The main stages of social work abroad briefly. Formation and development of the theory and practice of social work abroad. Quantitative and qualitative methods of collecting information

Social work has become an integral part of social scientific thought and social practice relatively recently - a little over a hundred years. Its formation, institutionalization, the conquest of social status took place in difficult conditions of constant struggle of ideas, concepts, paradigms. And today, not all issues of its theory and practice have been resolved. By far not all the problems associated with its philosophical, sociological, political comprehension have formed a unity of views. Rather, on the contrary, the more momentum social work gains, the greater the diversity in approaches to it.

Social work has become a phenomenon of modern times, it has formed its own problem area, intersecting, and sometimes wedged into various areas of scientific knowledge, and even the most diverse social practice.

Diversity And multifunctionality social work is the main obstacle in solving many theoretical and methodological problems related to the role and place of social work in the system of social science knowledge.

Since neither in science nor in social practice there is a single point of view regarding the phenomenon of social work, we will try to combine its various definitions.

Firstly, social work should be considered as a professional activity; Secondly, as a branch of the social sciences and, Thirdly, as an academic discipline in the system of higher and secondary specialized education.

According to A. A. Kozlov, social work as a practical professional activity contains an internal dialectical contradiction. On the one hand, it is designed to protect the interests of a particular person, an individual, based on its value orientation towards the autonomy and self-sufficiency of the individual, to protect his honor and dignity as a bio-psychosocial being, and on the other hand, social work, and therefore being called social, it is focused on meeting the needs of society, proceeds from the interests of society as a whole, while combining both state interests, the interests of the ruling classes, and the interests of civil society.

Therefore, based on the practical orientation of social work in the first part of its dichotomous unity, one can put as a starting point the social needs of a person, one of the qualitative characteristics of which is the inherent need for mutual assistance, the need to help other people in a difficult life situation. However, if we follow this path, many questions of the theory of social work in its connection with the second part of the dichotomy, i.e. with social need, with its place and role in society, will remain, as it were, on the sidelines, and thus it will be difficult to find a connection and place for social work in social scientific thought and social practice.

In an anthropological sense, social work is a meaningful attempt to improve the conditions of people's lives. Any scientific understanding of the problem is associated with a theoretical analysis of a person's place in society, including the vector of space-time, i.e. the social position of a person at a certain historical period in the development of society itself.

In this case, we can talk about either parallel or distortionary development of both a person and society. From the point of view of the development of social thought, this analysis always depends on two phenomena. One of them is the surge of scientific research about society at the end of the 18th century. and the second is the application of the results of these studies in practice and the possibility of predicting social change, i.e. scientific analysis of society itself and its problems, on the one hand, and social action, on the other.

Foreign scientists offer two main ideas as starting points for analyzing the development of scientific thought in social work: the idea of ​​social progress and the idea of ​​a person’s need to do good by helping his neighbor, and the development of this quality along the space-time vector. In the development of scientific thought in the field of social work, there are two trends, which can be defined as: "from theory to practice" And "from practice to theory".

The research field of social work includes, first of all, the concept of a social problem. Swedish scientists Lindholm, Askeland and Berglind show that in order to search for the genesis of ideas in the field of social work, it is necessary to differentiate various aspects of social work. This differentiation can be represented by approaches to social work as practical knowledge, theoretical knowledge with a practical orientation, and as pure science.

Being an agent of social change, social work is aimed at harmonizing the individual and social being of a person in his systemic relations with society, changing what is undesirable in social relations and the social structure into what is desirable, i.e. eliminate, if possible, what is usually called social problem.

The theory of social work has common boundaries in the study of social problems with sociology, socio-philosophical anthropology, social psychology, political anthropology, political science and a number of other social sciences with which there are points of contact.

Common to all these disciplines is the study of social problems as such and on the basis of theoretical calculations, based on their arsenal of specific methods, the formation of recommendations for the implementation of social change.

Harold Swedne, professor at the University of Gothenburg (Sweden), is the "patriarch" of social work in Europe, who developed the concept of social work as a branch of scientific knowledge, in 1983, for the first time in the history of social work theory, developed typology of the development of scientific thought in the field of social work, using several dimensions for this: idealism and empiricism, revolution and reform, right and left social politics (right and left political forces). According to the author, in order to consider the typology of ideas in social work, it is necessary to take as a basis the presence of dichotomies of two orders. The first implies the presence of social problems - social changes carried out by the government, the second - changes in the subjective-objective order.

• 1) political action;
• 2) public education;
• 3) social work;
• 4) research work;
• 5) philanthropic social work;
• 6) expert work;
• 7) reformist work;
• 8) social development.

Traditions consistent with observer thinking include hermeneutics, critical analysis, empirical logistics, and linguistic analysis.

The names of more than 60 scientists and practitioners are located on Swedner's original "tree of ideas". According to Swedner, who expressed later, the list of authors-scientists - generators of ideas should be replenished with such names as V. I. Lenin, Ludwig Wittgenstein, Talcott Parsons, Jurgen Habermas, Jean Paul Sartre, Paul Feyerabend, in whose works a wide layer of theoretical approaches to social work. In addition, the authors who developed theoretical and practical approaches to changes at the individual, family or group levels, psychodynamic, sociodramatic approaches that used group psychotherapy, family therapy, and individual psychosocial practice did not "get" on his "tree of ideas". This statement of the author of the analysis, however, is only partially true, since Swedner's typology presents in detail the views of Mary Richmond, a theoretician and practical social worker who developed a methodology for social work at the individual-personal and family-group levels.

One of the first presented on the "tree of ideas" Swedner Nicolaus Copernicus. Swedner, however, subsequently made a reservation that even before Copernicus there were different views on social problems and ways to solve them in ancient Egypt, ancient China and Ancient Greece. It was in these ancient civilizations that the basic principles of social policy and social assistance were laid, which served as the basis for the formation later, after many centuries, of the scientific concepts of social work.

According to the Swedish researcher X. Soydan, the medieval study of the typology of ideas in the field of social work is of particular interest to us, since it suggests that the historical roots of social work and social policy can be discovered by scientists when studying earlier stages than just the era of industrial capital. development of human society. Swedner's approach reveals the possibilities of understanding the origins of social work as a retrospective of the human desire to provide assistance, the evolution of mutual assistance and human sociability.

In modern social science, it is generally accepted that the genesis of modern social sciences is primarily associated with sociological analysis carried out by a number of scientists who are now recognized as classics of social scientific thought, who made a real breakthrough in the study of society in the 18th–19th centuries. Their work included the identification of social ties, driving forces, the search for the relationship between various elements of the social structure, its dysfunctions that give rise to social problems, etc. The need to expand the scope of sociological analysis, caused by the complication of both the social system itself and the relationship between man and society , revealed the narrowness of the scope of sociology proper, as a science of society in the understanding of its creators - Augusto Comte and Herbert Spencer, and led to the emergence of new types of specific conceptual apparatus. The new toolkit gradually took shape in separate special disciplines within the social sciences, first applied, and then completely independent. One of these scientific disciplines later became social work.

Most social scientists (Aron, Zeitlin) argue that the genesis of the scientific analysis of society should be sought in the works of the French philosophers of the Enlightenment. However, the Swedish sociologist Eriksson, for example, partly sharing these views, believes that the genesis of the scientific analysis of society is primarily associated with such names as Adam Ferguson, Adam Smith and John Milliard and is subject to revolutionary metamorphosis. These authors demonstrated to the scientific community the possibility of historical analysis of society and showed the mechanisms of social change. Therefore, they can be considered the founders of the theory and practice of actions aimed at making social transformations based on scientific analysis.

It is worth noting that in reality these thinkers did not deal with the specific problems of scientific forecasting of social economic development society. Theoretical knowledge had to wait another century to combine the scientific analysis of society with concrete actions aimed at transforming it.

Since the purpose of social work as a practical activity is to solve social problems, social work can be viewed from the point of view of law of progression formulated by Adam Ferguson.

In accordance with this law, it is immanent for a person to strive for constant improvement in the conditions of his life. Based on this basic premise, it can be argued that social work relies on such human quality as social mobility expressing its social nature. Here we are talking about the human need for changes in living conditions from bad to better, which is constantly increasing with the progressive development of society itself.

One more parallel can be drawn between the views of Scottish philosophers and modern ideas about social work. It is also connected with the analysis of human nature, the search for his essence. Adam Smith, for example, speaking about human nature, considers the concept of "sympathy" to be characteristic of relations between people, which, as Soydan pointed out when analyzing the concepts of Adam Smith, does not exclude the empathic level, which, in turn, is a fundamental, basic method in modern social work when working with an individual and a group.

Almost all researchers were aware of the need for scientific understanding of existing social problems for the subsequent reform of social relations based on this knowledge. So, during the Great French Revolution social sciences arose, setting the task of bringing about social change. The same period includes the work of social scientists, whose work formed the basis of almost all social sciences, including social work (Saint-Simon, Charles Fourier, etc.).

In the 1960s. a new approach to understanding social work as direct practice. A growing number of researchers began to understand social work as two-way communication in the interactions of a social worker and a client. This led to the gradual erasure of the stereotype of the client as an object of action. An increasing number of social workers began to understand their activities as a two-way relationship when interacting with the client, as an equal participant in the process of change.

According to Eriksson, social science as an activity of the carrier or carriers of thought exists where a group of people, with the help of theoretical views on the future development of society, seeks to accelerate the implementation of social changes in the desired direction. This means that sociology, as an activity of the bearer of ideas, includes three autonomous but closely related elements: the theory of society and its history, a program for transforming society from an unsatisfactory state in the present to a better one in the future, and a group of people striving to bring about these changes. .

Social work, which has as its ultimate goal the harmonization of social relations, and, above all, relations between man and society, is built on the same three premises. This will give us the opportunity to assert that when analyzing the relationship between sociology as a science and as a carrier of activity and social work as an action aimed at implementing social changes, a common subject field is clearly traced, which includes research work, as well as theoretical constructions based on socio-philosophical views.

Another direction in the study of the genesis of scientific thought in social work is designated as "from practice to theory". It has rather strong roots in the system of social sciences. Indeed, it is logical to assume that it is the practice, the activity aimed at the implementation of social reforms, that is primary and serves as the basis for the awakening of scientific thinking.

Within the framework of this direction, social work is mainly reduced to practical activities, the purpose of which is to help people who are faced with social problems. This direction is more anthropological from a scientific point of view and "joins" with socio-philosophical and cultural-historical anthropology. In theoretical terms, the analysis of social work within the framework of this area of ​​scientific thought is associated with the problem sociability person and the phenomenon of mutual assistance and social support. Nevertheless, sociability as an anthropological category is impossible outside the study of the essence of human society, i.e. outside of sociology.

Within the framework of socio-philosophical, cultural and political anthropology, attempts have been repeatedly made to investigate the problem of the social responsibility of the individual in order to substantiate the thesis that a person has an immanent desire to come to the aid of another person. This quality of the individual, according to John Asplund, is usually denoted by the concept of sociability. Social work as a practical activity and an academic discipline in the analysis of human nature uses this concept as a basic one.

Within the framework of the direction of development of social work, designated as "from practice to theory", two other directions began to develop in parallel, two concepts that oppose each other in understanding the causes of social problems and social evil. This process was typical both for the USA and for a number of European countries, especially for Great Britain, the Netherlands, and Germany. At the same time, it should be noted that the development of social work on both continents stimulated each other.

Especially rapidly is the process of formation of social work as professional activity took place in the USA, where after civil war the question of guardianship over the poor, mentally handicapped and convicted of offenses sharply arose. These categories of citizens came under the care and protection of the state administrations, and then the State Councils for Charity, mental health and penitentiary institutions. In the public sector, voluntary organizations and childcare agencies have emerged.

American researchers Germain and Gitterman, exploring the history of social work, drew attention to the fact that not so much organizational problems as ideological conflicts hampered the process of becoming and gaining the professional status of social work. Social work was originally characterized by the presence of confrontation of different views and concepts, mutually exclusive. And within the framework of each ideological current, among which the conservative and liberal were the most powerful, there were different ideas and directions. The main contradiction was the attitude towards the nature of social problems and their root causes, which some saw in a person, while others saw it in society.

In the 80s. 19th century two professional organizations emerged. One of them, a charitable one, was organized in Buffalo in 1887, and the other, the Guild of Neighbors (Settlers), in 1886 in New York. Both developed rapidly, and drew their ideological views from the traditions of Victorian England. While doing the same thing, organizations used different methods of work. They attracted educated people from the upper and middle strata of the population. Both movements were close to the church. Most of their participants professed Protestantism, but among them were also Catholics, and later Jews. Differences in ideological views and methods of work had a negative impact on the development of social work, but they could not resist the turbulent course of the very process of the formation of social work as a practical activity. Social work met the requirements of the time, its appearance in the arena of social life was predetermined by social need. The pioneers of these movements were Jane Adams and Mary Richmond. Jane Adams and volunteers who sympathized with her ideas moved to the neighborhoods of the poor and began to live next door to people in need of help. The main idea of ​​the Settlement Movement was the recognition that environment sick that it is necessary to change it in order to end the misfortunes and poverty of people.

Another movement, the Organizing Charity Movement, led by Mary Richmond, did not advocate directly for social reform. Its ideological basis was the recognition that the cause of poverty and social problems of a person lies in himself.

What these movements had in common was their practical fundamental principle: the paramount importance in this case belonged to the practice, and not to the scientific justification of social work. Naturally, this practice, despite its purely pragmatic nature, was based on a certain understanding of the nature and essence of social problems, as well as on the conviction that any evil must be fought. Both movements arose to carry out practical actions in the interests of disadvantaged people. They were not associated with established scientific currents or socio-philosophical teachings. It was only after several decades that practical social workers, as they began to call themselves, came to the conclusion that it was necessary to obtain systematic scientific knowledge, which should form the basis of their practical actions. Awareness of the importance of scientific knowledge for practice came to D. Adams earlier than to M. Richmond, although it was M. Richmond who became the generally recognized "classic" of the theory and methodology of social work, having published his famous book "Social Diagnosis" in 1917.

Characteristically, the Settlers Movement immediately connected its activities with educational centers. There were constant contacts between D. Adams and her colleagues with many scientists specializing in the field of social sciences. These contacts and the desire to lay a scientific foundation for practical action resulted in the creation of the Chicago School of Citizenship and Philanthropy, which in 1920 became the School of Social Administration at the University of Chicago.

M. Richmond had a different approach to the spider. In her desire to bring a methodological basis for social work at the individual-personal level through vocational training, she opposed the existing practice of university education, believing that university training, associated with the need to study a large number of scientific disciplines and various scientific schools, could undermine the social worker's inherent the value base of involvement in charity, undermine their faith in selflessness. She advocated the creation of a system-independent higher education schools of social work. She created the New York School of Philanthropy, later renamed the New York School of Social Work. And only in 1940 this school became part of Columbia University.

In order to outline the paradigm framework of ideas in social work, which occupies a certain place in the system of social sciences, it is necessary to define the problem of paradigmality.

The first variable of paradigms is the dichotomous unity of theory and practice in the context of the history of the development of scientific thought. Within this unity, there are two main directions "from theory to practice" and "from practice to theory".

The second group of variables is related to the nature of social problems. In the history of the development of scientific thought, two main directions are also inscribed in this paradigm, related to determining the root cause of a social problem and answering the question: who needs to be treated - society or a person?

The process of interpenetration of two groups of variables, in all likelihood, is the dialectical unity of opposites in scientific thought in social work, as a branch of scientific knowledge (Table 1).

"Window" 1 in Table 1 characterizes the direction "from theory to practice", which is characterized by the understanding of society as the root cause of social problems. Social science is the active agent here. Saint-Simonism and Marxism can serve as historical examples in science and social practice in this regard, and in social work - radical models based on these theories (Marxist, feminist).

Table 1

Dialectical Unity of Opposites of Scientific Thought in Social Work

"Window" 2 is located at the intersection of the direction "from theory to practice" and the direction of scientific thought, which sees the root cause of social problems in the individual. In social work, this paradigm includes various models of psychodynamic orientation. In the scientific thought of the XX century. this direction was largely influenced by the theory and practice of psychoanalysis of 3. Freud, as well as the discoveries of I. Pavlov in the field of higher nervous activity of a person, and the theory of the practice of social work, especially at the individual-personal level, was partly influenced by the ideas of M. Richmond .

"Window" 3 characterizes the direction "from practice to theory" in combination with the idea that the cause of social problems lies in the social structure. In the history of social work, a striking example of this trend is the work of D. Adams and the Society of Settlers.

"Window" 4 is a direction "from practice to theory", but with the perception of the individual as the root cause of social problems. A typical example of this paradigm in the United States is the Charity Organization Movement led by M. Richmond, and in Russia the short-lived Society for Visiting the Poor in St. Petersburg, created in 1846 on the initiative of Prince V. F. Odoevsky.

All four windows of this scheme serve as an illustration of the complex dialectical processes of the development of social-scientific thought and social practice. There can be many such examples, since social work as a practical activity, as a branch of scientific knowledge and as an academic discipline has been and is of a polyparadigmatic, multifunctional nature.

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"> 1. The main stages in the formation of the history of social work in Russia and abroad.

">Foreign experience in social work is diverse and multifaceted. In almost all countries there are social workers some of them received training at various levels in specialized educational institutions and therefore consider themselves professionals; others, without professional training, are engaged in social work on a voluntary basis or are employed in social institutions in auxiliary positions.

"> At the heart of any social activity are the constituent elements that include the following four conceptual areas:

"> - Purpose and goals of the profession;

"> - The system of values, ethics and philosophy of practical direction;

"> - The basis of knowledge of the practical direction;

"> - Methods and means used in the work.

"> When they write about social work abroad, they usually mean Western European countries, the USA and Canada. However, in certain forms, different or similar methods, with different returns and efficiency, social work is carried out in all countries. Russia is no exception. And although many foreign and Russian researchers note that social work in our country allegedly began only in the 90s of the XX century, this is absolutely wrong.

"> First of all, it is necessary to keep in mind two aspects in social work, in the social protection of certain strata and groups of the population. As a type of activity aimed at providing support, protecting people in difficult situations, social work has appeared since the emergence and development of human society. Of course, she is in different periods It had a different character, was carried out by different methods and in different forms, did not concern all segments of the population, and was assessed differently by society and its various institutions. As you know, helping the poor, the crippled, charity has always taken place. And of course, in Russia, in Rus', as evidenced by historical documents.

"> However, only with late XIX the beginning of the XX century. social work is formed as a kind of professional activity. The official recognition of social work as a profession, specialty, the introduction of the position of a social worker in official state documents was carried out in different countries at different times.

"> In the analysis of foreign experience of working with the elderly, two opposite trends are clearly visible: its overestimation or unwillingness to use it. In the first case, it is believed that all social problems have been solved in the West and it is only necessary to use the developed models of social work with this category of the population. In the second case it is argued that Russia has its own way, difficulties, problems, traditions and specifics, which is not worth studying and using Foreign experience.

"> For example, in the United States, ten tasks are distinguished, the implementation of which ensures the social protection of the elderly: 1. Adequate income. 2. Good (if possible) mental and physical health. 3. Suitable housing. 4. Increasing assistance to those who need state (public) support. 5. Employability. 6. Life in retirement in health, honor and dignity. 7. Engaging in meaningful activities. 8. Providing effective community services. 9. Conducting research to support and improve health and, ultimately, a happy life. 10. Freedom, independence and individual initiatives in planning and managing one's personal life. At the federal level, dozens are being implemented, and at the state level, hundreds of social programs that solve social and gerontological problems. A law on family and medical leave has been passed, according to which working family members have certain work benefits if they need to care for elderly family members. Distinctive feature the end of the 20th century in social work with the elderly in America is the intensive development of the "third sector". These are public organizations and associations that work with the elderly, or organize activities aimed at improving this work. Involving the elderly themselves in active work, uniting the public and social workers in solving social and gerontological problems is a strategic task of democratizing social work and developing the volunteer movement. Public organizations serve as a kind of experimental platform where models of various programs with the elderly are being worked out, which then, having proved their effectiveness, can become programs and projects of the state or the country as a whole.

"> The study of US volunteer organizations involved in social work with the elderly made it possible to distinguish 5 groups among them.

"> Group I. Public organizations uniting various categories of the elderly

"> Group II. Public organizations dealing with general problems of the elderly.

"> Group III. Public organizations dealing with special problems of the elderly.

"> Group IV. A public organization that brings together professionals working with the elderly.

"> Group V. Public organizations involved in training personnel for social work with the elderly.

"> the historical roots of social work lie in the charitable activities of the church, in charity itself. However, at the beginning of the 20th century, the development of social work in Russia and in the West diverged. In Soviet Russia, it became party-ideologized and over-centralized. Therefore, it is especially interesting to take into account the experience of Western professional social work of the 20th century, when it developed intensively and fruitfully and proved its effectiveness.

"> In the Nordic countries, the bulk of social workers are employed by social welfare organizations run by local authorities. This also applies to some other European countries, such as the UK. In addition to this, social workers are employed by other government bodies: health organizations, most often general and specialized hospitals, as well as open public medical institutions(just like clinics in Russia), general education schools and other educational organizations, prisons and correctional institutions. In the field of medical services, the traditional places of social work are psychiatric hospitals. As far as open public mental health services are concerned, practice varies. In the UK, social workers have a very strong position in mental health clinics, while in Finland some mental health clinics have stopped hiring social workers and prefer psychiatric nurses instead.

"> In the countries of Central Europe, the approach is quite common when social workers work in public organizations or organizations for the provision of social services at churches. Voluntary organizations hire social workers in the Nordic countries. Previously, there was a practice when social workers were hired by enterprises. This was common in the days when businesses provided social services to their employees.Such practices can still be seen in individual businesses.I know there are similar examples in Spain and the Netherlands.

"> With regard to the structure of the organization of social security at the level of local authorities, there are two models of organization:

">? organization around existing problems (or sectors)

">? organization on a territorial basis.

"> Organization around existing problems (or sectors) means that social work is organized in accordance with the problems that clients have: there are social workers for social work with children, social workers for targeted social assistance, social workers dealing with problems of alcoholism, people with disabilities , the elderly, etc. This kind of specialization is usually possible only in cities, where local authorities can employ several different social workers.In rural areas, social work has always been more general, i.e. one and the same social worker dealing with several types of issues.

"> In some municipalities, when organizing work around existing problems, different levels social workers have their own administrative departments. For example, social workers providing home care may have their own department, or childcare facilities that typically hire social educators may create their own administrative area.

"> 2. The paradigm of social work as a subject of historical analysis.

"> 3. Theories of the historical process of social work in Russian historiography.

"> Methodological problems of the historiography of social work in Russia form three areas of research:

"> the concept of social work;

">periodization of the assistance process;

"> sources necessary and sufficient for understanding social work as a cultural and historical phenomenon.

"> Modern science of science, sociology of science, the main prerequisites, factors and conditions for the emergence of certain branches of social knowledge, scientific disciplines, as a rule, are combined into three groups. First, the emergence of new realities in the human environment, new problems of reproduction and maintenance its vitality, individual and social subjectivity, satisfaction of the needs of maintaining life support and active existence.Secondly, the self-development of scientific knowledge as such, based on its traditional and updated scientific categorical-conceptual apparatus, is usually stated.Thirdly, the phenomenon of individual personal subjectivity of a scientific researcher, whose knowledge potential, his scientific intuition, research capabilities significantly affect the emergence and development of new branches of knowledge, scientific disciplines.

"> The third group of reasons under consideration is usually characterized only as a subjective factor in the development of scientific knowledge. This is true, but only in part. It is also obvious that the very existence of outstanding scientists who define new horizons in the science of man, society and nature is an objective phenomenon that characterizes the well-known way public life especially the evolution of scientific knowledge. In this case, of course, one should take into account the individual-personal characteristics, abilities, character, temperament of the researcher and citizen of each scientist, which largely determines the scale and nature of the increment of scientific knowledge.

"> Considering the named groups of factors and conditions that determine the development of scientific knowledge, let's consider the main prerequisites for the emergence and progressive evolution of the theory of social work as a science. First of all, let's turn to those realities of modern life that have become the object of study of a new scientific discipline.

"> Most specialists in social history and the history of social work agree in recognizing the need to determine the period of emergence of social work as a modern social phenomenon that required the development of special theoretical foundations, a special theory. This period is usually called the last quarter of the last century. It was at this time in a number of In industrialized countries, groups of specialists are emerging who are beginning to professionally engage in social work, educational institutions are being created that train social workers, and the first faculties of social work of universities are opening.

"> In turn, the outstripping development of the service industry in developed countries leads at the turn of the century, and especially in the 20th century, to the study of the patterns of human behavior in an increasingly developed and technically equipped social sphere. Not in last turn this happened also because the service industry required accurate forecasting and formation of a certain demand for goods and services, as well as due to a fundamental change, complication of the material environment of the modern person, which changed his lifestyle, typical forms of life, ways to maintain his vitality, their formation , rehabilitation.

">Another an important factor that contributed to the formation modern system social work, its emergence as a social phenomenon was in the XIX century. workers' struggle for their rights. The growth in the concentration of workers at large enterprises, in cities, strengthening the organization of the labor movement, trade unions, undoubtedly had a strong influence on bourgeois governments and entrepreneurs and convinced the latter of the need for broad support for various forms of social work that relieve tension in society. Moreover, at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries, there was an obvious trend towards the growth of the strike movement, cases of armed struggle of workers for their rights.

"> The era of proletarian revolutions came on the most large-scale precisely in the last century. Its destructive nature in many ways intensified the search for peaceful, evolutionary ways of transition by the progressive public to a more just social order, more flexible modern mechanisms for solving both traditional and new social problems. The wide distribution of various forms social work, its design as an objectively necessary social phenomenon has become one of the main ways to resolve modern social contradictions, to ensure social progress in general.

"> 4. Social work as a phenomenon of the modern world.

"> Social work in modern society is usually associated with the development and flourishing of industrial capitalism, which entailed such grandiose changes in the social structure in the social forms of the West that one can speak of a qualitatively different type of relationship between man and society. Russian Federation began the rapid development of the system of social protection of the population. Assessing the attempts to carry out reforms in the socio-economic sphere of Russia, three important circumstances should be briefly noted.

"> 1. Measures to reform the economy have led and are leading to a further deterioration in its condition.

"> 2. In spite of everything, we managed to create an extensive system of social protection, which to a certain extent softens the blows from the weakening economy and science.

"> 3. Managers, specialists and "field" workers in the social security system are mainly women who have solved "burning" tasks and created the basis for the further development of this system (dynamic women).

"> Social work is a specific social phenomenon that can be characterized as:

"> - A type of social activity aimed at harmonizing personal and social relations through helping those groups of people and communities that experience difficulties in social functioning, through protection, support, correction and rehabilitation, as well as changing or reforming individual elements of the social system. In social work uses the principles, methods and approaches of a number of scientific areas to solve social and humanitarian problems.

"> - A theory that studies the ways and methods of promoting social adaptation and the realization of the subjectivity of an individual and a group in accordance with social norms and values ​​of society in different spatio-temporal situations.

"> - An academic discipline of a multilevel nature; it is taught in higher, secondary specialized educational institutions, as well as in the system of advanced training of social workers. Its goals and objectives are to form the personal and professional qualities of a future social worker with a clear focus on self-education, in training theoretical knowledge and the transfer of the necessary skills and abilities, the system of technologies existing in social work.

"> Social work is one of the varieties of social action: the main efforts of targeted manipulations in professional social work are focused on creating conditions under which the client of the action will socially function on the principles of self-sufficiency, as well as on corrective or rehabilitation work with persons of asocial or deviant behavior. The boundaries of social work as a sphere of social action can only be defined in specific spatial and temporal coordinates, since professional level social work is largely limited. Social work is characterized by continuity, which is due to the fact that social and humanitarian problems in society, as well as theoretical and practical approaches to their resolution, arise in parallel with the development of society, as well as its individuals. The scope of social work is expanding in line with the expansion and complexity of the nature and scope of social ties in society.

"> The phenomenon is interpreted as an unusual, rare phenomenon, an exceptional fact, a person. From this point of view, the formation of social work in the life of human society can be viewed as an unusual, exceptional phenomenon, especially applicable to past stages of human history, taking into account conflicts, strife, wars, which are still characteristic of humanity. And yet, despite the situation in the country, one of the most important is the relationship between people. This, of course, care for loved ones, children, the sick, the elderly, as well as concern for spiritual and physical health, preservation and extension life. And what profession can be compared with social work? After all, only it enables people who fall into the rank of social protection not to remain on the sidelines of society, helps at least partially (if possible) to participate in the fast pace of our life. science studies and investigates not the whole object as a whole, but only a certain area of ​​it, its own “section.” Social work as a science reveals and explores the essential, necessary connections and phenomena inherent in social processes and social development societies and determining the nature and effectiveness of the economic, psychological, pedagogical and managerial impact on the development and behavior of social communities, groups and individuals: patterns, principles and methods of social work with various social groups; ways and means of effective implementation of the functions of social work, its personnel and information support; structural and functional analysis of the activities of various state and public institutions of social protection and public services; regularities, principles of functioning of the mechanism of social management in the system of social work. In this case, complex interdisciplinary studies of social problems with access to a social forecast and modeling of the development of social processes, and, consequently, the possibility of determining ways to optimally resolve social contradictions and conflicts, are of great practical importance. Since the life of people takes place against the background of any social relations, social work considers them from its own point of view. The subject of study is the social relations that function in the social sphere of society and are considered in the context of the totality of social relations, including economic and political ones. Social work applies the principles of socio-philosophical knowledge to the analysis of a specific problem in the social sphere. Unlike specific social sciences, it considers problems in terms of both their specific features and integrative properties. Social work includes a preliminary collection of information, a systematic analysis of the object, hypotheses, a comparison of facts, and the construction of development models. Thus, the value process of the qualitative definition of the problems of the object takes place in the fullness of its aspects and the integration of properties.

"> In the process of learning the theory of social work as an integral system of scientific knowledge, as an applied science, the relationships and characteristics of its components do not appear immediately, but gradually, as they penetrate into their nature, essence. Accumulating knowledge about certain aspects of social work, the scientific system creates favorable prerequisites for the knowledge of other aspects and a deeper insight into the essence of the subject of study as a whole.It is important to use the arsenal of tools of scientific knowledge in a complex: observation and experiment, description and theoretical explanation, justification and logical evidence, comparison and similarly, generalization, induction and deduction , analysis and synthesis, hypothesis and scientific theory as a whole.This provides the unique and complex nature of social work.So, the formation and development of social work as an independent science takes place in the context of constant discussions on its main problems.And simultaneously with the development of the methodology of social work bots as a scientific theory, there is a comprehension and selection of methodological principles for the use of phenomena (factors, processes) of social practice, its knowledge as a specific area of ​​social knowledge. Summarizing the above, we can say that each person lives and acts in accordance with his social nature - this is the practical goal of social work, which determines its theoretical basis as a science about a person, ways to improve his social well-being. It is this approach that excludes the reduction of the tasks of social work from the point of view of theory only to the justification of the need for social assistance and social protection of the population.

"> 5. The main models of social work in Russia and abroad.

"> One of the effective sociological methods in social work on professional identification is modeling. The widespread penetration of the modeling method into sociology precedes the creation of systemic conceptual schemes of social phenomena and processes focused on the choice of means of formal description that are relevant to the presented aspects of social systems. Among the models intended Sociological modeling allows us to study in social work the average population values ​​of the quality of life indicators of the adult population of Russia and, by analogy, can serve as a starting point for assessing professional identification: changes in this parameter in the process of development of Russian society; deviations from the average value quality of life caused by diseases, employment opportunities, living conditions of people; social conflicts and upheavals in the context of mass migration of the population and loss of profession onal identity; the state of the quality of life in Russia compared with the quality of life in other countries.

"> There are several sociologically oriented models of social work, the specificity of which is that they form the basis of structural social work. Some of them are formed on the basis of the theory of social systems (a model of social work using the provisions general theory systems and social work model using ecological systems theory); others rely on radical Marxist approaches (radical and Marxist models of social work). Sometimes, within the framework of sociologically oriented approaches, a cultural model is singled out. Predominantly sociologically oriented is the permissive model of social work, which gravitates towards complex-oriented approaches, as well as the vitalist model, which can be attributed to both sociologically oriented and complex-oriented models.

"> In the practice of social work in our country, there is currently, firstly, an active adaptation of Western models of social work, and secondly, the revival of our own, original forms and types of social assistance. This study develops a sociological model of social work based on foreign and domestic approaches and based on the current Russian situation, taking into account the processes of marginalization taking place in it.

"> The developed model is aimed at expanding and deepening sociological theory, contributes to the introduction of sociological knowledge into social practice through the search for ways to influence it on the change of the whole society and individual social indicators, contributes to strengthening the influence of the professional sociological community on society through the implementation of social work.

;background:#ffffff">Let's consider some of the main theoretical models used in social work abroad. First of all, these are psychologically oriented models, a variation of which are traditional psychodynamic models based on 3. Freud's psychoanalysis. In its pure form, psychoanalysis is now used quite rarely , although for a long time it was the basis of work at the individual-personal level or "work with a case" ("case york"). Unlike classical psychoanalysis, psychodynamic models mainly focus on the present, and not on the past of a person, while analyzing perception of the real social situation.

;background:#ffffff">In social work, behavioral, cognitive and humanistic models are often used as systems of philosophical views on the world and man, which include a number of fundamental principles of relations between people. Since they are in">
;background:#ffffff">determine the worldview of a specialist in many ways, although it is necessary">
;background:#ffffff">I would like to briefly talk about their significance for professional co">
;background:#ffffff">cal work..

;background:#ffffff">The philosophy of existentialism, on which psychologically oriented humanistic models of social work are based, emphasizes the postulate of freedom and infinite potential. of each person; asserts that a person's life is determined by the system of his choices that take place at any moment in time and are determined solely by his goals and desires.

;background:#ffffff">According to the concept of existentialism, no one and nothing">
;background:#ffffff">standing affect life path person. Such a worldview">
;background:#ffffff">the logical position logically determines the following principles of social work: subjective relations of a specialist and a client; non-directiveness of influence; therapy centered"> ;background:#ffffff">on the client; the principle of personal growth, potential development. Av">
;background:#ffffff">torus of most of these and other concepts within the humanistic">
;background:#ffffff">what kind of psychology is K. Rogers, who believed that exactly">
;background:#ffffff">client-specialist relationship can become a prototype of const">
;background:#ffffff">manual interpersonal relationships. The personality itself is">
;background:#ffffff">constantly changing, correlating ideas about yourself and your">
;background:#ffffff">life experience in the process of endless self-actualization, times">
;background:#ffffff">growth, growth.

"> 6. Modern concepts of social work in Russia and abroad.

;background:#ffffff">Among modern concepts, the system-theoretical approach to social work is relevant, in which relationships, interactions, transactions and social processes are considered in a causal relationship. Each person is a member of several systems family, circle of friends, school or the labor collective they all have mutual influence, and this must be taken into account by the social worker in working with the client.

">
;background:#ffffff">The concept of social action in social work is of undoubted interest, since each person is the bearer of two principles biological and social. Human actions as a self-organizing system in the social aspect are regulated by symbols, such as language, values, etc. , and norms that determine individual actions depending on generally accepted norms and values.But human actions, no matter how they are regulated by social relations, also carry a certain manifestation of voluntarism, i.e. to a certain extent, irrationality and independence of actions from environmental conditions, and at the same time dependent on subjective “certain situations”.">
;background:#ffffff">Thus, a social worker needs not only specific knowledge of the theory and methods of social work, but also sufficient understanding of society, the needs and interests of various social groups, legislation and generally accepted norms, cultural (as well as subcultural) and ethnic At the same time, a social worker can count on success in interacting with a client when he takes into account not only his status and other social characteristics, but also individual physical and mental, i.e. biological characteristics of a person, which, like social factors are manifested in his actions.Therefore, social work is not only a theory, but also the art of interacting with other people, often experiencing complex psychological problems or in a difficult life situation.

;background:#ffffff">According to this concept, a social worker deals with a conflict based on the collision of natural and social. For a social worker, it is important not only to take into account the client's inner world and environment, but also to realize that his task is assimilation by the client of generally accepted norms, standards of behavior and their transformation into internal motives of activity.">
;background:#ffffff">In social work, even at the level of an individual case, it is necessary to understand that the most important sign of the normal state of a social system is the balance of all its components, while the decisive importance is given to regulatory processes, means social control behind this state, designed to protect society from unwanted conflicts, abrupt changes, etc.">
;background:#ffffff">Among the various concepts in the field of social work, it is also necessary to name situational analysis in social work. Of greatest interest is the theoretical concept of creating social networks, which gained particular distribution in Germany during the unification process and after it, with the appearance of the “loss of identity” syndrome, which is characteristic not only for the new federal states of Germany, but also for the entire Central and Eastern European region in connection with the transition to a market economy.">
;background:#ffffff">Further formation of social work as a scientific theory went in four main directions:

;background:#ffffff">personal work theory;

;background:#ffffff">group work theory;

;background:#ffffff">community work theory;

;background:#ffffff">theory of social administration and planning.

;background:#ffffff">Among the various concepts in the field of social work, it is also necessary to name a situational analysis in social work, but, perhaps, for Russian specialists, among others, the theoretical concept of creating social networks (Netzwork), which has received particular distribution in Germany, is of the greatest interest during the unification process and after it, with the emergence of the "loss of identity" syndrome, which is characteristic not only for the new federal states of Germany, but also for the entire Central and Eastern European region and is associated with the transition to a market economy.Social work in the European dimension exists in close interconnection with social policy and such a social institution, which is, in particular, the welfare state.The principles of the Elberfeld system, which got its name from the city where it was effectively applied, were important for the formation of a modern system of social assistance abroad. practice spread throughout Germany and parts of France. These principles are based on: the independence of each guardianship in considering particular issues and the centralization of the general direction of affairs; individualization of assistance with a detailed examination of each person in need; Involving all sections of society in active participation in the charity of the poor.

"> 7. Domestic and Western European paradigms of assistance: essence and difference.;background:#ffffff"> In the Western model of help, the ideas of altruism find their development in the logic of the ideas of individualism, where the feelings of thought and desire of an individual act as the highest value in itself. Hence the specificity of the reflection of help, when the client acts as an individual and separate group, which are given priority, and the community and the community, which are considered in the logic of subjectivity.">
;background:#ffffff">K.Popper, reflecting on the synthesis of individualism and altruism in Western civilization, wrote: “This individualism, combined with altruism, became the basis of our Western civilization. Scripture, and not “love your kind”), as well as all the ethical teachings that have developed in our civilization and hastened its progress.”">
;background:#ffffff">At the heart of the philosophy of helping the domestic model are the ideas of sobornost. Altruism goes back to communal collectivism, to the ethical, moral idea of ​​nationality, as the idea of ​​truth and justice. pre-revolutionary, but also in post-revolutionary Russia.">

;background:#ffffff"> 2. At the heart of the ideological doctrine of assistance in both domestic and Western models were the principles and ideas of Christianity.">
;background:#ffffff">In the Western model, the process of helping is reflected as a spiritual transformation, which “involved an inner change, a renewal of the spirit, which led to 'resurrection' and 'revival' and turned the offending sinner into a worthy member of the community."">
;background:#ffffff">In these approaches, an individual way of saving an individual was seen. Moreover, it is characteristic that social relations, social ideals act as a norm. And hence the desire to form socially necessary behavior, which is brought up and reflected in the Christian paradigm of thinking in the West.">
;background:#ffffff">In the Western model of assistance, various confessions took part in the fate of a person. The antagonism of religions introduced egalitarian tendencies of personal freedom into the model of assistance.">
;background:#ffffff">The philosophy of helping the domestic model is revealed in the logic of the ideas of Orthodoxy. The Russian Orthodox Church has been shaping national consciousness, national spiritual experience for a millennium.">
;background:#ffffff">The philosophy of charity has become for many centuries the defining approach in the domestic model of help. To look after means to bring closer, take care of the needs of one’s neighbor. Russian consciousness to a different horizon of the norm.">
;background:#ffffff">S.L.Frank, defining the specifics of Russian spirituality, identifies a criterion that reflects the essence of the moral norm that determined the approaches of various types and levels of assistance in Russia, “... when it comes to Russian searches for “good”, there are meaning not values ​​that bring personal salvation or healing, but a principle or order, i.e. ultimately a religious-mythical point, or foundation on which all human life, and indeed the entire cosmic universe, should be based, and through which humanity and the world are saved and transformed.”">
;background:#ffffff"> The criterion of the norm is, as it were, not reality itself, but ideal reality, which is mobile and constantly changing in the spiritual culture of the Russian consciousness. This, apparently, results from these throwing in principles and approaches, in help systems. So, The Stoglavy Cathedral officially allows begging, legalizes and formalizes the relevant institutions of assistance, while the reforms of Peter I are carried out without taking into account established traditions, and new principles for organizing assistance are put forward.This is also characteristic of the aid models of post-revolutionary Russia and Russia of the reform stage.">
;background:#ffffff">3. Social work as a profession in the Western model of assistance arises from the voluntary social movement of feminists and the liberal democratic opposition. A similar trend is observed in Russia. But if in the Western model the development from voluntary to professional assistance was continuous , i.e. the Western model is characterized by an evolutionary path of development, in Russia the development of the profession was discrete, i.e. intermittent.Even its modern, professional stage is characterized by the fact that specialists are “recruited” from other professions and services, and their becoming professionals is carried out on the basis of their own empirical experience and implicit professional ideas.">
;background:#ffffff"> 4. The conceptual field in the Western model of assistance was formed on the basis of medical, sociological, confessional, legal and psychological approaches. Psychology was the methodological basis for the development of knowledge of social work, and the technique of group and therapeutic work formed the basis of its methodology.">
;background:#ffffff">The conceptual field of social assistance in Russia was formed under the influence of other factors. Two areas social security and social work in Russia appear in unity, including enlightenment, education, medicine, social policy. It acted as a unifying form , a paradigm where all the above processes have found their development.This explains the fragmentation of the “conceptual consciousness” when social work is identified with social pedagogy, social security, social medicine.">
;background:#ffffff">5. The domestic model of aid has been developing for several centuries in close contact with the Western model of aid. The extrapolation of ideas, state laws, the involvement of domestic science and the democratic public in the processes of Western civilization has had a peculiar effect on the processes of aid. Many ideas and laws, especially during the period of Peter's reforms, were declared when there were still no objective conditions for their implementation. Hence, the Western model of assistance acted as a kind of "absolute idea", the vision and "touch" of which made it possible to outline their own prospects for growth and development. These trends are present and in the modern domestic model of assistance.

"> 8. Social assistance as a civilizational phenomenon.

;background:#ffffff">Social work is a specific social phenomenon that can be characterized as follows:">

;background:#ffffff"> 1. A type of social activity aimed at harmonizing personal and social relations through helping individuals, groups of people and communities experiencing difficulties in social functioning, through protection, support, correction and rehabilitation, as well as through change or reforming individual elements of the social system.In social work, the principles, methods and approaches of a number of scientific directions are used to solve social and humanitarian problems.">

;background:#ffffff"> 2. A theory that studies the ways and methods of promoting social adaptation and the realization of the subjectivity of an individual and a group in accordance with social norms and values ​​of society in different spatio-temporal situations.">

;background:#ffffff"> 3. An academic discipline of a multilevel nature; it is taught in higher, secondary specialized educational institutions, as well as in the system of advanced training for social workers.
Its goals and objectives are to form the personal and professional qualities of a future social worker with a stable attitude towards self-education, to teach theoretical knowledge and transfer the necessary skills and abilities, the system of technologies existing in social work. Social work is one of the varieties of social action: the main efforts of targeted manipulations in professional social work are focused on creating conditions under which the object of action (the client) will socially function on the principles of self-sufficiency, as well as on corrective or rehabilitation work with people of asocial or deviant behavior . The boundaries of social work as a sphere of social action can be defined only in specific spatial and temporal coordinates, since at the professional level social work is largely limited by the framework predetermined by the social policy of a particular state in a specific time period of its historical development. Social work is characterized by continuity, which is due to the fact that social and humanitarian problems in society, as well as theoretical and practical approaches to their resolution, arise in parallel with the development of both the society itself and the individuals that make it up. The scope of social work is expanding simultaneously with and accordingly with the expansion and complexity of the nature and scope of social ties in society.
Social work as a professional activity has features that distinguish it from other similar professions of a social orientation (doctor, teacher, psychologist, lawyer, etc.). One of the main distinguishing features is the very nature of the process of social action and interaction between the specialist and the client. Unlike the role-based subject-object relationships that are characteristic of other types of helping professions, and in this regard the act of decision-making in the process of action, social work is dominated by subject-subject relationships that are of a trusting nature, in which the client retains the right or advantage in making decisions. solutions.
The specificity of the clientele of social institutions lies in the fact that mainly representatives of financially unsecured, socially vulnerable or marginalized strata of society apply for help. This means that social work cannot have a high degree of prestige and bring large incomes to professionals social workers, especially in a market economy and the influence of both liberal and conservative ideology in society. Social work is often mistakenly referred to as the services of auxiliary or technical personnel of social services or charitable organizations engaged in social services, whose work usually does not require high qualifications and appropriate training in the program of higher or secondary specialized education, while the professional services of a social work specialist solving personal problems of a client at the level of a consultant-psychologist or teacher, a specialist manager for personnel (personnel) or organizing social-analytical, research or prognostic activities, require thorough theoretical and practical basic training.
Social work provides rich factual material, the study of which helps to obtain information about the structure and self-awareness of modern societies in their crisis points. An analysis of the connection between social work and social theory can shed light on the nature of a "developed" society. And vice versa characteristics modern society contribute to a better understanding of the nature of this peculiar profession and academic discipline, born just the other day.

"> 9. Religious ideas about mercy and charity.

"> Religion reflects the desire of a person and society for a direct connection with the Absolute. Depending on the directions of the search for the Absolute, religions can be conditionally divided into egocentric, sociocentric and cosmocentric. Egocentric religion assumes as the highest and self-sufficient value the restoration of the spiritual connection of the individual with his true "I" as a universally sized microcosm based on the principle “Know thyself". Sometimes an individual microcosm can be understood not only as a condensate of the Universe, but also as the entire historical change of people removed and eternally residing in the “I”, starting with Adam and Eve. This type of religion contributes to the spiritual improvement, disclosure of the creative potential of the individual.

"> Sociocentric religion reflects the desire of a generic person or certain social groups for the unity of their essential forces through the embodiment of the desired spiritual integrity in a chosen sacred object. The main varieties of sociocentric religion are cults of personality, state, party, chosen people or social class, technology, science. Process perfection of a person's individuality can be stimulated or inhibited depending on the basic provisions of this religion.

"> Cosmocentric religion is focused on establishing (restoring, reproducing) the connection of people with God, the gods, the energy center of the Universe, the focus of all cosmic forces. Many schools of Buddhism deny the existence of God. According to their teaching, a person is constantly connected with the cosmic source and has the opportunity to be saved through the approximation to the axis of the "wheel of life", i.e. reaching a state of complete rest (nirvana).Cosmocentric religions exist in the forms of theism, pantheism and atheism.

"> The division of religions into egocentric, sociocentric and cosmocentric allows us to apply the concept of religion both in relation to an individual person and in relation to large social groups, society.

"> Religion comprehends and in various versions interprets the evolution and horizons of the spiritual connection between man and the Absolute. This connection can be relied upon:

"> a) as initially immediate, subsequently interrupted and subject to restoration;

"> b) as an orientation towards the achievement (indirectly through intermediate levels) of a certain ideal direct connection;

"> c) as subject to constant reproduction both in different periods of the life of an individual, and in a whole series of generations of people.

"> Religion performs a number of functions and plays an important role in society. The following functions of religion are distinguished: worldview, communicative, regulatory, compensatory, culturally broadcasting, integrating-disintegrating, legitimizing-delegitimizing.

"> 10. The origins and nature of assistance and support in the ancient states of the East.

;background:#ffffff">Approximately from the 4th millennium BC in the history of mankind, the transition from primitive communal relations to state-civilizational development begins. At the late stage of the primitive system, the growth of labor productivity, the emergence of property and social inequality, the transition to monogamous marriage , the strengthening of the family and its isolation led to the weakening of the primitive community.Territorial ties between families were strengthened.As a result, the early consanguineous primitive community was replaced by a primitive neighbor, and then an agricultural community that combined individual production with collective ownership of land. communal way of life, which combined private and collective principles, created the conditions for the emergence of classes and states.">
;background:#ffffff">In IVII millennium BC on a vast territory from the Mediterranean Sea to Pacific Ocean the first ancient states appeared, centers of civilization, which were special cultural, social and material communities. In relation to antiquity, civilizations were created by peoples who rose above the level of primitiveness, starting to form their own state formations.">
;background:#ffffff">In the scientific literature, two main types of ancient civilizations are usually distinguished: eastern and western. The most striking civilizational centers of eastern society include: Ancient Egypt (late IVII millennium BC), Mesopotamia, or Mesopotamia (late IVI millennium BC), ancient india(IIII millennium BC), Ancient China (end of IIII millennium BC). Unlike the ancient Egyptian, lower Mesopotamian and ancient Indian civilizations, the ancient Chinese did not belong to civilizations of the irrigation type. Here agriculture was based mainly on flood and atmospheric irrigation.">
;background:#ffffff">Base social structure ancient Eastern societies was a neighboring community of farmers. It was largely self-sufficient, uniting people not so much by kinship as by territorial and production ties. In the countries of the East, the leading branch of the economy was Agriculture where the main work was performed by the peasants of the neighboring territorial communities. Here, land ownership belonged to the entire community, and movable property was the personal (private) property of individual community members and their families. With the help of this property, they cultivated land plots.">
;background:#ffffff">The family and the territorial community were the main source of social assistance for ordinary peasants. First of all, the family took care of the elderly and the infirm, those incapable of work. Help for orphans and lonely elderly was provided to a large extent by the community.

"> 11. Fundamentals of social assistance and charity in ancient states.

"> Social assistance as a system of support relations for people who are not capable of self-sufficiency arises in a primitive tribal community. This is assistance based primarily on consanguinity, traditions of mutual assistance and religious ideas.

"> Developing, humanity is entering a qualitatively new era, characterized not only by more advanced production, but also by fundamentally different social relations. Changes in socio-economic relations inevitably give rise to new relations and connections in social assistance.

"> What happens to social assistance in a slave-owning society? Why does it even exist when family ties are torn, society is divided into antagonistic classes and exploitation of man by man arises? What natural, general patterns of implementation of social assistance ties and relations took shape during the period of the slave-owning system?

"> Let's try to answer these questions on the example of the most developed and studied (classical) slave-owning states Ancient Greece and Rome.

"> As you know, with the development of production and the further division of labor within the framework of the primitive communal system, the relations of private property and exchange took shape. The labor force began to give an excess over the costs of its maintenance, to produce more than necessary for existence. , and even earlier eaten "prisoners of war" turned into free labor slaves. The tribal system gradually outlived itself, unable to withstand the onset of the division of labor and the development of commodity-money relations. Slavery became the dominant form of production.

"> From the VIII century BC, the first slave-owning city-states (polises) were formed: Athens, Corinth and others, then Ancient Rome. Against the background of the rapid differentiation of society and the process of division of labor between city and countryside, urban branches of labor were formed new social groups.The urban population lost contact with the clan and was deprived of its care.The tribal authorities (council of elders, leaders, etc.), which previously provided assistance within the clan, also lost their power.Citizens often went bankrupt and passed into the category of the urban poor The growth in the number of people deprived of support from the clan could not but disturb the state authorities, since they were "combustible" material for uprisings and unrest.The system of social assistance of the clan society collapsed along with the old socio-economic relations, and society faced the task of forming a new system of assistance, adequate to the changed social relations.

"> During this period, types of assistance unknown to the tribal society arise: state social assistance and philanthropy.

"> Theoretical approaches to the question of the role and significance of the state in relations of assistance can be found in the writings of the philosophers of Ancient Greece and Rome. Thus, Plato (460-370 BC) considers social assistance in the context of public benefit, from his point of view From this point of view, this activity is the prerogative of the state, and not of an individual private ministry.Aristotle (384-322 BC) considers the order of equitable distribution as a set of rights and obligations and raises the question of the state system of welfare.

;background:#ffffff">In ancient Athens, a significant portion of public spending goes to the issuance of benefits. It is believed that Solon (640 / 635-559 BC) passed a law according to which all citizens maimed in war were kept at the expense of the state. Later, these preferences were extended to all the poor who were unable to work. The amount of the allowance was appointed by the popular assembly, and the rights of "pensioners" were determined by the council of the assembly. Periodically, they were required to appear in the council for examination, under the threat of deprivation of pension. In classical Greece, in during the reign of Pericles, theatrical money was introduced, which was given to poor citizens to attend theatrical performances, which also included refreshments.Disabled people were paid state benefits in the amount of 1 obol per day, which was the minimum wage for an artisan.Pericles also introduced public works to strengthen, improve the city, roads , where the unemployed, poor segments of the population were attracted. these works came from the state treasury. Thus, in the ancient classical slave-owning states, a new type of social assistance arises. Its subject is the state, object is free citizens from among the poor, the disabled, orphans and other categories incapable of self-sufficiency. Assistance is mostly obligatory, systematic. It is set by law, enshrined in laws, which gives rise to the obligation of the subject to provide it and the right of the object to demand and receive assistance. To implement relations of assistance, the government creates special institutions, structures and establishes responsible officials maintained at public expense. The economic basis of social assistance is public funds that are forcibly accumulated in the treasury through taxes, duties, etc. Assistance is of a mandatory redistributive nature.

;background:#ffffff">Particular attention was paid to the charity of the children of poor parents. In ancient Rome, officials were appointed responsible for the care of orphans. Under Emperor Trajan, some estates were bought up by the state and leased (or secured), and the proceeds were used to raise children , primarily orphans.One of the first charitable institutions was founded under the emperor Octavian Augustus.

"> 12. Church and monastic charity in medieval Europe.

"> An important phenomenon was the emergence of "beggarly" monastic orders that elevated poverty as an ideal, such as the orders of the Franciscans, Dominicans, Premonstratensians, Carthusians and Cistercians. )

"> In fairness, it should be noted that the church was not limited only to preaching about the need for alms, but sought to actually help those in need. Thus, up to a quarter of church income was used for religious or charitable purposes. lists of those in need of help became the prerogative of the church."> St. Basil "> (329-379), a bishop in Caesarea Cappadocia, who organized a shelter for the elderly, a hospital, a hospice and an almshouse for the weak and crippled at the gates of the city. Both church income and private donations from parishioners served as sources for organizing charitable institutions. It should be noted that the hospital organized by St. Basil served as a prototype for the creation of monastic hospitals in Western Europe.Of course, the first monastic hospitals were distinguished by an extremely low level of treatment and care for sick people: the medical training of the monks was insufficient, and the treatment of "fasting and prayer" rarely reached its goal. In addition, during periods of epidemics, hospitals built in the absence of sanitary and hygienic knowledge, with crowded patients, turned into hotbeds of infectious diseases. It is no coincidence that hospitals were called "houses of suffering", "vale of death". So, in 542, a special shelter was opened in Lyon, called sya "House of the Lord", where both monks and volunteers from the townspeople worked.

"> Up to the 13th century, every 3-5 years, crop failure regularly caused famine. There was a kind of frightening cycle: bad weather -> crop failure -> price increase -> famine -> eating surrogates -> epidemic -> pestilence. At first, a bad harvest. Food became more expensive, the need of the poor increased, those who did not die of hunger were exposed to other dangers, the consumption of poor-quality products (grass, spoiled flour, generally worthless food, sometimes even land) entailed diseases, often fatal, or chronic malnutrition, which undermined organism or killed. One of the strict concerns of the church in lean years was the duty to feed the hungry, clothe them and provide temporary shelter. In every major abbey there were services for the distribution of alms and hospitality, as well as two special officials who carried these obediences. Thus, in In the Cistercian order, the alms giver was called the gatekeeper, and in his cell, located near the monastery gates, he must always We were storing bread, prepared for distribution to passers-by and the needy.

"> Another misfortune of medieval Europe was regular epidemics of various infectious diseases and horrific infant mortality, which was considered normal. Poor nutrition and a miserable state of medicine, frequent epidemics gave rise to terrible physical suffering and high mortality of the population. The average life expectancy was very low and did not exceed thirty The appearance of "fever" (modern researchers believe that it was caused by eating bad grain) was the basis for the emergence of a special cult that led to the founding of a new monastic order and, thereby, to the emergence of a new type of orders - Hospitallers. the admirers of St. Anthony (antonites) tried to treat with “success.” The fever disease was replaced by a no less terrible epidemic of another disease"> leprosy "> (or leprosy), the cause of which in Europe is considered to have begun as a result of crusades communication with foci of infection in the East. The consequence of the spread of leprosy was the emergence of special isolation rooms for patients">leprozoor ">, organized by the specially established Catholic Church for the care of lepers, the Order of St. Lazarus (hence infirmaries). In the middle of the 14th century, an even more terrible epidemic disease came to Europe, putting the Western world on the verge of life and death plague.

"> In the context of recurring epidemics, it is monasteries, as places of relative stability, that turn into centers for the distribution of alms. The role of monasteries during this period can hardly be overestimated: in addition to distributing alms, they organized constant assistance to those in need through the construction of monastic hospitals. So, in 1403, the hospital of the Holy Spirit in Cologne supported up to 400 beggars each week, and this number did not include permanent residents in the hospital.The monastic hospitals also provided overnight accommodation for distressed pilgrims.

"> In parallel, there are attempts to regulate assistance to those in need. In 1458, the so-called Chamber of the Poor was established in Antwerp. In Augsburg in 1475, the beggars were already recorded in the census forms as a professional group (namely, out of 4,485 taxpayers, 107 were registered as beggars.) They were obliged to pay the same taxes as the rest of the workers.

"> Plague epidemics also marked the beginning of the formation of sanitary legislation and urban sanitation. In 1348, a sanitary council was organized in Venice, and special overseers appeared in a number of Italian ports - "health trustees".

"> 13. Public charity in the Middle Ages.

"> The theme of charity, rising from the depths of centuries and perceived as a desire to help those in need, as a purposeful expression of philanthropy, is ambiguously interpreted in various philosophical traditions and schools.

"> In most modern works devoted to the study of charity, researchers construct a connection between the emergence of charity and Christianity. This point of view is shared by many pre-revolutionary researchers, in their opinion, charity appears only with Christianity. " ancient world could not rise to the full respect of every person as a person. It went directly against his spirit." In the Middle Ages, a very important function passed to the Church - to maintain social peace and smooth out social contradictions. Naturally, the church did not share open hostility towards the destitute needy, since this hostility would be incompatible with the preaching of humility, love for one's neighbor and the equality of all before God. Therefore, turning to the powerful of this world, the church appealed to mercy.

"> Sympathy for the lower strata and condemnation of their oppressors largely stemmed from the social teachings of the church, which formally glorified poverty, considering it an ideal state. The program of the church in this respect was actually reduced to the demand for alms in favor of the poor. They did not even think about ways to end poverty At the same time, the poor were seen not so much as the unfortunate, whose miserable lot needed to be alleviated, but as the saviors of the rich. to “self-cleansing.” Thus, quite definite rules for giving alms were formed:

"> 1) only direct alms given from hand to hand are valuable;

"> 2) alms were given secretly, in passing;

"> 3) "blind" almsgiving is important, without clarifying the reasons for begging and the circumstances where almsgiving will go;

"> 4) the beggar must know the name of the beggar in order to pray for him in the church, and feedback is optional here.

"> By the XI century, the creation in many cities of Western Europe (the Netherlands, Germany, etc.) dates back to the creation of communities of women and girls to serve the cause of mercy and care for the sick. The annals of these countries mention many women, even belonging to a princely family, who dedicated her life caring for lepers in the first public hospitals.Thus, in the XIII century, Countess Elisabeth of Thuringia, who was distinguished by deep religiosity and love for people, devoted her whole life to serving the cause of mercy.At the age of 20, she built a hospital at her own expense, organized a shelter for foundlings and orphans, in which she herself worked a lot.

"> In 1235, Elizabeth was canonized as a saint and in her honor the Catholic community of "Elizabethites" was founded - from those who wished to follow her example. In peacetime, the sisters of the community cared only for sick women, and in wartime - for men, The community has also done much for leprosy patients.

"> An important phenomenon was the emergence of "beggarly" monastic orders that elevated poverty as an ideal, such as the orders of the Franciscans, Dominicans, Premonstratensians, Carthusians and Cistercians. ).

"> In parallel, there are attempts to regulate assistance to those in need. In 1458, the so-called Chamber of the Poor was established in Antwerp. In Augsburg, in 1475, the beggars were already recorded in the census forms as a professional group (namely, out of 4,485 taxpayers, 107 were registered as beggars.) They were obliged to pay the same taxes as the rest of the workers.

"> Plague epidemics also marked the beginning of the formation of sanitary legislation and urban sanitation. In 1348, a sanitary council was organized in Venice, and special overseers appeared in a number of Italian ports - "health trustees."

"> In the Middle Ages, cripples were, first of all, an object of Christian virtue. They were one category of the population with the poor and the elderly. In the monasteries they were treated as guests, because the Gospel says that they will be the first to be in the Kingdom of Christ. Living on donations relatives, neighbors and parishioners, the disabled occupied a strictly defined position in society. Their special function was to atone for the sins of the rich. On the one hand, they were admired because of the closeness of their fate to the fate of Christ. On the other hand, they inspired anxiety and fear.

"> 14. Private charity during the Middle Ages.

"> 15. Renaissance and humanistic concepts of charity.

">

"> 16. The problem of begging in the period of the European Middle Ages.

"> The beggars and vagabonds until the 15th century were not looked at as strangers, separated by a sharp line from "decent people" and dangerous to society. Disease, crop failure, ruin, death of relatives, who drove a person into the open sky, threatened everyone. When Shakespeare gave Lear to his king by denouncing a beggar vagabond, this picture did not cause astonishment among theatrical audience.Medieval man found attractive features even in forest robbers, endowing them with nobility, justice, special concern for the poor.These features were most clearly manifested in the beloved hero of English legends, Robin, nicknamed “Do I” (in English “Good”) from Sherwood Robin does not become a robber of his own free will, but even in the forest he remains a more worthy member of society than his opponents knights and sheriffs.

But from about 14501500. tolerance for (begging and vagrancy for various reasons decreases. In England and the Netherlands, after the victory of Protestantism over traditional Catholicism, begging ceased to be a respected occupation; it was believed that every person is obliged to earn a living on his own in this way he fulfills his duty to God. Many Catholic states experienced in the 16th and 17th centuries, serious economic difficulties could not allocate large children to the maintenance of the destitute.But the main reason, apparently, was different: the wide spread of wage labor in Europe during the late Middle Ages now made it possible to feed themselves and people, Crowds of vagabonds on the roads caused more and more irritation among the new capitalist entrepreneurs, they were no longer seen as the likeness of a beggar Christ, but cheap labor, which should have been put to work.

Cities begin to close their gates to the surrounding ragamuffins, punishing them for illegally collecting alms on the city streets. (Violation of the laws on begging was severely punished: in Cologne, for example, a vagabond three times caught illegally begging, who was not included in the established number of "our city beggars", ended his life on the gallows.

The city authorities dealt with this dangerous public without any ceremony, but the royal authorities behaved even more harshly towards them. In the XVI century. the English kings issued a whole series of laws against vagabonds, which the people called "bloody." According to these laws, anyone could capture vagrants on the roads and put them to work. Several times a tramp who was caught and escaped was stigmatized as a criminal.

The more severe European society became towards its outcasts, the more people went into the forests or mountains and engaged in robbery. Robber in the 16th century this is no longer the kind and noble Robin Hood, punishing the greedy rich and helping the poor. On the contrary, it is a person who is angry at everything and everyone, cruel and treacherous, robbing and killing indiscriminately. Wands of such robbers kept entire regions in fear for decades, and local authorities could not cope with them. Such organized crime was especially strong in the poorest areas of Europe Sicily, Southern Italy. "> ">

Since the end of the Middle Ages, vagabonds and robbers have been separated by a sharp line from respectable burghers. A well-fed, rich Europe sees in every person deprived of a roof over his head and a reliable income, his enemy and, if not today's, then tomorrow's criminal. "> ">

;text-decoration:underline">Church attitude towards the poor">

In the Middle Ages, a very important function was transferred to the Church to maintain social peace and smooth out social contradictions. Naturally, the church did not share open hostility towards the destitute and needy, since this hostility would be incompatible with the preaching of humility, love for one's neighbor and the equality of all before God. Therefore, turning to the mighty of this world, the church appealed to mercy. Thus, the Bishop of Orleans Jonah (IX century), addressing his words to the lords, wrote that "by their nature, their slaves and in general, all the poor are equal to them."

Sympathy for the lower classes and condemnation of their oppressors stemmed in large part from the social teaching of the Church, which formally exalted poverty as an ideal state. The glorification of poverty became the main leitmotif of the religious literary monuments of the early Middle Ages. It was in the poor that it was supposed to serve them as a kind of moral compensation for earthly hardships.

The program of the church in this regard was actually reduced to the demand for alms in favor of the poor. Ways to end poverty were not thought of, alms were supposed to perpetuate it, since it inclined the poor to remain in the position of dependents, feeding on the crumbs given to wealthy people.

Moreover, the church in every possible way justified the state of affairs that had developed in society. The monks of Saint-Laud in Angers wrote: “God himself deigned so that among people some were lords, and others were serfs, and that the lords were inclined to honor and love God, and the serfs to honor and love the lords.”

Poverty was elevated to the rank of moral dignity. In turn, the cult of poverty sometimes gave rise to the so-called "swaggering of the poor", which was sometimes encouraged even in the lives of the saints. Thus, in the Life of St. Herman” (bishop of Paris) it was said that when the bishop received a horse and carriage as a gift from King Childebert, he used this gift to ransom the captive, although the king asked the saint not to give this gift to anyone. The author of the life says: “For the priest, the voice of the poor meant more than the king”? The true anthem of voluntary poverty is the poetic legend of St. Alexei, who retired from rich parents and died in poverty.

At the same time, the poor were seen not so much as the unfortunate, whose miserable fate needed to be alleviated, but as the saviors of the rich. The poor existed so that the rich could atone for their sins; the rich are needed by the poor, so that they can feed around them. The alms given to the poor, wrote Alcuin at the end of the 8th century, allow the giver to go to heaven. Thus, poverty was not perceived as a social problem that society had to solve. In this regard, almsgiving was not intended to directly help the beggar, but rather to help the beggar himself, giving alms.

In this case, the beggar-lover was driven not by love for his neighbor, not by philanthropy, but by the desire to be cleansed of his own sins; the beggar acted as a means to "self-purification". Thus, quite certain rules for giving alms were formed:

">1) "> "> only direct alms given from hand to hand are valuable;

">2) "> "> alms were given secretly, in passing;

">3) "> “>“blind” almsgiving is important, without clarifying the reasons for begging and the circumstances where almsgiving will go;

">4) "> "> the beggar must know the name of the beggar in order to pray for him in the church, and feedback is not required here (the giver may not know the name of the beggar who accepted his alms).

The Church stood for the preservation of the established order and taught that each member of society should live in accordance with his position, and not seek a change in his legal or property status.

The Christian Church has long spoken about the need to care for the poor. Thus, the decrees of the Council of Elvira in 306 are known. and the Council of Antioch in 341, where the episcopate was given the right to dispose of the property of the church at its discretion for the needs of charity. “We decree that the bishop should have authority over the property of the church: if the valuable souls of people are to be entrusted to him, then all the more he should dispose of money, to manage his own authority, to allocate to the needy through presbyters and deacons, under the fear of God and with all caution.” From the rules of the Sardinian Local Council (347): "Bishops should help orphans and widows." In the rules of Theophilus, Bishop of Alexandria (end of the 4th - beginning of the 5th centuries), it was stated: “Let the widowers, and the poor, and strangers from the Church feed on the Church, and accept all pleasing.” In the rules of the IV Ecumenical Council (Chalcedon, 437 vol.) it was written: “Let the beggars who require help with a message of peace depart.”

The idealization of poverty became one of the components of the social program of the Christian church, which, for example, was clearly manifested in the preaching work of the Franciscan preacher Berthold of Regenburg (1250-1270s).

To the exclamation of his fictitious interlocutor: “Alas, brother Berthold, I see that many live in great sin and everything is well with them and in abundance of everything related to their bodily needs, and on the contrary, there are many good people who do not commit sins, but deeds they are bad, and they are hungry, thirsty and cold, in need of everything, the preacher declares: “In fact, these prosperous are bad; much better themes who lives in suffering, but without sin.

This position became a kind of basis for the development of hermitage and the emergence of the so-called "beggarly" monastic orders.

The sermons of voluntary poverty set forth in the "Rules of Life" by the famous preacher Francis of Assisi (1182-1226) acquired the greatest influence. Realizing how popular the preaching of poverty was among the poor, Pope Innocent III approved the idea of ​​creating a special monastic order of the Franciscans.

The return to the ideals of the early Christian church, which did not yet have any property, preached by Francis of Assisi, the sharp criticism of greed, self-interest and the love of money of the clergy, the distribution of alms to the poor and the maintenance of the poor at the monasteries gained the Franciscan order wide popularity among the people. Shortly after his death, in 1228, Francis was canonized.

The movement of the guardians of the ideals of beggary, the so-called spiritualists, assumed a massive character in the second half of the 13th century. The wave of pious begging took on such a massive character that Pope Boniface VIII sent out orders to all bishops to force mendicant vagabonds or hermits to either change their lifestyle or join some recognized monastic order.

Thus, the desire to atone for sins took on a variety of forms from the idealization of poverty to voluntary begging. A peculiar ideological basis was also brought under the need for atonement for sins.

"> 17. The initial stage of state charity in Western Europe.

"> The rapid development of the capitalist mode of production in Europe in the 19th century, accompanied by a series scientific discoveries, technical and technological inventions, which found immediate practical application in industry, was expressed in a phenomenal increase in productivity in many industries. The high rates of development of capitalism created conditions for the development of interstate (interethnic) competition and led to uneven economic development of states - their stratification according to the level of well-being. This period of development was characterized, on the one hand, by exceptional social suffering in the underdeveloped states, and, on the other hand, by the possibility of raising living standards on a massive scale, which the world had never seen in the states leading economic development.

"> Germany, approaching the turn of the 19th - 20th centuries, was an economic leader in Europe. Further stable development of the economy was held back by accumulated social problems. Therefore, in 1889, Chancellor Bismarck, for the first time in the world, developed and introduced a pension system, the main purpose of which was to increase the level well-being of elderly people who are losing their jobs Two years later, in 1891, a different model was developed in Denmark, taking into account the weak economic development of the state, the purpose of which was to reduce poverty and support pensioners.The creation of a pension system in these countries, with different levels of economic development, became an example for other states.

"> Frank de Butter and Udo Kok offer a brief three-stage model for the development of a system of public charity and charity in Western Europe:

">) the first stage - charity was the main source of social support for the poor in the Middle Ages, and the level of support is the level of physical survival of the poor;

">) the second stage - after the industrial revolution, countries introduced social insurance schemes to cover the risks of old age, industrial injuries and illnesses for workers in certain industries, later these schemes were expanded to all workers;

">) the third stage - after the Second World War, when the need to maintain the stability of society led to the fact that almost all countries of Western Europe were forced to expand the social protection system to all aspects of industrial and private life.

"> Public charity and charity were in the center of attention of medicine, pedagogy and practice, since the problem of mental disorders became especially acute not only for adults, but also for children who needed special conditions for education, training and maintenance.

"> 18. The formation of the system of state charity in Western Europe in the second half" xml:lang="en-US" lang="en-US">XVIII"> - start " xml:lang="en-US" lang="en-US">XX"> cc.

"> 19. Public Charity and Charity Abroad in the Modern Age.

"> 20. The emergence of social work as a professional work and its institutionalization.

"> ;background:#f2f0e8">Social work as a social phenomenon has been characteristic of human society since its inception: at various periods of its development, society helps its members to survive in various forms. This model of assistance is determined by the level of development of society, its culture in a particular historical period The very first forms of social assistance are almsgiving With the advent of the state, the process of providing assistance is enriched with systemic properties (legislative basis for assistance, regulation of the process, etc.).

;background:#f2f0e8">The spread of Christian ideology played a special role in the development of social work. In addition to the fact that the church is actively involved in real activities to create institutions to help and support various categories of the population, Christian doctrine introduces a new moral meaning into the process of providing assistance.

;background:#f2f0e8">The very understanding of such phenomena as poverty is being revised in the context of a kind of social and religious activity aimed at transforming the world in the image and likeness of God.

;background:#f2f0e8">In the second half of the 19th century, not only the state, the church, but also various public organizations, primarily charitable, educational societies, and feminist organizations began to play an active part in the processes of providing assistance.

;background:#f2f0e8">The state system of assistance and support has focused mainly on the treatment of social ailments, such as poverty, homelessness, and disability. In a number of countries, state organizations are emerging that purposefully implement state policy in the field of social security and support (Elberfeld social security system in Germany, Zemstvo charity system in Russia, etc.).

;background:#f2f0e8">Unlike the state, public organizations provide assistance to those categories of the population with which the state cannot interact due to various circumstances (for example, work with deviant groups in England, educational activities in Russia, work with emigrants in America) .

;background:#f2f0e8">Social assistance as a type of practical activity begins to be distinguished in the field of such knowledge as medicine, sociology, psychology. The question is raised of professional systemic assistance to various categories of citizens, and this involves special training of workers in educational institutions was opened at Columbia University in the 1980s.) Social work takes on the form of a profession and a separate field of scientific knowledge.

;background:#f2f0e8">At the present stage of development of society, social work no longer has the unified form that could be observed at the end of the last century. Today, this profession is divided into many subspecies, and various concepts are distinguished in the theory of social work. But regardless of interpretation of the concept itself, from the features of the assistance model, the main task of social work today is to help the client in solving vital problems.

;background:#f2f0e8">The Institute of Modern Social Work in Russia arose as a result of the activities of certain social groups, the elements of which are quite active subjects with social thinking and responsibility;color:#000000;background:#f2f0e8">;background:#f2f0e8">. Undoubtedly, this institution has its own social base, the basis for which was laid by natural and social inequality, social differentiation of society as a whole.

;background:#f2f0e8">The development of social work in Russia has its own logic and features, which are expressed in the conceptual apparatus of the history of Russian social assistance (charity and charity are the main, specific concepts of domestic experience) both in content and in forms. This specificity was formed in the conditions of the civilizational originality of Russia (features of the way of life, mentality, cultural traditions, folk pedagogy, etc.).

;background:#f2f0e8">Identification of the main stages of pre-revolutionary activities for charity and charity is connected with the nature of the participation of various forces in it: the church, the state, the public.

;background:#f2f0e8">So, the first stage: X mid-eighteenth centuries is marked by active charitable activities of the church and the gradual formation state system charity. By the second half XVIII century Russia is developing a sustainable state policy aimed at helping the disadvantaged and the needy.

;background:#f2f0e8">Effective forms and methods of helping those in need appear: orphans, illegitimate children, widows, the elderly, the disabled, the disabled, the crippled, the mentally ill, imprisoned victims of fire, etc. There are two types of charity: "closed" in specially created for this, institutions (hospitals, orphanages, almshouses, etc.), "open" outside institutions, carried out in the form of pensions, benefits, provision of land, profession.Church and private charity exist along with state charity and sometimes play a leading role.

;background:#f2f0e8">Second stage: mid-18th mid-19th centuries functioning of state-public charity. Of particular importance in this direction is the activity of Catherine II to strengthen the legislative and organizational base of charity (opening orders for public charity); development the system of closed charity under the leadership of I. I. Betsky, and the emergence of public charity (the creation of public charitable societies such as the Free Economic Society, the Imperial Philanthropic Society, etc.).

;background:#f2f0e8">The third stage: the reforms of 1861 1917 the period of public charity. In the post-reform period, public charity and charity underwent serious changes: qualitatively new principles of organization and activities of charity societies and institutions appeared. Distinctive features of charitable activities become decentralization, "openness" and public charity, focus on prevention in social activities, the emergence and dissemination of original forms and methods of work with a wide contingent of the population, as well as an increase in the number of private charity.Despite the numerous shortcomings of the Russian charitable system (the most important of which are dispersal of funds and efforts, lack of a unified program), this time was a heyday in the history of domestic social assistance.

;background:#f2f0e8">The post-revolutionary and Soviet period is characterized by the development, mainly, of the social security system, which took shape as a whole by the end of the 20s. In modern conditions, a model of social work is being formed that reflects the features of the social processes of modern Russia and uses the experience and traditions of organizing social activities in the field of charity and welfare.

"> 21. The emergence of the theory of social work, its founders.

"> 22. Social work in the developed countries of the world: general and special.

;background:#ffffff">When they write about social work abroad, they usually mean Western European countries, the USA and Canada. However, in certain forms, different or similar methods, with different returns and efficiency, social work is carried out in all countries. Russia is not an exception. And although many foreign">

;background:#ffffff">and Russian researchers note that social work in our country allegedly began only in the 90s of the current century,">

;background:#ffffff">this is absolutely wrong.">

;background:#ffffff">First of all, you need to keep in mind two aspects in the social">

;background:#ffffff"> work, in the social protection of certain strata and groups of the population. As an activity aimed at providing support, protecting people who find themselves in difficult situations, social work has appeared since the emergence and development of human society. Of course, it in different periods it had a different character, was carried out by different methods and in different forms, did not concern all segments of the population and was assessed differently by society and its various institutions.As you know, helping the poor, crippled, charity has always taken place. Russia in Russia, as evidenced by historical documents.">

;background:#ffffff">However, only at the end of the 20th century and the beginning of the 20th century, social work was formed as a type of professional activity. The official recognition of social work as a profession, specialty, the introduction of the position of a social worker in official state documents was carried out in different countries at different times.">
;background:#ffffff"> Further, social work becomes relevant when a society, a country is going through difficult periods, when social problems are sharply exacerbated. Moreover, the solution of these problems depends on the possibilities of the material (financial) base of social work, as well as on the essence and content social policy in society. After all, many problems of social protection are exacerbated not only due to the economic situation in society, but also as a result of the social policy of the state, carried out in the interests of only certain groups of the population. After all, often first problems are generated for various reasons, and then with them are trying (successfully or unsuccessfully) to fight (which is what Russia is now demonstrating.) That is why social policy should be aimed not only at helping certain segments of the population, but also at preventing or (in any case) mitigating certain social problems, let's say unemployment, drug addiction, crime, etc., i.e. have a leading character kter.">

;background:#ffffff">The study of foreign experience of social work involves the use of a number of methods. Among them are both general (historical, system analysis, comparison, etc.) and more specific (survey, observation, analysis of documents, etc. .) methods.">

;background:#ffffff">^ ;background:#ffffff">Historical method;background:#ffffff"> allows you to compare how the process of formation and development of charity in various countries went, how professional social work was born and developed.">

;background:#ffffff">^ ;background:#ffffff">Comparative method;background:#ffffff"> allows you to select objects of comparison, including countries, taking into account their level of socio-political and socio-economic development. On this basis, you can (and should) distinguish between capitalist and non-capitalist countries (in the latter case, China, Vietnam, North Korea, Cuba, as well as the socialist period of development in our country and in other countries).">

;background:#ffffff">Studying the experience of social work abroad also suggests a typology of countries according to the established systems of social work, in particular, according to the role of the state in solving the problems of social protection of the population. support for socially weak strata) and the European system (with a predominance in the latter of state forms of assistance and support for the population">.

;background:#ffffff">Comparison of social work can also be carried out taking into account the predominance of market or planned forms of farming. And in this case, the experience of both current and former socialist countries is especially important, in which there are very essential role in the social support of the population play (or played) public consumption funds used to provide free education, medical care, recreation, etc.">

;background:#ffffff">^ ;background:#ffffff">System method;background:#ffffff"> allows you to study foreign experience of social work as complete system, which includes such elements (components) as objects and subjects, content, means, management, functions and goals of social work. And in this case it is possible comparative analysis both the systems of social protection of individual (or groups) countries as a whole, and their individual most important components. The interrelation of regional studies and subject-object, functional (that is, by directions) approaches is natural and inevitable. At the same time, each of them can prevail depending on the goals and objectives of the study of social work.">

;background:#ffffff"> It is clear that along with the above-mentioned general methods of studying foreign experience of social work, private methods (observation, document analysis, etc.) are certainly used both in aggregate and each separately.">

;background:#ffffff"> Practice shows that when studying foreign experience, such forms (and techniques) as holding international conferences, colloquia and seminars can be used (and are already being used), " round tables”, business trips, work and study in social educational institutions and social services of foreign countries; preparation of joint books, brochures, textbooks and manuals, etc. In this regard, we can note the developing contacts of the SASBU with a number of educational institutions in the USA, Germany, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Malta and other countries.">

;background:#ffffff"> The above methodological and methodological aspects, in our opinion, are very important for a correct understanding of the experience of social work that has been accumulated both in individual countries and in various regions of the world. In any case, this experience must be known, for its study, comprehension and reasonable adaptation can be of considerable importance for any country, including, of course, for Russia.

"> 23. European social space and social protection management system.

"> The system of European social cooperation can be conditionally represented in three dimensions:

"> - the European Community (due to the fact that the Community unites several European structures, the name European Communities EU is used in official documents);

"> - Council of Europe (CE);

"> - Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE).

"> If the last two structures represent social interests in the field of human rights, then the EU (also known as the Common Market) is a single economic, financial and social space.

"> The beginning of the existence of the OSCE was laid by the signing on August 1, 1975 by the leaders of 33 European states, the United States and Canada of the Final Act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe in the conditions of bipolar international relations with the aim of promoting the improvement of relations between the capitalist and socialist countries. The main focus of the OSCE is the creation of an international mechanism for the protection of human rights, the establishment of the principles of democracy and the rule of law, which has been recognized as the "human dimension of the pan-European process."

"> Another important structure of European social interaction is the Council of Europe a consultative inter-parliamentary organization established in 1949 to promote integration processes. About a hundred different conventions and agreements have been concluded within the framework of the Council of Europe, which, although they are advisory in nature, are taken into account by European states when formation of social policy.

"> 24. The welfare state and its role in the formation of a modern system of social protection.

"> A welfare state is a higher level of statehood. Based on the term, it can be defined as a state that serves the interests of society. Today Scandinavian countries more than others embody in practice the model of the state, which was discussed.

"> The first thing that comes to the mind of an ordinary citizen when the term "welfare state" is mentioned is the social protection of such categories of citizens as pensioners, the disabled, the poor. Powerful social protection is possible only when there is the necessary material potential for this. That's why among the features of a welfare state, the first place should be given to those that concern citizens who create the wealth of society, namely, able-bodied.

"> The idea of ​​social statehood was formed at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries as a result of objective socio-economic processes taking place in the life of bourgeois society, when two of its most important principles came into conflict - the principle of freedom and the principle of equality. Theoretically, there were two approaches to the correlation of these principles Adam Smith, John Stuart Mill, Benjamin Constant, John Locke and others defended the theory of individual human freedom, imputing the state as the main duty to protect this freedom from any interference, including from the interference of the state itself.At the same time, they understood that in the long run, such freedom would lead to inequality, but freedom was considered the highest value.

"> Another approach is personified by Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who, without denying the importance of individual freedom, believed that everything should be subject to the principle of equality, which is the task of the state to ensure.

"> The principle of individual freedom, which liberated the initiative and self-activity of people, contributed to the development of private entrepreneurship and the market economy, thus had an economic basis in the period of strengthening the economic power of bourgeois states. However, by the end of the 19th century, as wealth developed and accumulated, it began to occur property stratification of bourgeois society, its polarization, fraught with a social explosion.And in this situation, the principle of individual freedom lost its relevance and gave way to the principle of social equality, requiring the state to move from the role of "night watchman" to active intervention in the socio-economic sphere. in such a historical and political environment, the concept of a welfare state, an understanding of its special qualities and functions, begins to take shape.

"> In the future, the idea of ​​a social state begins to receive more and more recognition, to be embodied in the practice and constitutions of modern states. For the first time, the state was called social in the Constitution of Germany in 1949. One way or another, the principle of sociality is expressed in the constitutions of France, Italy, Portugal, Turkey, Spain, Greece, the Netherlands, Denmark, Sweden, Japan, etc. Of great importance for the theory and practice of the welfare state was the teaching of the English economist J. Keynes, under the influence of whose views the concept of the welfare state was formed, proceeding from the increase in the social function of the state.

"> It should be noted that undoubtedly the catalyst for the development of the idea of ​​a welfare state and its implementation in the West was the emergence of the Soviet state, which constantly declared in its Constitutions and other legislative acts the social orientation of politics. And, although the political theory and declarations of socialism were in conflict with realities of the absence of democracy, civil society, the rule of law and private property as the economic basis of these institutions, one cannot deny the real achievements in the social policy of the socialist states.Of course, in these socio-economic conditions, the socially oriented activity of the socialist state could only have a paternalistic (fatherly) character associated with the establishment of wretched equality.

"> Stages of development:

"> the first stage (from the 70s of the 19th century to the 30s of the 20th century) is socialist;

"> the second stage (from the 30s to the end of the 40s of the twentieth century) - a legal social state;

"> the third stage (from the end of the 40s to the 60s of the twentieth century) - the state of social services;

"> the third stage (from the end of the 50s to the middle of the 80s of the twentieth century) - the welfare state;

"> the fifth stage (from the beginning of the 80s to the middle of the 90s of the twentieth century) - the destruction and crisis of the welfare state;

"> the sixth stage (from the mid-90s of the twentieth century to the present) - a liberal welfare state.

;background:#ffffff">It is important to understand the essence of the state is to understand its goals, objectives and social purpose. Plato and Aristotle believed that the state exists for the sake of establishing moral standards, achieving the common good of people and justice. Plato believed that the state creates the needs of people and it is useful.According to Aristotle, the state is the political communication of citizens.It ensures life in accordance with virtue.Modern Western political scientists believe that the state exists for the sake of creating a variety of social benefits for all members of society, a fair distribution of these benefits (Rostow et al. All this captures only certain aspects of the social essence of the state. The main thing in the social essence of the state is that it is the organizational form of society, its cohesion and functioning on generally recognized principles and norms.

Order writing a unique work

Periodization of the history of social work abroad and in Russia.

Social work as a theory and practice of helping a person in crisis situations has deep roots, manifesting itself in national traditions that have consolidated the socio-cultural principles of responding to changes in the life scenario of an individual. The theory of social work, having passed a certain socio-historical path of development, today is an independent kind of scientific knowledge that has a generally significant value.

In its historical development, social care for the needy took on various forms - from alms to an organized state system of social protection, combined with various types of public and private charity.

The term "social work" was first used in England in connection with the expansion at the beginning of the 20th century of the activities of one of the religious public organizations (COS), engaged in philanthropy, or as it was called then - "amateur (amateur) work." In accordance with this, a task arose for this organization - the transformation of unskilled activities into professional ones based on social theories and special training. This new activity became known as social work. Long before the emergence of the term in society, they began to highlight activities aimed at supporting various groups of the population who find themselves in a difficult life situation.

In modern literature, there are five periods in the history of social work abroad.

1) The archaic period of charity (before the formation of the first slave states at the end of the 3rd millennium - the first half of the 2nd millennium BC).

2) Philanthropic period (approximately until the 5th century AD).

3) The period of public (community, church) charity (until the beginning of the 16th century).

4) The period of state charity (until the turn of the XIX-XX centuries).

5) The period of social work (continuing to the present).

The scientific stage of the formation of social work

The scientific stage in the formation of social work is associated with many factors of its evolution and, above all, with a change in social ties and relations that have changed qualitatively in many countries by the beginning of the 20th century. What are the reasons for changing the paradigm of social assistance? The main reasons were the following:

The destruction of a single community associated with general principles and the norms of existence;

Urbanization and industrialization;

The increase in social ties and the expansion of relationships in which a person has become involved.

These are the main reasons that influenced the evolution of social work in general. What are the macro-, meso- and micro-factors of evolution at the beginning of the 20th century, which led to a significant change in the process of assistance and the formation of the theory and practice of social work?

Macrofactors of evolution:

Industrial Revolution of the beginning of the century;

Changes in social policy in the field of human rights and its protection;

Organization of a social insurance system for the sick and the elderly.

Mesofactors of evolution:

Shifting the focus of assistance from material assistance to teaching clients to solve their problems on their own;

Changing the practical orientation of social workers, the transition from solving class problems to solving specific problems of the individual.

Microfactors of evolution:

Concentration of attention of social workers "at work with the case";

Substantiation and introduction into practice of psychoanalytic approaches "with a case";

The formation of techniques and methods of individual work, when the activity of a social worker is based on the client's requests.

The first practical steps in the field of theoretical understanding of social work were taken by feminists in many countries of the Western world - Alice Solomon in Germany, Maria Gaheri in France, Elizabeth Fry in England, Jane Adams in the USA.

But the greatest success in the field of theoretical research is achieved by M.Richmond (M.Richmond), who described the method of individual work with those in need. Her approach was formed on the basis of medical methods, the behavioral school of psychology, the psychoanalysis of Z. Freud. One of the first books by M. Richmond in the field of the theory of social work was the fundamental work "Friendly visit to the poor: a guide for those working in charitable organizations."

In 1917, the book "Social Diagnoses" was published, in which M. Richmond described the theoretical and methodological foundations of individual social work.

In 1921-1930, psychological knowledge "penetrated" into individual methods of social work. The "new psychology", represented by the behaviorist school, the Adler school, the Freudian school, the Jung school, is reflected in the theory and practice of social work.

Since 1922, M. Richmond has been developing the principles of "social individual work", which M. Richmond calls the "principles of mental hygiene". Subsequently, these principles will be taken as the basis of the ethical code of the social worker.

The theoretical activity of M. Richmond laid the foundations for a certain approach, a school of social work, known as the "diagnostic school" (the approach of this school to social work is accordingly called the "diagnostic approach").

Another approach to the development of theories and practices of social work is presented in the direction that has been called the "functional school of social work". The ideologists of this direction were O. Rank (O. Rank) and J. Taft (J. Taft).

The focus of the functional method is the process that occurs between the social worker and the client. The functional school based its theoretical constructions not on a diagnosis, but on the process of interaction between a social worker and a client.

IN Russia periodization of the history of social work has its own specifics and is as follows.

Archaic period (before the formation of the Kyiv principality and the baptism of Rus' in the 9th-10th centuries). Tribal and communal forms of assistance and mutual assistance among the Slavs until the 10th century. help members of your community. The most common forms of helping the poor were feeding at home (the detainees spent the whole day in one house, moving to another the next day) and almsgiving.

The period of public (community, church) charity (X-beginning of the XVI centuries). It is characterized by the absence of a state system of social assistance to the population. The predominance of church charity. The most common form of help is giving alms. Development of princely charity (distribution of alms, adoption of decrees,

The period of church-state charity (XVI-XVII centuries). Gradually, the first closed institutions began to form, and the regulation of work with the poor was laid down. Hospitals were organized at the monasteries. Help in the parishes of the sick, the poor, etc.

The period of state charity (XVIII - early XX centuries). Formation of a system of state social assistance to the population. The system of state charity was laid down during the reign of Peter I. Almshouses for the old and crippled were built in all provinces. In the second half of the 18th century, care for socially unprotected categories of the population was recognized as an indispensable duty of the state. The first special state institutions for orphans are being established. The growth of capitalism determines the development of the charity of merchants and entrepreneurs. At this time, the transition from voluntary to professional assistance is also formalized. The first courses on public charity are opened. At the end of the 19th century, a number of areas of public charity emerged: charity for illegitimate babies, guardianship of adolescents (orphanages), charity for the blind and deaf and dumb, charity for the elderly and the provision of medical care. One of the largest societies during this period was the Imperial Humanitarian Society.

At the end of the 19th century, a movement of community sisters of mercy arose. They helped during epidemics and wars.

During this period, there was state, church-public, and private charity.

The period of social planning (1917-1991). The welfare system is being reformed. Charity is regarded as one of the means of the bourgeoisie. All charitable organizations were transferred to the state. Separate forms of private and public charity were taken over by the social security system. New orphanages are opening. State support is provided to those in need. One of the main ideas is social justice and comprehensive care for a person.

The period of social work (since the 1990s). The destruction of established socio-economic ties, the liberalization of prices, unemployment leads to an aggravation of social problems. There are short-term social programs. A system of assistance to those in need is being formed. In March-April 1991, the profession of "social work" was officially registered in state documents. The transformation of social work as a type of practical activity into an institution of Russian society meant that social work needed personnel and scientific support. The formation of a system of higher and secondary specialized education in this area and specialty began. Currently, more than 130 educational institutions of the country are training specialists in social work.

The peculiarities of national culture also influence the formation of national conceptions of the theory of SR.

The formation of the domestic theory of SR is represented by the following cycles:

1) the theory of alms, or the theory of social reconciliation and consent (the period of the early Middle Ages). The foundations of the theory of mercy are developed here in three main directions: the understanding of mercy as a philosophical category, as a Christian way, as a means of managing social relations;

2) the theory of charity, which was originally formalized by the state as the theory of poverty (XIV-XVIII centuries). The doctrine of aid represents poverty. Within the framework of this theory, its development is traced from worldly poverty to civilized forms of public charity, to the state stage of social assistance to Russia;

3) the cognitive model of helping those in need (XVIII century) is characterized by the fact that theological approaches to the personality of the client are replaced by societal ones, and individual fate is considered in the context of the visible needs and problems of society, in the context of its life, norms and values. In general, the directions of public thought that took shape during this period about helping one's neighbor both on the part of the Church and on the part of the state at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. gradually formed into a single scientific complex about private and public charity;

4) the theory of public (state) charity revealed a steady interest in the formation of a conceptual apparatus, the desire to define concepts in the context of world social thought, which made it possible to comprehend the development of social assistance in Russia in the context of foreign experience, but taking into account national and cultural originality. The main directions of social and scientific thought about the essence of public assistance were: theological and confessional; legal direction, theory of legislation in social issues; public charity and charity as a cultural-historical and socio-political process; education and correctional education; the system of aid organizations; training of specialists, etc.;

5) the theory of social security (20-90s of the XX century) went through two stages in its development: the first (1919-1941) - the understanding of social assistance narrowed compared to the pre-revolutionary period and found its expression, first of all, in social security and social insurance in a socialist society; the second period - (50-late 80s) was marked by the development of medical and labor expertise and methods of social and legal rehabilitation of disabled people;

6) the theory of social work has been formed since the beginning of the 90s. 20th century The scientific field of knowledge of SR is determined. The initial period is characterized by a certain influence of the American theoretical school. The rapid development of social knowledge and social science continues.

Foreign experience of social work is many-sided and diverse. Are there social workers in almost all countries? some of them received training in specialized educational institutions and consider themselves professionals in this field; others, who do not have special education, are engaged in social work on a voluntary basis or are employed in social institutions in auxiliary positions. social society mediation client

When people write about social work abroad, they usually mean Western European countries, the USA and Canada. However, social work is carried out in all countries with different impact and efficiency. And Russia is no exception. Although some researchers note that social work originated in Russia only in the 90s, this is absolutely not the case.

It is necessary to keep in mind two aspects in social work, in the social protection of various strata and groups of the population. As a type of activity that is aimed at providing support, protecting people in difficult situations, social work has appeared since the emergence and development of human society. Of course, in different periods it had a different character, was carried out by different methods and in different forms, and it did not concern all segments of the population. As you know, helping the crippled, charity has always been appropriate. And, of course, in Russia, in Rus', as evidenced by historical documents.

However, only from the end of XIX ? early 20th century social work is formed as a kind of professional activity. Official recognition as a profession of a specialty, the introduction of the position of a social worker in official state documents was carried out in different countries at different times.

In the analysis of foreign experience of working with older people, two opposite trends are clearly traced: its overestimation or unwillingness to use it. In the first case, it is believed that all social problems have been solved in the West and it is only necessary to use the developed models of social work with this category of the population. In the second case, it is argued that Russia has its own way, difficulties, problems, traditions and specifics, that it is not worth studying and using foreign experience. For example, in the United States, there are ten tasks, the implementation of which ensures the social protection of the elderly: 1. Adequate income. 2. Good (if possible) mental and physical health. 3. Suitable housing. 4. Increasing assistance to those who need state (public) support. 5. Employability. 6. Life in retirement in health, honor and dignity. 7. Engaging in meaningful activities. 8. Providing effective community services. 9. Conducting research to support and improve health and, ultimately, a happy life. 10. Freedom, independence and individual initiatives in planning and managing one's personal life. At the federal level, dozens are being implemented, and at the state level, hundreds of social programs that solve social and gerontological problems. A law on family and medical leave has been passed, according to which working family members have certain work benefits if they need to care for elderly family members. A distinctive feature of the late 20th century in social work with the elderly in America is the intensive development of the "third sector". These are public organizations and associations that work with the elderly, or organize activities aimed at improving this work. Involving the elderly themselves in active work, uniting the public and social workers in solving social and gerontological problems is a strategic task of democratizing social work and developing the volunteer movement. Public organizations serve as a kind of experimental platform where models of various programs with the elderly are being worked out, which then, having proved their effectiveness, can become programs and projects of the state or the country as a whole. A study of US volunteer organizations involved in social work with the elderly made it possible to distinguish 5 groups among them. I group. Public organizations uniting various categories of the elderly Group II. Public organizations dealing with general problems of the elderly. III group. Public organizations dealing with special problems of the elderly. IV group. A public organization that brings together professionals working with the elderly. Group V. Public organizations involved in training personnel for social work with the elderly. The historical roots of social work lie in the charitable activities of the church, in charity itself. However, at the beginning of the 20th century, the paths of development of social work in Russia and in the West diverged. In Soviet Russia, it became party-ideologized and super-centralized. Therefore, it is especially interesting to take into account the experience of Western professional social work in the 20th century, when it developed intensively and fruitfully and proved its effectiveness. In the Nordic countries, the bulk of social workers are employed by social welfare organizations run by local authorities. This also applies to some other European countries such as the UK. In addition to this, social workers are employed by other government agencies: health organizations, most often general and specialized hospitals, as well as open public medical institutions (like polyclinics in Russia), comprehensive schools and other educational organizations, prisons and correctional institutions. In the field of medical services, the traditional places of social work are psychiatric hospitals. As far as open public mental health services are concerned, practice varies. In the UK, social workers have a very strong position in mental health clinics, while in Finland some mental health clinics have stopped hiring social workers and prefer psychiatric nurses instead. In the countries of Central Europe, the approach is quite common when social workers work in public organizations or organizations for the provision of social services at churches. Voluntary organizations employ social workers in the Nordic countries as well. Previously, there was a practice when social workers were hired by enterprises. This was common in the days when businesses provided social services to their employees. This practice can still be observed in individual enterprises. I know there are similar examples in Spain and the Netherlands. With regard to the structure of the organization of social security at the level of local authorities, there are two models of organization: ? organization around existing problems (or sectors) ? territorial organization. Organization around existing problems (or sectors) means that social work is organized in accordance with the problems that clients have: there are social workers for social work with children, social workers for targeted social assistance, social workers dealing with problems of alcoholism, the disabled, the elderly etc. This kind of specialization is usually only possible in cities where local authorities can employ several different social workers. In rural areas, social work has always had a more general character, i.e. the same social worker deals with several types of issues. In some municipalities, while organizing work around existing problems, different levels of social workers have their own administrative departments. For example, social workers providing home care may have their own department, or childcare facilities that typically hire social educators may create their own administrative area.

Sociology, social work and statistics

The main trends in the history of social work abroad The periodization of the history of social work abroad repeats the main periods in the history of the development of peoples: modern times XX century In addition to this classification, the following is no less common: five periods in the history of social work abroad: 1.

11.Main trends in the history of social work abroad

The periodization of the history of social work abroad repeats the main periods in the history of the development of peoples:

1. The development of public and state measures to help those in need among the ancient peoples ( II millennium BC V century AD).

2. The development of charity and the participation of the authorities in solving social problems in the Middle Ages ( V middle of the 17th century).

3. The development of social work in modern times (mid XVII beginning of the XX century).

4. The development of social work in modern times ( XX century - present time).

In addition to this classification, the following is no less common: five periods in the history of social work abroad:

1. Archaic period of charity(before the formation of the first slave-owning states at the end of the 3rd millennium in the first half of the 2nd millennium BC).

II. Philanthropic period(approximately until the 5th century AD).

III. The period of public (community, church) charity(before the beginning of the 16th century).

IV. Public charity period(until the turn of the XI X-XX centuries).

V. Period of social work(until now).

IN ancient Chinese civilizationlove for one's neighbor, mutual respect and support were among the most important moral commandments. This was included among the ancient Chinese in the concepts of "humanity", "justice and duty". They were part of the Chinese ethical system of the "five constancy", developed by Confucius and denoting the relationship between neighbors: "fatherly love, filial piety, friendly attitude of the elder brother to the younger, respectful attitude of the younger brother to the elder, harmony between spouses".

Traditions of mercy, humane attitude towards neighbor, compassion were inherent in the spiritual culture ancient india . In the religious books of the ancient Indians, one can find sayings: “Be kind to all living beings, rejoice at the sight of virtue, have compassion and sympathy for the suffering, be tolerant of the idle and behaving badly.”

Later legal documents began to appear regulating social interaction the most famous of these documents is the "Laws of Manu". They described the forms of marriage, the mechanisms of adoption, the peculiarities of inheritance of property (children, the weak-minded, the poor and the sick were excluded from the number of heirs).

The ideas of mercy, mutual support, charitable activities were developed in the spiritual culture of the ancient world. IN ancient greece it was considered a duty to support the poor, because these needy were related to, or so-called clients of, those families whose ancestors were the founders of the city-state.

It was in the ancient Greek polis states that the foundations of state regulation of charity and charity were laid.

Already in the heroic period, due to religious beliefs, strangers and beggars were considered under the special protection of Zeus. In addition, it was assumed that the gods themselves often wander the earth disguised as humans. Therefore, the guest who arrived was cordially greeted, served water for washing hands and feet, treated him, and only then asked who he was, where he came from and why; when they left, they gave him good gifts. They also showed compassion to the poor, gave alms, shelter, sometimes clothes and shoes, invited to participate in feasts.

Subsequently, the first public hotels for visitors appeared in Corinth and Athens, which existed at public expense. Accommodation in a hotel did not require money, but the visitor had to take care of his own food.

Support for the poor was one of the most important concerns in the Greek city-states. Distributions of supplies and money to poor citizens were often arranged. At the same time, measures were taken to care for military invalids, who, together with their families, were supported by the state. Solon (640 / 635-559 BC) is credited with a law according to which all citizens maimed in war were kept at the expense of the state. Later, this decree was extended to all the poor who were unable to work. Periodically, they were required to appear at the council for examination, under the threat of deprivation of their pension. Sometimes, in lean years, the starving were helped in the form of free distribution or cheap sale of bread purchased by the treasury.

The problem of organizing social assistance was also faced by the rulers ancient rome . Trying to ensure order in the state in a philanthropic way, Augustus established special positions of officials responsible for organizing public works, for distributing bread among the people; under Claudius, officials responsible for the care of orphans appear. Thus, state philanthropy for the first time acquired a socially organized character with a system of management, subordination and control.

Particular attention in ancient Rome was given to charitable assistance and charity for orphaned and abandoned children, children of poor parents, who appeared in many at the decline of the Roman Empire. This assistance was provided at the state level. Under the emperors Nerva and Trajan, various estates were bought up by the state and leased or received a loan secured by land. The income received was used to raise children, especially orphans.

During the period from the II century. BC e. according to the II century. n. e. The legal system of ancient Rome, the so-called Roman law, took shape. There were also a number of articles in it that directly or indirectly dealt with the problems of charity:

Adoption of two types: to obtain an heir in the absence of their own children and adoption to obtain additional labor in the family.

Custody and trusteeship was called upon to express concern for the wards, since, according to Roman law, they did not have any property and the ability to dispose of it independently.

Types of guardianship and guardianship were distinguished depending on the object of guardianship:

care for minors;

guardianship of women;

Guardianship of the insane;

Guardianship of squanderers.

Thus, both in ancient Greece and in ancient Rome, philanthropic activities were especially developed, carried out both by the state and by private individuals, and often meant any good undertaking: this could include the distribution of money and bread, as well as the organization of festivities and spectacles.

The era of the Middle Ages begins with the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD. and ends in the middle of the 17th century with the victory of the English bourgeois revolution. Within this period, three stages are distinguished: 1) the early Middle Ages (5th-11th centuries); 2) the classical Middle Ages (11-15 centuries); 3) late medieval(16-17 centuries) the period of the crisis of feudalism and the formation of bourgeois society in European countries.

The social relations that developed in the eastern countries in the previous period did not undergo significant changes in the Middle Ages and retained their fundamental features: the principles of collectivism implemented through the community for the bulk of the working classes, the unlimited power of the ruler, vertical ties in society - everything remained unchanged for many centuries.

The era of the Western Middle Ages is inextricably linked with the spread of Christianity.

In the Middle Ages, a very important function passed to the Church to maintain social peace and smooth out social contradictions. Sympathy for the lower classes and condemnation of their oppressors stemmed in large part from the social teaching of the Church, which formally exalted poverty as an ideal state. The program of the church in this regard was actually reduced to the demand for alms in favor of the poor. There are well-defined rules for giving alms:

1) only direct alms given from hand to hand are valuable;

2) alms were given secretly, in passing;

3) “blind” almsgiving is important, without clarifying the reasons for begging and the circumstances where almsgiving will go;

4) the beggar must know the name of the beggar in order to pray for him in church, and feedback is optional here.

An important phenomenon was the emergence of "beggarly" monastic orders that made poverty an ideal, such as the orders of the Franciscans, Dominicans, Premonstratensians, Carthusians and Cistercians. The named orders also arose in the 11th-12th centuries, opposed themselves to the monks of the old orders (such as the Benedictines).

The Church was not limited only to sermons about the need for alms, but sought to actually help those in need. So, up to a quarter of church income was used for religious or charitable purposes. Gradually, the strengthening of the church system led to the fact that the distribution of bread and the compilation of lists of those in need of help became the prerogative of the church. In this case, the charitable work of the bishop is noteworthy. St. Vasily (329-379), who organized at the gates of the city a shelter for the elderly, a hospital, a hospice and an almshouse for the weak and crippled. Both church income and private donations from parishioners served as sources for organizing charitable institutions.

Up to the XIII century. every 3-5 years, crop failure regularly caused famine. There was a kind of frightening cycle: bad weather -> crop failure -> rising prices -> famine -> eating surrogates -> epidemic -> pestilence.

One of the strict concerns of the church in lean years was the obligation to feed the hungry, clothe them and provide temporary shelter. Every major abbey had almsgiving and hospitality services, as well as two special officers who carried out these obediences.

Another misfortune of medieval Europe was regular epidemics of various infectious diseases and horrific infant mortality, which was considered normal.

The appearance of "fever" underlay the emergence of a special cult, which led to the founding of a new monastic order and thus to the emergence of a new type of orders - hospitallers. So the devotees of St. Anthony (Antonites). The fever disease was replaced by a no less terrible epidemic of another disease leprosy (or leprosy), the cause of which in Europe is considered to have begun as a result of the Crusades, communication with foci of infection in the East.

The consequence of the spread of leprosy was the emergence of special isolation rooms for patients leper colonies organized by the specially established Catholic Church for the care of lepers by the Order of St. Lazarus (hence the infirmaries). In the middle of the XIV century. an even more terrible epidemic disease came to Europe, putting the Western world on the verge of life and death the plague.

In conditions of recurring epidemics, it is monasteries, as places of relative stability, that turn into centers for the distribution of alms. The role of the monasteries during this period can hardly be overestimated: in addition to distributing alms, they organized constant assistance to those in need through the construction of monastic hospitals.

At the same time, there are attempts to regulate assistance to those in need. In 1458, the so-called Chamber of the Poor was established in Antwerp. Plague epidemics also marked the beginning of the formation of sanitary legislation and urban sanitation. In 1348, a sanitary council was organized in Venice, and special overseers, “health trustees,” appeared in a number of Italian ports.

In Great Britain, the first decrees concerning social problems appeared in the 16th century during the reign of Henry VIII (1531). It was the first attempt to move from church uncontrolled charity to a centralized system. Even then, the authorities came to the conclusion that by some redistribution of society's resources in favor of certain individuals, social problems could be eliminated or at least alleviated.

In 1607, Queen Elizabeth brought all laws and decrees into one “Law for the Poor”, which lasted a very long time, was often revised, and over time numerous changes were made to it, giving social assistance an increasingly humane character. The law provided:

Help for the elderly, the infirm and the poor;

Support, assistance to young artisans, merchants and the ruined;

Helping or freeing prisoners or captives.

The Middle Ages have been replaced by a new age. In European countries, an industrial or industrial civilization began to develop, opposite to the traditional society.

So, in England in 1834, the law on the poor was adopted, according to which the expenses for the poor were reduced to a minimum.

The response of working and needy sections of society was the emergence of Chartism, the first nationwide movement. A number of socio-economic demands were put forward: an 8-hour working day, the abolition of the Poor Law, and so on.

Trade unions (since 1824) have become another channel for protecting the interests of workers and low-income strata. In the middle of the 19th century, targeted assistance programs for specific social groups were already introduced in England, and this circle of persons eligible for social assistance was constantly expanding.

By the end of the 19th century In European countries, certain approaches have developed in solving some social problems. At the same time, two forms of social activity were used: through state authorities and social legislation, on the one hand, and through private charity of individuals, organizations, churches, on the other hand.

Since 1909, many new laws have been passed in Great Britain, which reflect the changes that have taken place in the mass consciousness and changes in social policy. In 1911, the National Insurance Law was passed, introducing compulsory insurance against sickness and unemployment. In 1925, laws on old-age pensions and on benefits for widows and orphans. In 1934, the Unemployed Persons Act was passed, under which assistance was provided to those without insurance, additional benefits were paid to pensioners and widows. Thus, in the 30s. in Great Britain, the unemployed, widows, orphans and war invalids received centralized assistance. Other categories of the population received social assistance from local administrations (county councils).

In other European countries, social protection systems do not have such deep roots. But, as in the UK in countries such as Germany, Sweden, Denmark, Finland, social protection as a system of legislative, economic and social guarantees for all groups of the population began to take shape at about the same time, towards the end of the 19th century.

For example, in Germany, Bismarck, in order to avoid the creation of an independent system by the workers themselves, passes a series of social laws: the law on health insurance (1884), the law on insurance against accidents (1885), the law on insurance in connection with old age and disability (1891). ). The created system of social protection was associated at that time in Germany, mainly with labor in industrial enterprises.

In Sweden, the development of the social insurance system began at the same time as in Germany, in the 80s. XIX years century, and the main attention was first paid to social assistance at the place of work. Since 1913, the first national social security program (the system of national pensions) began to be implemented. The next, third stage in the development of social insurance in Sweden is associated with the release of the Social Services Act in 1982, which includes all areas of social activity of the state.

In the United States, in 1935, President Roosevelt passed the Social Security Act, which included old-age insurance and unemployment benefits.

Since 1935, social work has been developing in North America in the context of active state intervention in the social sphere.

It is also necessary to note the emergence in the 19th century of the settlement movement (“settlement”, “settlement”). Representatives of the educated, wealthy part of society took part in this movement. Living in the neighborhood with the poor, feeling all the consequences of poverty, they became helpers of local residents. The movement of settlers (settlements) advocated social reforms. The main idea of ​​this movement was that the environment is sick and needs to be changed in order to end the poverty and unhappiness of the people. At the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century, the settlement movement went beyond Great Britain and spread to most Western European countries, the USA, Southeast Asia, and Japan.

The Settlement Movement, immediately after its inception, connected its activities with educational centers. These contacts and the desire to lay a scientific foundation for practical action first looked like exchange courses, and then resulted in the creation of the Chicago School of Citizenship and Philanthropy, which in 1920 became the School of Social Administration at the University of Chicago.

Social work developed rapidly in Europe as well. The Society for Organized Charity in London opens in 1903 the first special educational institution for the training of social workers, which is called the "School of Sociology". In 1912, this school was transformed into the department of social work of the London School of Economics.

In 1908, under the leadership of the founder of the women's movement in Europe, Alice Solomon, a women's school for social workers was opened in Germany. By 1910, there were already 14 schools of social work in developed European countries and the USA.

In 1899, an institute for the training of social workers was opened in Amsterdam.

In the 1920s, the first schools of social work were opened in Belgium, Norway, Sweden, and Italy. A school for the training of social workers is being opened even in Chile, the founder of which was the well-known public figure René Sandra.

The areas (directions) of practical social work of that time were:

1. study of the living conditions of dysfunctional families;

2. social work in medicine;

3. social work at school;

4. social psychiatry.

These areas of practical social work had independent curricula, which created difficulties in the transition from one area of ​​practical work to another. It should be noted, looking ahead, that all programs were aimed at teaching individual work with the client. Group work as an independent and theoretically substantiated method of social work was introduced into the training programs for social workers only in the 1940s.

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