Catherine's lifestyle 2. How the Empress Catherine became great. Catherine and educational institutions

It was not for nothing that she was called the Great during her lifetime. During the long reign of Catherine II, almost all spheres of activity and life in the state underwent changes. Let's try to consider who Catherine II really was and how much reigned in Russian Empire.

Catherine the Great: years of life and results of the reign

The real name of Catherine the Great - Sophia Frederick August Anhalt - Zerbskaya. She was born on April 21, 1729 in Stetsin. Sophia's father, the Duke of Zerbt, rose to the rank of field marshal of the Prussian service, claimed the Duchy of Courland, was the governor of Stetzin, he did not make a fortune in impoverished Prussia at that time. Mother - from not rich relatives of the Danish kings of the Oldenburg dynasty, a great aunt to the future husband of Sophia Frederica.

Not much is known about the period of life of the future empress with her parents. Sophia received a good, at that time, home education, which included the following subjects:

• German;
• French;
• Russian language (not confirmed by all researchers);
• dance and music;
• etiquette;
• needlework;
• basics of history and geography;
• theology (Protestantism).

The parents did not engage in the upbringing of the girl, only from time to time showing parental severity with suggestions and punishments. Sophia grew up a lively and inquisitive child, easily communicated with her peers on the streets of Shtetsin, to the best of her ability she got used to housekeeping and participated in household chores - her father could not support all the necessary staff of servants on his salary.

In 1744, Sophia Frederica, together with her mother, as an escort, was invited to Russia for the bride, and then married (August 21, 1745) to her second cousin, heir to the throne, Holsteiner by origin, Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich. Almost a year before the wedding, Sophia Frederica accepts Orthodox baptism and becomes Ekaterina Alekseevna (in honor of the mother of the ruling Empress Elizabeth Petrovna).

According to the established version, Sophia - Catherine was so imbued with her hopes for a great future in Russia that immediately upon arrival in the empire, she rushed furiously to study Russian history, language, traditions, Orthodoxy, French and German philosophy, etc.

Relations with the spouse did not work out. What was the true reason - is unknown. Perhaps the reason was Catherine herself, who before 1754 suffered two unsuccessful pregnancies without marital relations, as the generally accepted version claims. The reason could be Peter, who, as it is believed, was fond of rather exotic (having some external flaws) women.

Be that as it may, in the young grand-ducal family, the ruling Empress Elizabeth demanded an heir. On September 20, 1754, her wish came true - her son Pavel was born. There is a version that S. Saltykov became his father. Some believe that Elizabeth herself "planted" Saltykov in Catherine's bed. However, no one disputes that outwardly Paul is the spitting image of Peter, and the subsequent reign and character of Paul serve as further proof of the origin of the latter.

Elizabeth immediately after birth takes her grandson from her parents and takes care of his upbringing herself. Mother is only occasionally allowed to see him. Peter and Catherine are even more distant - the meaning of spending time together has been exhausted. Peter continues to play "Prussia - Holstein", and Catherine develops ties with the Russian, English, Polish aristocracies. Both periodically change lovers without a shadow of jealousy towards each other.

The birth in 1758 of Catherine's daughter Anna (it is believed that from Stanislav Poniatovsky) and the opening of her correspondence with the English ambassador and the disgraced field marshal Apraksin puts the Grand Duchess on the verge of being tonsured into a monastery, which did not suit her at all.

In December 1762, Empress Elizabeth dies after a long illness. Peter takes the throne and removes his wife to the far wing of the Winter Palace, where Catherine gives birth to another child, this time from Grigory Orlov. The child would later become Count Alexei Bobrinsky.

In a few months of his reign, Peter III manages to win over the military, nobles and clergy with his pro-Prussian and anti-Russian actions and desires. In the same circles, Catherine is perceived as an alternative to the emperor and a hope for changes for the better.

On June 28, 1762, with the support of the Guards regiments, Catherine makes a coup and becomes an autocratic ruler. Peter III abdicates the throne, and then dies under strange circumstances. According to one version, he was stabbed with a fork by Alexei Orlov, according to another, he escaped and became Emelyan Pugachev, etc.

• secularization of church lands - saved the empire from financial collapse at the beginning of the reign;
• the number of industrial enterprises doubled;
• treasury revenues increased 4 times, but despite this, after the death of Catherine, a budget deficit of 205 million rubles was revealed;
• the army doubled;
• as a result of 6 wars and in a "peaceful" way, the south of Ukraine, Crimea, Kuban, Kerch, partly the lands of White Russia, Poland, Lithuania, and the western part of Volhynia were annexed to the empire. The total acquisition area is 520,000 sq. km.;
• the uprising in Poland under the leadership of T. Kosciuszko was suppressed. Led the suppression of A.V. Suvorov, who as a result became Field Marshal General. Was it just a rebellion if such rewards are given for its suppression?
• uprising (or full-scale war) led by E. Pugachev in 1773 - 1775. In favor of the fact that it was a war, the best commander of that time, A.V., was again involved in the suppression. Suvorov;
• after the suppression of the uprising of E. Pugachev, the development of the Urals and Siberia by the Russian Empire began;
• over 120 new cities built;
• carried out territorial division empires in the provinces in terms of population (300,000 people - province);
• elected courts were introduced to try civil and criminal cases of the population;
• organized noble self-government in the cities;
• a code of noble privileges was introduced;
• there was a final enslavement of the peasants;
• a system of secondary education was introduced, schools were opened in provincial cities;
• the Moscow Orphanage and the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens were opened;
• paper money was introduced into the circulation of money and a banknote with owls was created in large cities;
• began to vaccinate the population.

What year did Catherine die?IIand her heirs

Long before her death, Catherine II began to think about who would come to power after her and be able to continue the work of strengthening the Russian state.

Son Paul, as the heir to the throne, did not suit Catherine, as an unbalanced person and too similar to ex-husband Peter III. Therefore, all her attention in the upbringing of the heir was given to her grandson Alexander Pavlovich. Alexander received an excellent education and married at the request of his grandmother. The marriage confirmed that Alexander was an adult.

Despite the desire of the Empress, who died of a cerebral hemorrhage in mid-November 1796, insisting on her right to inherit the throne, Paul I comes to power.

Descendants should evaluate how and how much the rules of Catherine II, but for a true assessment, it is necessary to read the archives, and not repeat what was written one hundred or one hundred and fifty years ago. Only in this case is it possible to correctly assess the reign of this outstanding person. Purely chronologically, the reign of Catherine the Great lasted 34 eventful years. It is known for certain and confirmed by numerous uprisings that not all the inhabitants of the empire liked what was done during the years of her enlightened rule.

After the shameful reign of Emperor Peter 3, the Russian throne was occupied by Empress Catherine 2 the Great. Her reign lasted 34 (thirty-four) years, during which Russia managed to restore order within the country and strengthen the position of the fatherland in the international arena.

The reign of Catherine II began in 1762. From the moment she came to power, the young empress was distinguished by her mind and desire to do everything possible so that order would come to the country, after long palace coups. For these purposes, Empress Catherine 2 the Great carried out in the country the so-called policy of enlightened absolutism. The essence of this policy was to educate the country, endowing the peasants with minimal rights, facilitating the opening of new enterprises, joining church lands to state lands, and much more. In 1767, the empress gathered in the Kremlin the Legislative Commission, which was supposed to develop a new, fair code of laws for the country.

Pursuing internal affairs state, Catherine 2 had to constantly look back at her neighbors. In 1768 the Ottoman Empire declared war on Russia. Each side pursued different goals in this war. The Russians entered the war hoping to secure access to the Black Sea. The Ottoman Empire expected to expand the boundaries of its possessions at the expense of the Russian Black Sea lands. The first years of the war did not bring success to either side. However, in 1770, General Rumyantsev defeated the Turkish army near the Larga River. In 1772, the young commander A.V. Suvorov, transferred to the Turkish front from the Commonwealth, was involved in the war. The commander immediately, in 1773, captured the important fortress of Turtukai and crossed the Danube. As a result, the Turks proposed peace, signed in 1774 at Kuciur-Kaynardzhi. Under this treaty, Russia received the territory between the southern But and the Dnieper, as well as the Yenikale and Kerch fortresses.

Empress Catherine 2 the Great was in a hurry to end the war with the Turks, since by 1773, for the first time, popular unrest began to rise in the south of the country. These unrest resulted in a peasant war led by E. Pugachev. Pugachev, posing as a miraculously saved Peter 3, raised the peasants to war with the empress. Russia did not know such bloody uprisings. It was only completed in 1775. Pugachev was quartered.

In the period from 1787 to 1791, Russia was again forced to fight. This time we had to fight on two fronts: in the south with the Turks, in the north with the Swedes. The Turkish company became a benefit performance of Alexander Vasilyevich Suvorov. Russian commander glorified himself, gaining great victories for Russia. In this war, under the command of Suvorov, his student, Kutuzov M.I., began to win the first victories. The war with Sweden was not as fierce as with Turkey. The main events unfolded in Finland. The decisive battle took place in the Vyborg naval battle in June 1790. The Swedes were defeated. A peace treaty was signed, with the preservation of the existing borders of the state. On the Turkish front, Potemkin and Suvorov won one victory after another. As a result, Turkey was again forced to ask for peace. As a result of which, in 1791, the Dniester River became the border between Russia and the Ottoman Empire.

Empress Catherine II the Great did not forget about the western borders of the state. Together with Austria and Prussia, Russia participated in three sections of the Commonwealth. As a result of these partitions, Poland ceased to exist, and Russia regained most of the original Russian lands.

Private bussiness

Sophia Frederica Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst (1729-1796) Born in the German city of Stettin (now Szczecin in Poland) in the family of the governor of the city, Christian August and Johann Elisabeth. She was educated at home - languages, fine arts, history, geography, theology.

The fate of Frederica was decided in 1743, when Elizaveta Petrovna, choosing a bride for her heir Peter Fedorovich (the future Russian Emperor Peter III), remembered that her mother bequeathed her to become the wife of the Holstein prince, brother of Johann Elizabeth. In 1744, the Zerbst princess was invited to Russia to marry her second cousin Peter Fedorovich.

Immediately after her arrival in Russia, she began to study the Russian language, history, Orthodoxy, Russian traditions, trying to get to know Russia as fully as possible, which she perceived as a new homeland. In particular, she studied Orthodoxy under the guidance of the famous preacher Simon Todorsky.

On July 9, 1744, Sophia Frederick Augusta converted from Lutheranism to Orthodoxy, receiving the name Catherine Alekseevna (the same name and patronymic as Catherine I), and the very next day she was betrothed to the future emperor.

On October 1, 1754, Catherine gave birth to a son, Pavel. After this, the relationship between her and Peter, which had been tense before, completely deteriorated - Peter called his wife "reserve madam" and made mistresses, however, without interfering with Catherine's love affairs. The couple became even more distant after the accession of her husband to the throne under the name of Peter III in 1762 - he began to openly live with his mistress Elizaveta Vorontsova, settling his wife at the other end of the Winter Palace.

As emperor, Peter III did not gain popularity - he concluded an unfavorable treaty with Prussia for Russia, announced the sequestration of the property of the Russian Church, the abolition of monastic land ownership and shared with others plans to reform church rites. The reputation of the sovereign in the guard was especially hard hit. Supporters of the coup, "ripening" even before his ascension to the throne, also accused Peter III of ignorance, dementia, dislike of Russia, complete inability to rule. Against his background, the 33-year-old smart, well-read, pious and benevolent wife looked favorably. She eventually led the coup on July 9, 1762, in the absence of her husband, taking the oath of the guards. Peter III, seeing the hopelessness of resistance, abdicated the next day, was taken into custody and died under unclear circumstances (presumably he was poisoned). Ekaterina Alekseevna ascended the throne as the reigning empress with the name of Catherine II. To justify her own (and not the seven-year-old heir Paul) rights to the throne, Catherine referred to "the desire of all Our loyal subjects is clear and not hypocritical." According to Vasily Klyuchevsky, “Catherine made a double capture: she took away power from her husband and did not transfer it to her son, the natural heir of her father”

The first important step of the new ruler was the reform of the Senate, which was divided into six departments. At the same time, the general powers of the Senate were reduced - in particular, it lost its legislative initiative and became just a body of control over the activities of the state apparatus and the highest judicial authority. Thus, the center of legislative activity moved directly to Catherine and her cabinet with secretaries of state, which can be considered the beginning of the transition to a policy of absolutism. The Legislative Commission, which was convened, whose task it was to systematize laws, existed for a year and a half, after which it was dissolved under the far-fetched pretext of the need for deputies to go to war with the Ottoman Empire.

Catherine considered the “Charter on the Rights, Liberties and Advantages of the Noble Nobility” and the “Charter to the Cities”, published in 1785, to be the crowning achievement of her legislative activity. Both charters finally secured the pre-existing rights and privileges for the upper classes and introduced a number of new ones. Thus, the nobility was exempted from quartering military units and commands, from corporal punishment (as, according to the second document, merchants of the 1st and 2nd guilds and eminent citizens), received the right to own the bowels of the earth and the right to have their own class institutions. According to the historian Nikolai Pavlenko, "in the history of Russia, the nobility has never been blessed with such a variety of privileges as under Catherine II."

A parallel process naturally became the ongoing enslavement of the peasants, who were called "slaves" not only by later historians and foreign contemporaries, but also by happy owners, as well as the Empress herself. Decrees that worsened their situation were adopted throughout the reign of Catherine; so, since 1763, the maintenance of military teams sent to suppress peasant uprisings was assigned to the peasants themselves; two years later, the owners were given the right to send a peasant for disobedience not only into exile, but also to hard labor for an arbitrary period. To prevent the system from giving undesirable failures, two years later, the peasants were forbidden to complain about their master.

Such "pressure" could not pass without a trace - a series of uprisings of different scales followed. The plague epidemic caused the Plague Riot in Moscow in 1771. The uprising, which became one of the largest in the 18th century, was nevertheless suppressed by the troops under the command of Grigory Orlov extremely quickly - in just three days. Events unfolded quite differently two years later in the Urals.

Here, the Don Cossack Emelyan Pugachev, who declared himself Peter III (he was not the first, but the most successful of those who pretended to be miraculously saved emperor), managed to gather under his banner representatives of various social and ethnic groups, each of which had its own reasons for dissatisfaction. The core of the army became the Cossacks, dissatisfied with the loss of privileges, who were quickly supported by the workers (mostly ascribed peasants who, due to the obligation to work at the factory, did not have time for their own households), peasants and ethnic minorities (Bashkirs, Kazakhs and others). full scale Civil War lasted until 1775, becoming the largest confrontation of its kind from 1612 until the revolution itself. One of the consequences of the hardly suppressed uprising was some indulgence in relation to the Cossacks and (it became easier for them to receive the nobility), the peoples of the region (Tatar and Bashkir princes and murzas were equated) in rights and liberties with the Russian nobility) and workers (limitation of the working day, increase payment). In addition, the uprising became one of the pretexts for the liquidation of the Zaporozhian Sich. The situation of the peasants did not change in any way.

More important, however, the result of the uprising was the disaggregation of the provinces - 23 provinces were transformed into 53 governorships, each of which was divided into 10-12 counties. Since there were clearly not enough county centers, Catherine II renamed many large rural settlements into cities; In total, 216 cities appeared in Russia (taking into account the construction of new ones). The provincial division introduced by Catherine was preserved until 1917.

Main directions foreign policy in the reign of Catherine became Polish and Turkish. Under her, three divisions of the Commonwealth took place - (1772, 1773 and 1795) between Russia, Austria and Prussia; the result was significant territorial acquisitions of Russia. In 1794, an attempt was made to oppose the "tripartite annexation", but the uprising led by Tadeusz Kosciuszko was crushed by the troops of Alexander Suvorov, and soon after the third partition, as a result of the conference of three powers on the fall of the Polish state, it lost sovereignty.

The result of the first "Catherine" Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774 (declared by the Ottoman Empire) was the Kyuchuk-Kaynardzhi agreement, according to which the Crimean Khanate received formal independence (de facto becoming a vassal of Russia), and Russia - a solid indemnity and the northern coast of the Black Sea .

In 1787, Turkey tried to regain what was lost. The result was the brilliant victories of Rumyantsev, Orlov-Chesmensky, Suvorov, Potemkin, Ushakov and, as a result, the Yassy Peace Treaty of 1791, which secured the Crimea and Ochakov for Russia and pushed the border between the two empires to the Dniester. In general, following the results of two wars, the Northern Black Sea region, Crimea, and the Kuban region went to Russia; the authority of the empire on the world stage has grown tremendously. Another important outcome of the war was the Treaty of Georgievsk, which established a Russian protectorate over Georgia. According to many historians, these conquests are the main achievement of the reign of Catherine II.

The reign of Catherine II is often called the time of "enlightened absolutism". The empress was really well acquainted with the ideas of the European Enlightenment and its bearers - her correspondence with Voltaire, personal acquaintance with Diderot became textbooks. A significant impetus was given to education: the Public Library, the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens and the Novodevichy Institute for the education of petty-bourgeois girls, pedagogical schools in both capitals were founded. A network of urban schools based on the class-lesson system was created. The Academy of Sciences under Catherine became one of the leading European scientific institutions.

Catherine herself was engaged in literary activity - among her works are translations, fables, fairy tales, comedies, essays, librettos for five operas; participated in the weekly satirical magazine "Vssakaya zaschina", published since 1769 - and considered herself a patroness of the arts. True, researchers note that the favor of the Empress extended to a much greater extent to foreign authors, although it was during her reign that Denis Fonvizin and Gavrila Derzhavin flourished. Her attitude towards other remarkable contemporary writers was quite different.

The most affected of them were Alexander Radishchev and Nikolai Novikov. Although the "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow" does not contain calls for the elimination of serfdom and, moreover, the overthrow of the existing system, the author was sentenced to death by quartering (after pardon, replaced by a 10-year exile in Tobolsk) - because his book "is filled with harmful speculation that destroys public peace, detracts from the respect due to the authorities ... ”Novikov’s journal Truten, which allowed itself to write about the arbitrariness of the landlords in relation to the peasants, endemic corruption and other sores of society, was closed. Taught by bitter experience, the publisher in the new magazine "The Painter" tried to avoid sharp social topics, but the same fate befell him. Finally, although a study of the books published by Novikov, specially “ordered” by Catherine, did not reveal anything “harmful” in them, in 1785, by the personal decree of the empress, the publisher was imprisoned in the Shlisselburg fortress, from where only Paul I released him.

The empress, who ruled Russia for 34 years in a controversial manner, died on November 17, 1796 from a brain hemorrhage in the Winter Palace. She was buried in the tomb of the Peter and Paul Cathedral.

What is famous

"Tsar Baba" (in her own words), under which the Russian Empire acquired the status of a great power, the first in terms of population in Europe. In her era, the country made extremely important territorial acquisitions (expansion of a similar scale would only take place during the reign of Alexander II), the amount of state revenues quadrupled, and the army was doubled. The name of the "golden age" was firmly entrenched in Catherine's reign (although this is true mainly in relation to the nobility).

What you need to know

Favoritism has become one of the most striking - and invariably causing the widest interest - signs of Catherine's time. Repeated attempts were made to count the number of "persons especially close to the Empress." The most famous of them were Sergei Saltykov (according to some assumptions, the father of Paul I), who became the king of Poland after the connection with Catherine (and, apparently, partly due to that) Stanislav Poniatovsky, Grigory Orlov, Grigory Potemkin. With the latter, according to some reports, Catherine was secretly married. The Empress had two sons: Pavel I and (from Grigory Orlov) Alexei Bobrinsky; daughter Anna died in infancy.

Catherine's personal life is surrounded by many "scandals, intrigues and investigations." There is no doubt that her favorites received undeserved promotions that had a solid material and / or career equivalent: for example, Field Marshal Rumyantsev was removed from command of the army in favor of Potemkin, who envied him, despite undeniable military merits. The morals that reigned at the court, in general, “looking at faces”, and not at merit, set a bad example in the field: corruption became one of the integral features of the reign of Catherine II.

Direct speech

About the state:“In Russia, everything is a secret, but there are no secrets.”

About fortresses:“There are no slaves in Russia. The serfs in Russia are independent in spirit, although they are under compulsion in their bodies.

On the welfare of the people:"Our taxes are so easy that there is not a peasant in Russia who does not have a chicken when he wants it, and for some time now they have preferred turkeys to chickens."

About the welfare of the people -II (1770 - the year of the food riots):“In Russia, everything is proceeding as usual: there are provinces in which they hardly know that we have been at war for two years. Nowhere is there a shortage of anything: prayers of thanksgiving are sung, dancing and having fun.

About the sad fate of the ruler (addressing Denis Diderot):“You write on paper that will endure everything, but I, the poor empress, write on human skin, so sensitive and painful.”

On passion for literature and lawmaking:"I can't see a clean pen without feeling the urge to immediately dip it in ink."

About myself (prepared auto-epitaph):“Catherine II rests here. She arrived in Russia in 1744 to marry Peter III. At fourteen, she made a threefold decision: to please her husband, Elizabeth, and the people. She did not miss anything in order to achieve success in this respect. Eighteen years of boredom and loneliness led her to read many books. Having ascended the Russian throne, she made every effort to give her subjects happiness, freedom and material well-being. She forgave easily and hated no one. She was indulgent, loved life, had a cheerful disposition, was a true republican in her convictions and had a good heart. She had friends. The job was easy for her. She enjoyed secular entertainment and the arts."

Belgian Prince Charles Joseph de Ligne on Catherine's reign:“Catherine collected the unfinished fragments and unfinished parts that remained in Peter's workshop. Complementing them, she built a building and now, through hidden springs, she sets in motion a gigantic train, that is, Russia. She gave her a device, strength and fortress. This device, strength and fortress will flourish hour by hour more and more if Catherine's successors follow in her footsteps.

Alexander Pushkin on the reign of Catherine:“The reign of Catherine II had a new and strong influence on the political and moral state of Russia. Elevated to the throne by a conspiracy of several rebels, she enriched them at the expense of the people and humiliated our restless nobility. If to reign means to know the weakness of the human soul and use it, then in this respect Catherine deserves the astonishment of posterity. Her magnificence dazzled, her friendliness attracted, her bounties attached. The very voluptuousness of this cunning woman asserted her dominion. Producing a weak grumbling among the people, accustomed to respect the vices of their rulers, it aroused vile competition in the highest states, because there was no need for intelligence, merit, or talents to achieve second place in the state.

Friedrich Engels on the Catherine era:“The court of Catherine II turned into the capital of the then enlightened people, especially the French; she was so successful in misleading public opinion that Voltaire and many others sang "Northern Semiramis" and proclaimed Russia the most progressive country in the world, the fatherland of liberal principles, the champion of religious tolerance.

Vasily Klyuchevsky about a nobleman of the Catherine era:“... It was a very strange phenomenon: the manners, habits, concepts, feelings he had acquired, the very language in which he thought - everything was alien, everything was imported, and at home he had no living organic ties with others, no serious business ... in the West, abroad, they saw him as a disguised Tatar, and in Russia they looked at him as a Frenchman who was accidentally born in Russia.

8 facts about CatherineII

• System government controlled under Catherine II was reformed for the first time since the time of Peter I
• It was under Catherine II that serfdom was introduced in Little Russia and New Russia.
• The first few meetings of the Legislative Commission were devoted only to how to name the empress in gratitude for her initiative to convene the department; then the title "Catherine the Great" appeared
• Catherine was awarded the Russian orders of St. Catherine, St. Andrew the First-Called, St. George and St. Vladimir, the Swedish Order of the Seraphim and the Prussian orders of the Black and White Eagle
• Based on the materials prepared at the direction of Catherine, Voltaire wrote the story of Peter I, which was skeptically accepted by contemporaries.
• Catherine sniffed tobacco - but, in order not to poison her subjects with the smell, she took a pinch with her left hand
• The total number of Catherine's favorites according to an authoritative estimate is 23 people
• Among the actresses who played the Empress in the cinema are Pola Negri, Marlene Dietrich, Bette Davis, Svetlana Kryuchkova, Marina Vladi, Nonna Grishaeva

Materials about CatherineII

Sophia Frederick Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst is born April 21 (May 2) 1729 in a German Pomeranian town Stettin(now Szczecin in Poland). The father came from the Zerbst-Dornburg line of the Anhalt house and was in the service of the Prussian king, was a regimental commander, commandant, then governor of the city of Stettin, ran for the Dukes of Courland, but unsuccessfully, ended the service as a Prussian field marshal. Mother - from the family of Holstein-Gottorp, was the cousin of the future Peter III. Maternal uncle Adolf-Friedrich ( Adolf Fredrik) from 1751 was the king of Sweden (elected heir in the city). The genealogy of the mother of Catherine II goes back to Christian I, King of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, the first Duke of Schleswig-Holstein and the founder of the dynasty Oldenburg.

Childhood, education and upbringing

The family of the Duke of Zerbst was not rich, Catherine was educated at home. Studied German and French, dance, music, the basics of history, geography, theology. I was brought up in strictness. She grew up inquisitive, prone to outdoor games, persistent.

Ekaterina continues to educate herself. She reads books on history, philosophy, jurisprudence, writings Voltaire , Montesquieu , Tacitus , Bayle , a large number of other literature. The main entertainment for her was hunting, horseback riding, dancing and masquerades. The absence of marital relations with the Grand Duke contributed to the appearance of Catherine's lovers. Meanwhile, Empress Elizabeth expressed dissatisfaction with the absence of children from the spouses.

Finally, after two failed pregnancies, September 20 (October 1) 1754 Catherine gave birth to a son, whom they immediately take away from her, they call Paul (the future emperor Pavel I) and deprive them of the opportunity to educate, and only occasionally allow them to see. A number of sources claim that the true father of Paul was Catherine's lover S. V. Saltykov. Others - that such rumors are unfounded, and that Peter underwent an operation that eliminated a defect that made conception impossible. The issue of paternity aroused public interest as well.

After the birth of Pavel, relations with Peter and Elizaveta Petrovna finally deteriorated. Peter openly made mistresses, however, without preventing Catherine from doing this, who during this period had a relationship with Stanislav Poniatowski, the future king of Poland. December 9 (20) 1758 Catherine gave birth to a daughter, Anna, which caused great displeasure of Peter, who said at the news of a new pregnancy: “God knows where my wife gets pregnant from; I don’t know for sure if this child is mine and if I should recognize him as mine. At this time, the condition of Elizabeth Petrovna worsened. All this made the prospect of expelling Catherine from Russia or concluding her in a monastery real. The situation was aggravated by the fact that Catherine's secret correspondence with the disgraced Field Marshal Apraksin and the British Ambassador Williams, dedicated to political issues, was revealed. Her former favorites were removed, but a circle of new ones began to form: Grigory Orlov, Dashkova and others.

The death of Elizabeth Petrovna (December 25, 1761 (January 5, 1762)) and the accession to the throne of Peter Fedorovich under the name of Peter III further alienated the spouses. Peter III began to openly live with his mistress Elizaveta Vorontsova, settling his wife at the other end of the Winter Palace. When Catherine became pregnant from Orlov, this could no longer be explained by accidental conception from her husband, since communication between the spouses had completely ceased by that time. Ekaterina hid her pregnancy, and when the time came to give birth, her devoted valet Vasily Grigoryevich Shkurin set fire to his house. A lover of such spectacles, Peter with the court left the palace to look at the fire; at this time, Catherine gave birth safely. Thus, the first in Russia, Count Bobrinsky, the founder of a famous family, was born.

Coup June 28, 1762

1. It is necessary to educate the nation, which should govern.
2. It is necessary to introduce good order in the state, to support society and force it to comply with the laws.
3. It is necessary to establish a good and accurate police force in the state.
4. It is necessary to promote the flourishing of the state and make it abundant.
5. It is necessary to make the state formidable in itself and inspire respect for its neighbors.

The policy of Catherine II was characterized by progressive, without sharp fluctuations, development. Upon her accession to the throne, she carried out a number of reforms (judicial, administrative, etc.). The territory of the Russian state increased significantly due to the annexation of the fertile southern lands - the Crimea, the Black Sea region, as well as the eastern part of the Commonwealth, etc. The population increased from 23.2 million (in 1763) to 37.4 million (in 1796), Russia became the most populous European country (it accounted for 20% of the population of Europe). As Klyuchevsky wrote, “The army from 162 thousand people was strengthened to 312 thousand; from 16 million rubles. rose to 69 million, that is, increased by more than four times, the success of foreign trade: the Baltic; in an increase in import and export, from 9 million to 44 million rubles, the Black Sea, Catherine and created - from 390 thousand in 1776 to 1900 thousand rubles. in 1796, the growth of domestic turnover was indicated by the issue of a coin in 34 years of the reign for 148 million rubles, while in the 62 previous years it was issued only for 97 million.

The Russian economy continued to be agrarian. The share of the urban population in 1796 was 6.3%. At the same time, a number of cities were founded (Tiraspol, Grigoriopol, etc.), iron smelting increased by more than 2 times (in which Russia took 1st place in the world), and the number of sailing and linen manufactories increased. In total, by the end of the XVIII century. there were 1200 large enterprises in the country (in 1767 there were 663 of them). The export of Russian goods to European countries has increased significantly, including through the established Black Sea ports.

Domestic politics

Catherine's commitment to ideas Enlightenment determined the nature of its domestic policy and the direction of reforming various institutions of the Russian state. To characterize the domestic policy of Catherine's time, the term " enlightened absolutism". According to Catherine, based on the works of the French philosopher Montesquieu, the vast Russian expanses and the harshness of the climate determine the regularity and necessity of autocracy in Russia. Based on this, under Catherine, the autocracy was strengthened, the bureaucratic apparatus was strengthened, the country was centralized and the system of government was unified.

Laid commission

An attempt was made to convene Legislative Commission which would systematize the laws. The main goal is to clarify the people's needs for comprehensive reforms.

More than 600 deputies took part in the commission, 33% of them were elected from the nobility, 36% - from the townspeople, which also included the nobles, 20% - from rural population (state peasants). The interests of the Orthodox clergy were represented by a deputy from the Synod.

As the guiding document of the Commission of 1767, the Empress prepared " order» - theoretical justification enlightened absolutism.

The first meeting was held in the Faceted Chamber in Moscow

Due to the conservatism of the deputies, the Commission had to be dissolved.

Shortly after the coup, the statesman N. I. Panin proposed to create an Imperial Council: 6 or 8 senior dignitaries rule jointly with the monarch (as the conditions of 1730). Catherine rejected this project.

According to another project, Panin was transformed Senate- Dec 15 1763 It was divided into 6 departments, headed by chief prosecutors, the prosecutor general became the head. Each department had certain powers. The general powers of the Senate were reduced, in particular, it lost the legislative initiative and became the body of control over the activities of the state apparatus and the highest judicial authority. The center of legislative activity moved directly to Catherine and her office with secretaries of state.

Provincial reform

Nov 7 In 1775, the "Institution for the administration of the provinces of the All-Russian Empire" was adopted. Instead of a three-tier administrative division - province, province, county, a two-tier administrative division began to operate - province , county(which was based on the principle of taxable population). Of the former 23 provinces, 50 were formed, each of which had 300-400 thousand residents. The provinces were divided into 10-12 counties, each with 20-30 thousand d.m.p.

Thus, the further need to maintain the presence of the Zaporizhzhya Cossacks in their historical homeland for the protection of the southern Russian borders has disappeared. At the same time, their traditional way of life often led to conflicts with the Russian authorities. After repeated massacres Serbian settlers, as well as in connection with the support of the Cossacks Pugachev uprising, Catherine II ordered to disband the Zaporizhzhya Sich, which was carried out on the orders of Grigory Potemkin to pacify the Zaporizhzhya Cossacks by General Petr Tekeli in June 1775.

The Sich was bloodlessly disbanded, and then the fortress itself was destroyed. Most of the Cossacks were disbanded, but after 15 years they were remembered and the Army of the Faithful Cossacks was created, subsequently Black Sea Cossack army, and in 1792 Catherine signs a manifesto that gives them the Kuban for eternal use, where the Cossacks moved, having founded the city Yekaterinodar.

The reforms on the Don created a military civil government modeled on the provincial administrations of central Russia.

The beginning of the annexation of the Kalmyk Khanate

As a result of the general administrative reforms of the 1970s aimed at strengthening the state, a decision was made to annex the Kalmyk Khanate to the Russian Empire.

By her decree of 1771, Catherine liquidated Kalmyk Khanate, thereby starting the process of joining the Kalmyk state to Russia, which previously had relations of vassalage with Russian state. The affairs of the Kalmyks began to be in charge of a special Expedition of Kalmyk Affairs, established under the office of the Astrakhan governor. Under the rulers of the uluses, bailiffs from among Russian officials were appointed. In 1772, during the Expedition of Kalmyk Affairs, a Kalmyk court was established - Zargo, consisting of three members - one representative each from the three main uluses: Torgouts, Derbets and Khoshuts.

This decision of Catherine was preceded by a consistent policy of the empress to limit the khan's power in the Kalmyk Khanate. Thus, in the 1960s, the crisis in the khanate intensified due to the colonization of Kalmyk lands by Russian landlords and peasants, the reduction of pasture land, the infringement of the rights of the local feudal elite, and the interference of tsarist officials in Kalmyk affairs. After the construction of the fortified Tsaritsynskaya line, thousands of families of Don Cossacks began to settle in the area of ​​the main nomad camps of the Kalmyks, cities and fortresses began to be built along the entire Lower Volga. The best pasture lands were allocated for arable land and hayfields. The nomadic area was constantly narrowing, in turn, this aggravated internal relations in the khanate. The local feudal elite was also dissatisfied with the missionary activities of the Russian Orthodox Church to Christianize the nomads, as well as the outflow of people from the uluses to the cities and villages to work. Under these conditions, among the Kalmyk noyons and zaisangs, with the support of the Buddhist church, a conspiracy was ripened with the aim of leaving the people to their historical homeland - to Dzungaria.

On January 5, 1771, the Kalmyk feudal lords, dissatisfied with the policy of the empress, raised the uluses that had wandered along the left bank of the Volga, and set off on a dangerous journey to Central Asia. Back in November 1770, the army was assembled on the left bank under the pretext of repelling the raids of the Kazakhs of the Younger Zhuz. The bulk of the Kalmyk population lived at that time on the meadow side of the Volga. Many noyons and zaisangs, realizing the fatality of the campaign, wanted to stay with their uluses, but the army coming from behind drove everyone forward. This tragic campaign turned into a terrible disaster for the people. The small Kalmyk ethnos lost on the way about 100,000 people who died in battles, from wounds, cold, hunger, diseases, as well as captured, lost almost all their livestock - the main wealth of the people. , , .

These tragic events in the history of the Kalmyk people are reflected in the poem "Pugachev" by Sergei Yesenin.

Regional reform in Estonia and Livonia

The Baltic states as a result of the regional reform in 1782-1783. was divided into 2 provinces - Riga and Revel - with institutions that already existed in other provinces of Russia. In Estonia and Livonia, the special Baltic order was abolished, which provided for more extensive rights than the Russian landowners had for local nobles to work and the personality of the peasant.

Provincial reform in Siberia and the Middle Volga region

Under the new protectionist tariff of 1767, the import of those goods that were or could be produced within Russia was completely prohibited. Duties from 100 to 200% were imposed on luxury goods, wine, grain, toys ... Export duties amounted to 10-23% of the value of imported goods.

In 1773, Russia exported goods worth 12 million rubles, which was 2.7 million rubles more than imports. In 1781, exports already amounted to 23.7 million rubles against 17.9 million rubles of imports. Russian merchant ships began sailing in the Mediterranean as well. Thanks to the policy of protectionism in 1786, the country's exports amounted to 67.7 million rubles, and imports - 41.9 million rubles.

At the same time, Russia under Catherine went through a series of financial crises and was forced to make external loans, the amount of which by the end of the reign of the Empress exceeded 200 million silver rubles.

Social politics

Moscow Orphanage

In the provinces there were orders of public charity. In Moscow and St. Petersburg - Orphanages for homeless children (currently the building of the Moscow Orphanage is occupied by the Military Academy named after Peter the Great), where they received education and upbringing. Created to help widows widow's treasury.

Compulsory smallpox vaccination was introduced, and Catherine was the first to make such an inoculation. Under Catherine II, the fight against epidemics in Russia began to take on the character of state events that were directly within the responsibilities of the Imperial Council, the Senate. By decree of Catherine, outposts were created, located not only on the borders, but also on the roads leading to the center of Russia. The "Charter of border and port quarantines" was created.

New areas of medicine for Russia developed: hospitals for the treatment of syphilis, psychiatric hospitals and shelters were opened. A number of fundamental works on questions of medicine have been published.

National politics

After the lands that were formerly part of the Commonwealth were annexed to the Russian Empire, about a million Jews turned up in Russia - a people with a different religion, culture, way of life and way of life. To prevent their resettlement in the central regions of Russia and attachment to their communities for the convenience of collecting state taxes, Catherine II in 1791 established the Pale of Settlement outside of which Jews had no right to reside. The Pale of Settlement was established in the same place where the Jews had lived before - on the lands annexed as a result of the three partitions of Poland, as well as in the steppe regions near the Black Sea and sparsely populated territories east of Poland. Dnipro. The conversion of Jews to Orthodoxy removed all restrictions on residence. It is noted that the Pale of Settlement contributed to the preservation of Jewish national identity, the formation of a special Jewish identity within the Russian Empire.

Having ascended the throne, Catherine canceled the decree of Peter III on the secularization of lands near the church. But already in Feb. In 1764, she again issued a decree depriving the Church of landed property. Monastic peasants numbering about 2 million people. of both sexes were removed from the jurisdiction of the clergy and transferred to the management Savings colleges. The jurisdiction of the state included the estates of churches, monasteries and bishops.

In Ukraine, the secularization of monastic possessions was carried out in 1786.

Thus, the clergy became dependent on secular authorities, since they could not carry out independent economic activity.

Catherine achieved from the government of the Commonwealth the equalization of the rights of religious minorities - Orthodox and Protestants.

Under Catherine II, persecution ceased Old Believers. The Empress initiated the return of the Old Believers, the economically active population, from abroad. They were specially assigned a place on the Irgiz (modern Saratov and Samara regions). They were allowed to have priests.

The free resettlement of Germans in Russia led to a significant increase in the number of Protestants (mostly Lutherans) in Russia. They were also allowed to build churches, schools, freely perform worship. At the end of the 18th century, there were over 20,000 Lutherans in St. Petersburg alone.

Expansion of the Russian Empire

Partitions of Poland

As part of a federal state Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth included Poland, Lithuania, Ukraine and Belarus.

The reason for intervening in the affairs of the Commonwealth was the question of the position of dissidents (that is, the non-Catholic minority - Orthodox and Protestants), so that they were equalized with the rights of Catholics. Catherine exerted strong pressure on the gentry in order to elect her protege to the Polish throne Stanisław August Poniatowski, who was elected. Part of the Polish gentry opposed these decisions and organized an uprising raised in Bar Confederation. It was suppressed by Russian troops in alliance with the Polish king. AT 1772 Prussia and Austria, fearing the strengthening of Russian influence in Poland and its success in the war with the Ottoman Empire (Turkey), they offered Catherine to divide the Commonwealth in exchange for ending the war, otherwise threatening war against Russia. Russia, Austria and Prussia brought in their troops.

In 1772 took place 1st section of the Commonwealth. Austria received all of Galicia with districts, Prussia - West Prussia (Pomorye), Russia - the eastern part of Belarus up to Minsk (provinces of Vitebsk and Mogilev) and part of the Latvian lands that were previously part of Livonia.

The Polish Sejm was forced to agree to the partition and renounce claims to the lost territories: it lost 3,800 km² with a population of 4 million people.

Polish nobles and industrialists contributed to the adoption Constitution of 1791 conservative part of the population Targowica Confederation turned to Russia for help.

In 1793 took place 2nd section of the Commonwealth, approved by the Grodno Seimas. Prussia received Gdansk, Torun, Poznan (part of the land along the Warta and Vistula rivers), Russia - Central Belarus with Minsk and Right-Bank Ukraine.

Wars with Turkey were marked by major military victories Rumyantsev , Suvorov , Potemkin , Kutuzov , Ushakov, the assertion of Russia on the Black Sea. As a result of them, the Northern Black Sea region, Crimea, and the Kuban region were ceded to Russia, its political positions in the Caucasus and the Balkans were strengthened, and Russia's authority on the world stage was strengthened.

Relations with Georgia. Georgievsky treatise

Georgievsky treatise of 1783

Catherine II and the Georgian king Heraclius II in 1783 concluded Georgievsky treatise, according to which Russia established a protectorate over the Kartli-Kakheti kingdom. The treaty was concluded in order to protect Orthodox Georgians, since Muslim Iran and Turkey threatened the national existence of Georgia. The Russian government took Eastern Georgia under its protection, guaranteed its autonomy and protection in case of war, and during the peace negotiations, it was obliged to insist on the return of the Kartli-Kakheti kingdom of possessions that had long belonged to it, and illegally torn away by Turkey.

The result of the Georgian policy of Catherine II was a sharp weakening of the positions of Iran and Turkey, which formally destroyed their claims to Eastern Georgia.

Relations with Sweden

Taking advantage of the fact that Russia entered the war with Turkey, Sweden, supported by Prussia, England and Holland, unleashed war for the return of previously lost territories. The troops that entered the territory of Russia were stopped by General-in-Chief V.P. Musin-Pushkin. After a series of naval battles that did not have a decisive outcome, Russia defeated the Swedish battle fleet in the battle of Vyborg, but due to a storm that had flown in, suffered a heavy defeat in the battle of rowing fleets at Rochensalm. The parties signed in 1790 Treaty of Verel, along which the border between countries has not changed.

Relations with other countries

After the French Revolution, Catherine was one of the initiators anti-French coalition and establishing the principle of legitimacy. She said: “The weakening of the monarchical power in France endangers all other monarchies. For my part, I am ready to resist with all my might. It's time to act and take up arms." However, in reality, she abstained from participating in hostilities against France. According to popular belief, one of the real reasons for the formation of the anti-French coalition was to divert the attention of Prussia and Austria from Polish affairs. At the same time, Catherine refused all treaties concluded with France, ordered the expulsion of all those suspected of sympathizing with the French Revolution from Russia, and in 1790 issued a decree on the return of all Russians from France.

During the reign of Catherine the Russian Empire acquired the status of a "great power". As a result of two successful Russian-Turkish wars for Russia, 1768-1774 and 1787-1791. the Crimean peninsula and the entire territory of the Northern Black Sea region were annexed to Russia. In 1772-1795. Russia took part in three sections of the Commonwealth, as a result of which it annexed the territories of present-day Belarus, Western Ukraine, Lithuania and Courland. The Russian Empire also included Russian America - Alaska and the West coast of the North American continent (the current state of California).

Catherine II as a figure of the Age of Enlightenment

Ekaterina - writer and publisher

Catherine belonged to a small number of monarchs who would communicate so intensively and directly with their subjects through the drafting of manifestos, instructions, laws, polemical articles and indirectly in the form of satirical writings, historical dramas and pedagogical opuses. In her memoirs, she confessed: "I cannot see a clean pen without feeling the desire to immediately dip it in ink."

She had an extraordinary talent writer, leaving behind a large collection of works - notes, translations, libretto , fables, fairy tales, comedy“Oh, time!”, “Name day of Mrs. Vorchalkina”, “Anterior noble boyar”, “Mrs. Vestnikova with her family”, “Invisible Bride” (-), essay etc., participated in the weekly satirical magazine " all sorts of things”, published since the Empress turned to journalism in order to influence public opinion, so the main idea of ​​​​the magazine was criticism of human vices and weaknesses. Other subjects of irony were the superstitions of the population. Catherine herself called the magazine: "Satire in a smiling spirit."

Ekaterina - philanthropist and collector

Development of culture and art

Catherine considered herself a "philosopher on the throne" and favorably treated the European Enlightenment, was in correspondence with Voltaire , Diderot , d "Alamber.

Under her in St. Petersburg appeared Hermitage and Public library. She patronized various areas of art - architecture, music, painting.

It is impossible not to mention the initiated by Catherine mass settlement of German families to various regions of modern Russia, Ukraine, as well as the Baltic countries. The goal was to “infect” Russian science and culture with European ones.

Courtyard of the time of Catherine II

Features of personal life

Catherine was a brunette of medium height. She combined high intelligence, education, statesmanship and commitment to "free love".

Ekaterina is known for her connections with numerous lovers, the number of which (according to the list of an authoritative Ekaterinologist P. I. Barteneva) reaches 23. The most famous of them were Sergei Saltykov, G. G. Orlov(later count), horse guard lieutenant Vasilchikov, G. A. Potemkin(later prince), hussar Zorich , Lanskoy, the last favorite was the cornet Platon Zubov, who became a count of the Russian Empire and a general. With Potemkin, according to some sources, Catherine was secretly married (). After she planned a marriage with Orlov, however, on the advice of those close to her, she abandoned this idea.

It is worth noting that Catherine's "debauchery" was not such a scandalous phenomenon against the backdrop of a general licentiousness of morals. XVIII century. Most kings (with the possible exception of Frederick the Great , Louis XVI and Charles XII) had numerous mistresses. Catherine's favorites (with the exception of Potemkin, who had state abilities) did not influence politics. Nevertheless, the institution of favoritism had a negative effect on the higher nobility, who sought benefits through flattery to a new favorite, tried to make “their own man” a lover to the Empress, etc.

Catherine had two sons: Pavel Petrovich() (it is suspected that his father was Sergey Saltykov) and Alexey Bobrinsky(- the son of Grigory Orlov) and two daughters: the Grand Duchess who died in infancy Anna Petrovna(1757-1759, possibly daughter of the future King of Poland Stanislav Poniatowski) and Elizaveta Grigoryevna Tyomkina(- Potemkin's daughter).

Famous figures of the Catherine era

The reign of Catherine II was characterized by the fruitful activities of outstanding Russian scientists, diplomats, military, statesmen, cultural and art figures. AT 1873 in St. Petersburg in the park in front of Alexandrinsky Theater(now Ostrovsky square) an impressive multi-figure monument to Catherine was erected, designed by M. O. Mikeshina sculptors A. M. Opekushin and M. A. Chizhov and architects V. A. Shreter and D. I. Grimm. The foot of the monument consists of a sculptural composition, the characters of which are outstanding personalities of the Catherine's era and the empress's associates:

Developments recent years reign Alexander II- in particular, Russian-Turkish war 1877-1878- prevented the implementation of the plan to expand the memorial Catherine's era. D. I. Grimm developed a project for the construction in the park next to the monument to Catherine II of bronze statues and busts depicting figures of the glorious reign. According to the final list, approved a year before the death of Alexander II, six bronze sculptures and twenty-three busts on granite pedestals were to be placed next to the monument to Catherine.

In growth were to be depicted: Count N. I. Panin, admiral G. A. Spiridov, writer D. I. Fonvizin, Attorney General of the Senate Prince A. A. Vyazemsky, Field Marshal Prince N. V. Repnin and general A. I. Bibikov, former chairman of the Commission on the code. In busts - publisher and journalist N. I. Novikov, traveler P. S. Pallas, playwright A. P. Sumarokov, historians I. N. Boltin and the prince M. M. Shcherbatov, painters D. G. Levitsky and V. L. Borovikovsky, architect A. F. Kokorinov, favorite of Catherine II Count G. G. Orlov, admirals F. F. Ushakov , S. K. Greig , A. I. Cruz, military leaders: Count Z. G. Chernyshev, prince V. M. Dolgorukov-Krymsky, graph I. E. Ferzen, graph V. A. Zubov; Moscow governor-general prince M. N. Volkonsky, Novgorod Governor Count Ya. E. Sievers, diplomat Ya. I. Bulgakov, suppressor of the "plague riot" of 1771 in Moscow P. D. Eropkin who suppressed the Pugachev rebellion count P. I. Panin and I. I. Mikhelson, the hero of the capture of the fortress Ochakov I. I. Meller-Zakomelsky.

In addition to those listed, note the following famous figures eras like:

Catherine in art

To the cinema

• "Catherine the Great", 2005. In the role of Catherine - Emily Brun
• "Golden Age", 2003. In the role of Catherine - Via Artmane
• "Russian Ark", 2002. In the role of Catherine - Maria Kuznetsova, Natalia Nikulenko
• "Russian rebellion", 2000. In the role of Catherine -