomena of reality.

Myths reflect the idea of ​​the people of ancient societies about the origin of the world and man, the nature of its functioning, the system of spiritual, ethical, aesthetic values ​​and norms. The myth is distinguished by the simplicity of the plot, according to which a person interacts with humanized nature and fantastic creatures. Everything that was stated in myths could not be criticized, was taken as facts of reality, was a model of worldview, behavior.

In other words, a myth is a manifestation of the worldview of an ancient person, containing certain guidelines and some prescriptions for his daily practice.

The ancient man, realizing his autonomy in nature, has not yet fully isolated himself from it. He seemed to himself an integral, natural and, apparently, quite a vulnerable element of the surrounding world and relied more on feelings than on reason. It should be noted that elements of the mythological perception of the world still exist today, but in ancient times mythology was the only form of world perception. The mythological consciousness is distinguished by the perception of ideal pictures, never observed in reality, born of the creative imagination of a person, as "irrefutable facts of being". It blurs the lines between the natural and the supernatural, the objective and the subjective, and replaces causal relationships with analogies and superficial explanations.

So, mythology(from the Greek. mythos - a legend and logos - a word, concept, thought, mind) - a type of worldview, which is characterized by sensory-figurative uncritical perception of myths by individual and mass consciousness; their content is accepted as sacred, and the norms formulated in them - as requiring strict implementation.

In the course of the development of the mythological worldview and mythology as a system of myths, the conviction in the reality and power of supernatural forces grew stronger in the human mind. whose will determines the processes of reality and the life of the person himself. The element of worship of these forces arose and began to stand out in separate normative-value regulatory systems.

Initially, as an object of worship were totems(as a rule, animals or plants that are considered patrons of a particular group of people - kind) and fetishes(inanimate objects endowed in the beliefs of believers with supernatural properties). However, their sacred properties at a certain moment in the development of human consciousness were devalued, their place was taken by supernatural non-material (often in the minds of people - human-like) omnipotent entities. As a rule, they were not directly connected with nature, but acted as its creators themselves.

A certain hierarchy arose between these beings. People sincerely believed in the ability of these creatures to control the components of nature, both real ones (for example, the ocean) and fictional ones (“the underworld”). Various supernatural entities could "manage" a particular area of ​​human activity or extend their patronage to large areas where people lived. Thus, the whole world surrounding a person was divided between set of deities who, depending on their status, had greater or lesser supernatural powers. This is what polytheism looked like.

But ideas arose about the only powerful god, capable of single-handedly determining absolutely all the processes occurring in nature and society. People undividedly trusted him, endowed him with unquestioned authority. Such a system is called monotheism.

Thus, another type of worldview was formed - religious, in which, as in the mythological, the sensual aspect in relation to reality prevailed over the rational.

Religious worldview

The main difference of religion is the boundless Vera into the supernatural ideal principle — God, into his omnipotence and omnipresence. Religion presupposes the dominance in the soul of a person of a feeling of dependence on God and unconditional worship of him.

It should be noted that the phenomenon of worship of sacred objects, animals arose approximately at the same time as the formation of a system of myths, in many cases it was the same process. Elements of religious worldview were also present in the mythological consciousness. But the final formation of developed religious beliefs is usually associated with monotheism, when the religious worldview began to prevail over the mythological one. Among the early monotheistic religions most famous , , formed before our era, at the beginning of the first millennium formed Christianity, and in the middle Islam.

(lat. religio - piety, piety, shrine) - worldview, worldview, attitude, as well as the behavior of people associated with them, determined by the belief in the existence of a supernatural entity - a deity that influences the world around and human life.

The range of problems solved by a religious worldview does not differ significantly from the problems solved by mythology. However, the nature of their decision within the framework of religion is more strict and unambiguous. Religious systems (primarily world religions) are more organic than mythological systems and structurally more perfect than them. They regulate human life more strictly and in detail. In addition to the ontological, ideological, educational functions inherent in mythology, religions perform evaluative, consolidating, comforting and some other functions.

However, the religious worldview was to a large extent contradictory. It `s naturally. The worldview of even an individual person often turns out to be more complicated than the most perfect religious system. It is even more problematic for the developing social consciousness not to go beyond the bounds of religious consciousness. This is due to the uniqueness of individual consciousness, the complexity of the collective, multifactorial and dynamism of social consciousness. The process of mastering the surrounding world is associated with versatile practical experience, the need to deepen a wide variety of applied knowledge, the importance of having accurate data and regularities in the processes of being accessible to observation.

In solving fundamental worldview issues about the world, society, knowledge, a person already in antiquity relied not only on mythological traditions, religious values ​​and norms, but also on rational knowledge. This was due to the improvement of the production of material and spiritual values. The development of rational knowledge was facilitated by the emergence of ever new types of specialized activities - animal husbandry, agriculture, medicine, and the construction of large engineering structures. The development of arts and crafts played an important role. Of considerable importance was the socio-territorial expansion realized in economic, political, cultural and informational relations with neighboring and distant countries. It took various forms - from travel and trading expeditions to wars. Long sea and land campaigns, military confrontation required the organization of the production of various technical devices, vehicles, construction of communications, etc. When solving these problems, many questions arose that could not be resolved within the framework of mythology and religion. At the same time, these processes revealed the contradictions of an uncritical worldview.

As a result, the need to form a rational understanding of reality became more and more obvious. The process of emergence and development of such an approach to reality took place in parallel with the development of inherently "non-critical" types of worldview - mythological and religious. However, at first, rational knowledge was distributed exclusively in the field of practices and, as a rule, did not go beyond the solution of everyday issues. It was more supportive. Mythology and religion, meanwhile, took the form of ideological systems.

New knowledge had a significant impact on social practice, on consciousness. They became the first elements of science and, among other things, required generalization, systematization. Gradually, a conscious desire for a holistic perception of the world was formed on the basis of precisely this knowledge. The perception of the world was increasingly based on an understanding of the essence of the processes and phenomena surrounding a person, on more logical theoretical conclusions, more and more confirmed by empirical experience. Thus, another type of worldview was formed - philosophical.

Philosophical worldview

It is distinguished by a critical position in relation to the surrounding world, in relation to the person himself, as well as in relation to the process of man's cognition of reality. The philosophical worldview is based on logically consistent conclusions about the subject of research. Belief that does not require proof, traditional mythological views in philosophy were pushed aside by the desire to understand the essence of things.

Gradually, philosophy began to occupy more and more strong worldview positions, but did not completely abolish mythology, let alone religion. It should also be noted that in their essence and significance in the life of society, all types of worldview are largely similar to each other. This allows you to determine the essence of the worldview.

outlook- a system of views on the objective world and a person's place in it, value orientations, ideals, life position, beliefs that underlie the relationship of a person (an individual, a group of people, a community) to himself and to the world, his everyday behavior and aspirations.

In the worldview, two levels are usually distinguished: figurative-emotional and conceptual-categorical. Mythological and religious types of worldview are mostly emotional and figurative. In contrast to this, the philosophical type of worldview is based primarily on rational thinking. it is a logically substantiated system of views and assessments of reality, attitudes towards it.

Finally, philosophy turned out to be a more dynamic, capacious and diverse form of worldview. It penetrates deeper into the essence of things and processes, allows you to have a more capacious and versatile idea about them.

In mythology and religion, all this is either absent or does not have the same severity as in philosophy.

Elements of a philosophical outlook have always existed since the time when a person first thought about what surrounds him, how this surrounding world works, how one or another of its elements arose, who he himself is in this world. Mythology and religion also contain fragments of philosophical knowledge as components, since they contain certain generalizations. On the other hand, mythology and religion, to some extent, can be considered variants of a philosophical approach to reality.

So, for mythology, the surrounding world is a certain given, a self-evident receptacle of phenomena and processes that are more or less understandable to man, an arena of dramatic relationships between supernatural entities, in which there was a place for man himself, although the role assigned to him is modest. At the same time, neither the past nor the future in myth often differ significantly from the present, the world is cyclic in its development, the subject of research is not at all concerned about this, evolution for him is quite limited, and sometimes only everyday.

Most well-known religions interpret the world as a creation of God, forbidding to think about whether there is (whether there was) anything outside of this "commodity" (ie created) world. Man is just one of the elements, entirely dependent on the creator of reality, but at the same time the most important and perfect creation, called upon consciously, in a form accessible to him and within the limits allowed from above, to realize the divine will in this world.

Philosophy is not satisfied with the simplicity and static nature of the mythological picture of the world, the predestination and predetermination of the religious interpretation of being. Philosophers put forward various, sometimes contradictory, ideas of a substantial nature or rationally substantiate the ontological (for example, cosmological) ideas of myths. So, some early philosophical systems acted from the positions hylozoism(assuming the animation of all material bodies, the nature of the cosmos).

Even within the framework of a religious worldview, philosophy strives for a more complete understanding of being, for a more adequate reflection of it, for cognitive diversity. Apart from polytheism(polytheism, paganism) and monotheism(religion based on belief in one God) philosophical thought, manifesting itself in religion, put forward the concept of deism, pantheism. The position of deism consists in the idea that God created the world and after that did not interfere in its development, giving a person the opportunity to live according to reasonable laws received along with the act of creation. Pantheism identifies God with nature.

However, philosophy goes far beyond religion.

Philosophy seeks to take into account all significant information about reality. It critically examines newly emerging concepts, but also questions previously established ideas about nature. Summing up all the critical experience and the latest achievements of science, philosophy forms a modern idea of ​​the world. This view includes all the questions that arose both at the very beginning of the development of human civilization, and in the course of its entire history. These questions are called philosophical - about the eternal and the temporal, about the infinite and the finite, about the singular and incalculable, about the sublime and the base, about truth and error, about justice and deceit, about perfection and primitiveness. Philosophy is equally interested in the whole universe and the individual. Philosophers talk again and again about what our world is. how it arose and in what direction it develops; about beauty, love, kindness, happiness.

Reality in various philosophical systems, teachings, schools is not the same, but each new concept, as a rule, does not reject the previous one (in any case, it does not reject it absolutely). The next concept, rather, adds new touches to the picture of the world created over the centuries. As a result of the interaction of such systems and ideas, philosophical knowledge seeks to penetrate more deeply into the essence of previously known phenomena and processes that make up our world.

Philosophy aims to formulate universal approaches that make it possible to fully and deeply understand the general patterns of being or the essence of its important fragments - the material world around us, society, and man. At the same time, philosophy tries to ensure the greatest objectivity of the knowledge contained in it. However, any concept inevitably includes a significant subjective component due to the personality of its author. And just as there are no identical people, so there are no two identical philosophical concepts. However, this does not prevent large groups of philosophers and representatives of society who share their positions from adhering to any general principles, the most fundamental provisions, central, especially significant ideas.