Autobiography of Catherine 2. The beginning of the reign of Catherine II. Famous figures of the Catherine era

“Catherine the Great (1762-1796) - Russian Empress of the second half of the 18th century, wife of Peter III, known for politics enlightened absolutism, to which she came, listening to the thoughts of French philosophers.

Enlisting the support of the Guards regiments, Catherine II overthrew her own husband. Many supported her, since the people did not want to see Peter III as their ruler after the Seven Years' War. He sympathized with Frederick II, so he made peace with him, returning the conquered Prussian territories back. Blood was shed in vain, Russia did not receive any benefit, so the majority took up arms against him.

June 28, 1762 on the name day of Peter III there was an uprising called palace coup. The Izmailovsky and Semyonovsky regiments swore allegiance to the empress, the Synod and the Senate did the same, so the next day the emperor signed the abdication, and a few days later he died at the hands of Alexei Orlov.

Thus began the time of enlightened reforms of Catherine the Great.

The politics of enlightened absolutism

"Enlightened absolutism- a form of state policy that was encountered in many European countries in the social and spiritual sphere of society. Its principles: the condemnation of social inequality and governmental arbitrariness, the policy advocated natural human rights, such as freedom and equality.

The policy was attractive to Russia for a number of reasons:

• The top was for the continuation of modernization, for the new estates (bourgeoisie and intelligentsia), for the development of trade and industry.
• Maintaining good relations with European countries, overcoming the backlog of Russia.
• Catherine the Great believed that it was necessary to rule with the help of the word, and not use brute force to convince.

Thus, we single out the goals of educational policy:

• Catch up with developed countries.
• Develop industry and trade.
• Maintain good relations with Europe.
• Establish order in the country.

The main reforms of the enlightened absolutism of Catherine the Great:

	Event	Purpose of the reform
	Secularization of church lands	Strengthen economic power	The lands were transferred to the management of the treasury and effectively used
	Convocation of the Legislative Commission	Approve new legislation	Due to the contradictions of many classes, the commission was dispersed
	Abolition of the Ukrainian hetmanship	Limit the autonomy of the Cossacks	Unification and strengthening of the management system, centralization of the country
	Provincial reform	Strengthen local government	The country was divided into 50 provinces, each province was divided into counties
	Senate reform	Strengthen autocracy	The Senate was divided into 6 departments, deprived of many privileges

Policy in the socio-economic sphere

In many ways, the reforms of Catherine the Great are contradictory. Despite the fact that enlightened absolutism implies freedom and equality, the ruler complicated the situation of the peasants, but expanded the privileges of the nobility.

This inconsistency was caused by the following reasons:

• The instability of the nobility: if their privileges were infringed, a coup could begin.
• Necessity for the development of the country of serf labor.
• Strengthening the power of the absolutist state.

The uprising of Yemelyan Pugachev

Catherine the Great and Revolutionary France

In 1789, a revolution broke out in France, which shocked Europe, including the Russian Empress, who listened to the ideas of the French enlighteners. Revolutionary ideas threatened the autocracy and the feudal system, which is why after the execution Louis XVI (1793) diplomatic relations between Russia and France were finally severed.

England, Prussia, Austria and Russia entered into an anti-French alliance, but the Russian military force practically did not participate in the intervention due to the events in Poland and the death of the autocratic ruler.

The results of the reign of Catherine the Great

• Thanks to the successful actions of Russia in the Russian-Turkish wars, access to the Black Sea was obtained.
• International position Russian Empire increased.
• Russia received new territories under the divisions of the Commonwealth and peace treaties.
• Enlightened absolutism did not take root in Russia due to contradictions in Catherine's policy and unrest in France.

FAQ

What provisions of the Nakaz did Catherine the Great have?

order- a set of laws that was adopted by the Legislative Commission on the basis of enlightened absolutism. It contained the provisions of class equality and freedom of human rights, the monarchy rose.

Catherine II only worsened the situation of the peasants?

No, at the beginning of her reign, she tried to give the peasants rights, dreamed of their liberation, despite their position, the peasants remained citizens, but time required an improvement in the position of the nobles.

Why Catherine the Great?

Because the empress did a lot for the development of the country, increased its authority, increased its territory.

How many lovers did Catherine II have?

This is unknown to historical science, but Catherine II had 21 favorites, among which Potemkin and Orlov are the most famous.

List of used literature:

• Kerov V.V."A short course in the history of Russia from ancient times to the beginning of the XXI century."
• Orlov A.S. Georgiev V.A. Georgieva N.G. Sivokhina T.A."Russian history".

Local government in the Russian Empire under Catherine II. The provincial administration was subdivided into various departments that were in charge of individual sectors of the life of the city, including the court and the treasury. For the performance of social functions (maintenance of schools and hospitals), the order of public contempt was responsible.

Judicial institutions of the Russian Empire under Catherine II. The courts in the provinces had criminal and civil chambers. They were the highest authorities in relation to the zemstvo and magistrate courts. Prosecutorial functions in the counties were performed by solicitors. Unprotected segments of the population could apply to a conscientious court.

Police bodies of the Russian Empire Under Catherine II. The provincial police body was the board under the governor or governor-general, and the city - the deanery council under the mayor. In addition to the police, firemen, lamplighters, watchmen, chimney sweeps and street paving contractors were subordinate to the council.

A foreigner by birth, she sincerely loved Russia and cared about the welfare of her subjects. Taking the throne through palace coup, the wife of Peter III tried to bring Russian society to life best ideas European Enlightenment. At the same time, Catherine opposed the beginning of the Great French Revolution(1789-1799), outraged by the execution of the French king Louis XVI of Bourbon (January 21, 1793) and prejudging Russia's participation in the anti-French coalition of European states in early XIX in.

Catherine II Alekseevna (nee Sophia Augusta Frederick, Princess of Anhalt-Zerbst) was born on May 2, 1729 in the German city of Stettin (modern territory of Poland), and died on November 17, 1796 in St. Petersburg.

The daughter of Prince Christian-August of Anhalt-Zerbst, who was in the Prussian service, and Princess Johanna-Elisabeth (nee Princess of Holstein-Gottorp) was related to the royal houses of Sweden, Prussia and England. She received a home education, in the course of which, in addition to dancing and foreign languages also included the foundations of history, geography and theology.

In 1744, together with her mother, she was invited to Russia by Empress Elizaveta Petrovna, and baptized according to Orthodox custom under the name of Ekaterina Alekseevna. Soon her engagement to Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich (the future Emperor Peter III) was announced, and in 1745 they were married.

Catherine understood that the court loved Elizabeth, did not accept many of the oddities of the heir to the throne, and, perhaps, after the death of Elizabeth, it was she who, with the support of the court, would ascend the Russian throne. Catherine studied the works of the French Enlightenment, as well as jurisprudence, which had a significant impact on her worldview. In addition, she made as much effort as possible to study, and perhaps understand, history and traditions. Russian state. Because of her desire to know everything Russian, Catherine won the love of not only the court, but the whole of St. Petersburg.

After the death of Elizaveta Petrovna, Catherine's relationship with her husband, never characterized by warmth and understanding, continued to deteriorate, taking on clearly hostile forms. Fearing arrest, Catherine, with the support of the Orlov brothers, N.I. Panin, K.G. Razumovsky, E.R. Dashkova on the night of June 28, 1762, when the emperor was in Oranienbaum, made a palace coup. Peter III was exiled to Ropsha, where he soon died under mysterious circumstances.

Starting her reign, Catherine tried to implement the ideas of the Enlightenment and arrange the state in accordance with the ideals of this most powerful European intellectual movement. Almost from the first days of her reign, she has been actively involved in public affairs, proposing reforms that are significant for society. On her initiative, in 1763, the Senate was reformed, which significantly increased the efficiency of its work. Wishing to strengthen the dependence of the church on the state, and to provide additional land resources to the nobility, who supported the policy of reforming society, Catherine secularized church lands (1754). The unification of the administration of the territories of the Russian Empire began, and the hetmanship in Ukraine was abolished.

The champion of the Enlightenment, Catherine, creates a number of new educational institutions, including for women (Smolny Institute, Catherine School).

In 1767, the empress convened a commission, which included representatives of all segments of the population, including peasants (except serfs), to draw up a new code - a set of laws. In order to guide the work of the Legislative Commission, Catherine wrote the "Instruction", the text of which was based on the writings of enlightenment authors. This document, in fact, was the liberal program of her reign.

After the end of the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774. and the suppression of the uprising under the leadership of Emelyan Pugachev, a new stage of Catherine's reforms began, when the empress independently developed the most important legislative acts and, using the unlimited power of her power, put them into practice.

In 1775, a manifesto was issued allowing the free opening of any industrial enterprises. In the same year, a provincial reform was carried out, which introduced a new administrative territorial division country, which remained until 1917. In 1785, Catherine issued letters of commendation to the nobility and cities.

In the foreign policy arena, Catherine II continued to pursue an offensive policy in all directions - northern, western and southern. The results of foreign policy can be called the strengthening of Russia's influence on European affairs, the three sections of the Commonwealth, the strengthening of positions in the Baltic states, the annexation of Crimea, Georgia, and participation in countering the forces of revolutionary France.

The contribution of Catherine II to Russian history is so significant that many works of our culture keep her memory.

It was not for nothing that she was called the Great during her lifetime. During the long reign of Catherine II, almost all spheres of activity and life in the state underwent changes. Let's try to consider who Catherine II really was and how much ruled in the Russian Empire.

Catherine the Great: years of life and results of the reign

The real name of Catherine the Great - Sophia Frederick August Anhalt - Zerbskaya. She was born on April 21, 1729 in Stetsin. Sophia's father, the Duke of Zerbt, rose to the rank of field marshal of the Prussian service, claimed the Duchy of Courland, was the governor of Stetzin, he did not make a fortune in impoverished Prussia at that time. Mother - from not rich relatives of the Danish kings of the Oldenburg dynasty, a great aunt to the future husband of Sophia Frederica.

Not much is known about the period of life of the future empress with her parents. Sophia received a good, at that time, home education, which included the following subjects:

• German;
• French;
• Russian language (not confirmed by all researchers);
• dance and music;
• etiquette;
• needlework;
• basics of history and geography;
• theology (Protestantism).

The parents did not engage in the upbringing of the girl, only from time to time showing parental severity with suggestions and punishments. Sophia grew up a lively and inquisitive child, easily communicated with her peers on the streets of Shtetsin, to the best of her ability she got used to housekeeping and participated in household chores - her father could not support all the necessary staff of servants on his salary.

In 1744, Sophia Frederica, together with her mother, as an escort, was invited to Russia for the bride, and then married (August 21, 1745) to her second cousin, heir to the throne, Holsteiner by origin, Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich. Almost a year before the wedding, Sophia Frederica accepts Orthodox baptism and becomes Ekaterina Alekseevna (in honor of the mother of the ruling Empress Elizabeth Petrovna).

According to the established version, Sophia - Catherine was so imbued with her hopes for a great future in Russia that immediately upon arrival in the empire, she rushed furiously to study Russian history, language, traditions, Orthodoxy, French and German philosophy, etc.

Relations with the spouse did not work out. What was the true reason - is unknown. Perhaps the reason was Catherine herself, who before 1754 suffered two unsuccessful pregnancies without marital relations, as the generally accepted version claims. The reason could be Peter, who, as it is believed, was fond of rather exotic (having some external flaws) women.

Be that as it may, in the young grand-ducal family, the ruling Empress Elizabeth demanded an heir. On September 20, 1754, her wish came true - her son Pavel was born. There is a version that S. Saltykov became his father. Some believe that Elizabeth herself "planted" Saltykov in Catherine's bed. However, no one disputes that outwardly Paul is the spitting image of Peter, and the subsequent reign and character of Paul serve as further proof of the origin of the latter.

Elizabeth immediately after birth takes her grandson from her parents and takes care of his upbringing herself. Mother is only occasionally allowed to see him. Peter and Catherine are even more distant - the meaning of spending time together has been exhausted. Peter continues to play "Prussia - Holstein", and Catherine develops ties with the Russian, English, Polish aristocracies. Both periodically change lovers without a shadow of jealousy towards each other.

The birth in 1758 of Catherine's daughter Anna (it is believed that from Stanislav Poniatovsky) and the opening of her correspondence with the English ambassador and the disgraced field marshal Apraksin puts the Grand Duchess on the verge of being tonsured into a monastery, which did not suit her at all.

In December 1762, Empress Elizabeth dies after a long illness. Peter takes the throne and removes his wife to the far wing of the Winter Palace, where Catherine gives birth to another child, this time from Grigory Orlov. The child would later become Count Alexei Bobrinsky.

In a few months of his reign, Peter III manages to win over the military, nobles and clergy with his pro-Prussian and anti-Russian actions and desires. In the same circles, Catherine is perceived as an alternative to the emperor and a hope for changes for the better.

On June 28, 1762, with the support of the Guards regiments, Catherine makes a coup and becomes an autocratic ruler. Peter III abdicates the throne, and then dies under strange circumstances. According to one version, he was stabbed with a fork by Alexei Orlov, according to another, he escaped and became Emelyan Pugachev, etc.

• secularization of church lands - saved the empire from financial collapse at the beginning of the reign;
• the number of industrial enterprises doubled;
• treasury revenues increased 4 times, but despite this, after the death of Catherine, a budget deficit of 205 million rubles was revealed;
• the army doubled;
• as a result of 6 wars and in a “peaceful” way, the south of Ukraine, Crimea, Kuban, Kerch, partly the lands of White Russia, Poland, Lithuania were annexed to the empire, Western part Volyn. total area acquisitions - 520,000 sq. km.;
• the uprising in Poland under the leadership of T. Kosciuszko was suppressed. Led the suppression of A.V. Suvorov, who as a result became Field Marshal General. Was it just a rebellion if such rewards are given for its suppression?
• uprising (or full-scale war) led by E. Pugachev in 1773 - 1775. In favor of the fact that it was a war, the best commander of that time, A.V., was again involved in the suppression. Suvorov;
• after the suppression of the uprising of E. Pugachev, the development of the Urals and Siberia by the Russian Empire began;
• over 120 new cities built;
• the territorial division of the empire into provinces was carried out according to the population (300,000 people - province);
• elected courts were introduced to try civil and criminal cases of the population;
• organized noble self-government in the cities;
• a code of noble privileges was introduced;
• there was a final enslavement of the peasants;
• a system of secondary education was introduced, schools were opened in provincial cities;
• the Moscow Orphanage and the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens were opened;
• paper money was introduced into the circulation of money and a banknote with owls was created in large cities;
• began to vaccinate the population.

What year did Catherine die?IIand her heirs

Long before her death, Catherine II began to think about who would come to power after her and be able to continue the work of strengthening the Russian state.

Son Paul, as the heir to the throne, did not suit Catherine, as an unbalanced person and too similar to the ex-husband of Peter III. Therefore, all her attention in the upbringing of the heir was given to her grandson Alexander Pavlovich. Alexander received an excellent education and married at the request of his grandmother. The marriage confirmed that Alexander was an adult.

Despite the desire of the Empress, who died of a cerebral hemorrhage in mid-November 1796, insisting on her right to inherit the throne, Paul I comes to power.

Descendants should evaluate how and how much the rules of Catherine II, but for a true assessment, it is necessary to read the archives, and not repeat what was written one hundred or one hundred and fifty years ago. Only in this case is it possible to correctly assess the reign of this outstanding person. Purely chronologically, the reign of Catherine the Great lasted 34 eventful years. It is known for certain and confirmed by numerous uprisings that not all the inhabitants of the empire liked what was done during the years of her enlightened rule.

An ambiguous personality was Catherine the Great - the Russian Empress of German origin. In most articles and films, she is shown as a lover of court balls and luxurious toilets, as well as numerous favorites with whom she once had a very close relationship.

Unfortunately, few people know that she was a very smart, bright and talented organizer. And this is an indisputable fact, since the political changes that took place during the years of her reign were related to. In addition, the numerous reforms that affected the public and state life of the country are another proof of the originality of her personality.

Origin

Catherine 2, whose biography was so amazing and unusual, was born on May 2, 1729 in Stettin, Germany. Her full name- Sophia Augusta Frederick, Princess of Anhalt-Zerbst. Her parents were Prince Christian-August of Anhalt-Zerbst and his equal in title Johanna-Elisabeth of Holstein-Gottorp, who was related to such royal houses as English, Swedish and Prussian.

The future Russian empress was educated at home. She was taught theology, music, dance, the basics of geography and history, and, in addition to her native German, she also knew French very well. Already in early childhood, she showed her independent character, perseverance and curiosity, preferred lively and outdoor games.

Marriage

In 1744, Empress Elizaveta Petrovna invited the Princess of Anhalt-Zerbst to come to Russia with her mother. Here the girl was baptized according to the Orthodox custom and began to be called Ekaterina Alekseevna. From that moment on, she received the status of the official bride of Prince Peter Fedorovich, the future Emperor Peter 3.

So, the fascinating story of Catherine 2 in Russia began with their wedding, which took place on August 21, 1745. After this event, she received the title of Grand Duchess. As you know, her marriage was unhappy initially. Her husband Peter was at that time still an immature youth who played with soldiers instead of spending his time in the company of his wife. Therefore, the future empress was forced to entertain herself: she read for a long time, and also invented various amusements.

Children of Catherine 2

While the wife of Peter 3 looked like a decent lady, the heir to the throne himself never hid, so almost the entire court knew about his romantic passions.

After five years, Catherine 2, whose biography, as you know, was also full of love stories, started her first romance on the side. Guards officer S. V. Saltykov became her chosen one. September 20, 9 years after her marriage, she gave birth to an heir. This event became the subject of court discussions, which, however, continue to this day, but already in scientific circles. Some researchers are sure that the boy’s father was actually Catherine’s lover, and not her husband Peter at all. Others say that he was born of a husband. But be that as it may, the mother did not have time to take care of the child, so Elizaveta Petrovna herself took over his upbringing. Soon the future empress became pregnant again and gave birth to a girl named Anna. Unfortunately, this child lived only 4 months.

After 1750, Catherine had a love relationship with S. Poniatowski, a Polish diplomat who later became King Stanislaw August. At the beginning of 1760, she was already with G. G. Orlov, from whom she gave birth to a third child - the son of Alexei. The boy was given the surname Bobrinsky.

I must say that due to numerous rumors and gossip, as well as the dissolute behavior of his wife, the children of Catherine 2 did not cause any warm feelings in Peter 3. The man clearly doubted his biological paternity.

Needless to say, the future empress categorically rejected all the accusations made by her husband against her. Hiding from the attacks of Peter 3, Catherine preferred to spend most of her time in her boudoir. Relations with her husband spoiled to the extreme led to the fact that she seriously began to fear for her life. She was afraid that, having come to power, Peter 3 would take revenge on her, so she began to look for reliable allies at court.

Accession to the throne

After the death of his mother, Peter 3 ruled the state for only 6 months. For a long time he was spoken of as an ignorant and feeble-minded ruler with many vices. But who created such an image for him? AT recent times historians are increasingly inclined to think that such an unsightly image was created by memoirs written by the organizers of the coup themselves - Catherine 2 and E. R. Dashkova.

The fact is that her husband's attitude towards her was not just bad, it was clearly hostile. Therefore, the threat of exile or even arrest looming over her served as an impetus for preparing a conspiracy against Peter 3. The Orlov brothers, K. G. Razumovsky, N. I. Panin, E. R. Dashkova and others helped her organize the rebellion. On July 9, 1762, Peter 3 was overthrown, and a new empress, Catherine 2, came to power. The deposed monarch was almost immediately taken to Ropsha (30 miles from St. Petersburg). He was accompanied by a guard of guards under the command of

As you know, the history of Catherine 2 and, in particular, the one arranged by her are full of riddles that excite the minds of most researchers to this day. For example, the cause of the death of Peter 3 has not yet been precisely established 8 days after his overthrow. According to the official version, he died from a whole bunch of diseases caused by prolonged alcohol use.

Until recently, it was believed that Peter 3 died a violent death at the hands of Alexei Orlov. The proof of this was a certain letter written by the murderer and sent to Catherine from Ropsha. The original of this document has not been preserved, but there was only a copy allegedly taken by F. V. Rostopchin. Therefore, there is no direct evidence of the assassination of the emperor yet.

Foreign policy

It must be said that Catherine the Great shared the views of Peter the Great to a large extent that Russia on the world stage should take a leading position in all areas, while pursuing an offensive and even to some extent aggressive policy. Evidence of this can serve as a break in the alliance treaty with Prussia, previously concluded by her husband Peter 3. She took this decisive step almost immediately, as soon as she ascended the throne.

The foreign policy of Catherine II was based on the fact that she everywhere tried to elevate her proteges to the throne. It was thanks to her that Duke E. I. Biron returned to the throne of Courland, and in 1763 her protégé, Stanislav August Poniatowski, began to rule in Poland. Such actions led to the fact that Austria began to fear an excessive increase in the influence of the northern state. Its representatives immediately began to incite Russia's old enemy - Turkey - to start a war against her. And Austria still got her way.

We can say that the Russian-Turkish war, which lasted 6 years (from 1768 to 1774), was successful for the Russian Empire. Despite this, the current in the best way the domestic political situation within the country forced Catherine 2 to seek peace. As a result, she had to restore former allied relations with Austria. And a compromise between the two countries was reached. Poland became its victim, part of whose territory in 1772 was divided between three states: Russia, Austria and Prussia.

The annexation of lands and the new Russian doctrine

The signing of the Kyuchuk-Kaynarji peace treaty with Turkey ensured the independence of Crimea, which was beneficial for the Russian state. In subsequent years, there was an increase in imperial influence not only on this peninsula, but also in the Caucasus. The result of this policy was the incorporation of Crimea into Russia in 1782. Soon the Treaty of St. George was signed with the king of Kartli-Kakheti, Heraclius 2, which provided for the presence of Russian troops on the territory of Georgia. Subsequently, these lands were also annexed to Russia.

Catherine 2, whose biography was inextricably linked with the history of the country, from the second half of the 70s of the 18th century, together with the then government, began to form a completely new foreign policy position - the so-called Greek project. Its ultimate goal was the restoration of the Greek, or Byzantine Empire. Constantinople was to become its capital, and its ruler was the grandson of Catherine II, Pavlovich.

By the end of the 70s, the foreign policy of Catherine II returned the country to its former international prestige, which was further strengthened after Russia acted as an intermediary at the Teschen Congress between Prussia and Austria. In 1787, the Empress, accompanied by the Polish king and the Austrian monarch, accompanied by her courtiers and foreign diplomats, made a long journey to the Crimean peninsula. This grandiose event demonstrated the full military power of the Russian Empire.

Domestic politics

Most of the reforms and transformations that were carried out in Russia were as controversial as Catherine II herself. The years of her reign were marked by the maximum enslavement of the peasantry, as well as the deprivation of even the most minimal rights. It was under her that a decree appeared on the prohibition of filing a complaint against the arbitrariness of landowners. In addition, corruption flourished among the highest state apparatus and officials, and the empress herself served as an example for them, who generously presented both relatives and a large army of her admirers.

What was she like

The personal qualities of Catherine 2 were described by her in her own memoirs. In addition, research by historians, based on numerous documents, suggests that she was a subtle psychologist who was well versed in people. The proof of this is the fact that she selected only talented and bright people as her assistants. Therefore, her era was marked by the appearance of a whole cohort of brilliant commanders and statesmen, poets and writers, artists and musicians.

In dealing with subordinates, Catherine 2 was usually tactful, restrained and patient. According to her, she always carefully listened to her interlocutor, while catching every sensible thought, and then used it for good. Under her, in fact, not a single noisy resignation took place, she did not exile any of the nobles, and even more so did not execute. No wonder her reign is called the "golden age" of the heyday of the Russian nobility.

Catherine 2, whose biography and personality are full of contradictions, at the same time was quite conceited and greatly valued the power she had won. In order to keep her in her hands, she was willing to compromise even at the expense of her own convictions.

Personal life

Portraits of the Empress, painted in her youth, indicate that she had a rather pleasant appearance. Therefore, it is not surprising that the numerous amorous amusements of Catherine 2 entered history. In truth, she could well remarry, but in this case her title, position, and most importantly, the fullness of power, would be jeopardized.

According to the prevailing opinion of most historians, Catherine the Great changed about twenty lovers in her entire life. Very often she presented them with a variety of valuable gifts, generously distributed honors and titles, and all this so that they would be favorable to her.

Board results

It must be said that historians do not undertake to unambiguously evaluate all the events that took place in the Catherine era, since at that time despotism and enlightenment went side by side hand in hand and were inextricably linked. During the years of her reign, there was everything: the development of education, culture and science, the significant strengthening of Russian statehood in the international arena, the development of trade relations and diplomacy. But, as with any ruler, it was not without oppression of the people, who suffered numerous hardships. Such an internal policy could not but cause another popular unrest, which grew into a powerful and full-scale uprising led by Yemelyan Pugachev.

Conclusion

In the 1860s, an idea appeared: to erect a monument to Catherine II in St. Petersburg in honor of her 100th anniversary of her accession to the throne. Its construction lasted 11 years, and the opening took place in 1873 on Alexandria Square. This is the most famous monument to the Empress. During the years of Soviet power, 5 of its monuments were lost. After 2000, several monuments were opened both in Russia and abroad: 2 - in Ukraine and 1 - in Transnistria. In addition, in 2010, a statue appeared in Zerbst (Germany), but not to Empress Catherine 2, but to Sophia Frederick August, Princess of Anhalt-Zerbst.

Catherine II Alekseevna the Great (nee Sophie Auguste Frederick of Anhalt-Zerbst, German Sophie Auguste Friederike von Anhalt-Zerbst-Dornburg, in Orthodoxy Ekaterina Alekseevna; April 21 (May 2), 1729, Stettin, Prussia - November 6 (17), 1796, Winter Palace, Petersburg) - Empress of All Russia from 1762 to 1796.

The daughter of Prince Anhalt-Zerbst, Catherine came to power in a palace coup that dethroned her unpopular husband, Peter III.

The Catherine era was marked by the maximum enslavement of the peasants and the comprehensive expansion of the privileges of the nobility.

Under Catherine the Great, the borders of the Russian Empire were significantly moved to the west (sections of the Commonwealth) and to the south (annexation of Novorossia).

System government controlled under Catherine II for the first time since the time was reformed.

In cultural terms, Russia finally became one of the great European powers, which was greatly facilitated by the empress herself, who was fond of literary activity, collected masterpieces of painting and was in correspondence with the French enlighteners.

In general, Catherine's policy and her reforms fit into the mainstream of enlightened absolutism of the 18th century.

Catherine II the Great (documentary)

Sophia Frederick Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst was born on April 21 (May 2, according to a new style) in 1729 in the then German city of Stettin, the capital of Pomerania (Pomerania). Now the city is called Szczecin, among other territories, it was voluntarily transferred Soviet Union, following the results of the Second World War, Poland and is the capital of the West Pomeranian Voivodeship of Poland.

Father, Christian August Anhalt-Zerbst, came from the Zerbst-Dorneburg line of the House of Anhalt and was in the service of the Prussian king, was a regimental commander, commandant, then governor of the city of Stettin, where the future empress was born, ran for the Dukes of Courland, but unsuccessfully , finished his service as a Prussian field marshal. Mother - Johanna Elizabeth, from the Gottorp ruling house, was the cousin of the future Peter III. The family tree of Johann Elisabeth goes back to Christian I, King of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, the first Duke of Schleswig-Holstein and the founder of the Oldenburg dynasty.

Maternal uncle Adolf-Friedrich was in 1743 elected heir to the Swedish throne, which he entered in 1751 under the name of Adolf-Fredrik. Another uncle, Karl Eytinsky, according to the plan of Catherine I, was to become the husband of her daughter Elizabeth, but died on the eve of the wedding celebrations.

Catherine was educated at home in the family of the Duke of Zerbst. She studied English, French and Italian, dances, music, the basics of history, geography, theology. She grew up a frisky, inquisitive, playful girl, she loved to flaunt her courage in front of the boys, with whom she easily played on the Stettin streets. Parents were unhappy with the "boyish" behavior of their daughter, but they were happy that Frederica took care of her younger sister Augusta. Her mother called her as a child Fike or Fikhen (German Figchen - comes from the name Frederica, that is, "little Frederica").

In 1743, the Russian Empress Elizaveta Petrovna, while choosing a bride for her heir Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich, the future Russian Emperor, remembered that on her deathbed her mother bequeathed her to become the wife of the Holstein prince, brother of Johann Elizabeth. Perhaps it was this circumstance that tipped the scales in Frederica's favor; earlier, Elizabeth had vigorously supported her uncle's election to the Swedish throne and had exchanged portraits with her mother. In 1744, the Zerbst princess, together with her mother, was invited to Russia to marry Peter Fedorovich, who was her second cousin. For the first time she saw her future husband in Eitinsky Castle in 1739.

Immediately after her arrival in Russia, she began to study the Russian language, history, Orthodoxy, Russian traditions, as she sought to get to know Russia as fully as possible, which she perceived as a new homeland. Among her teachers are the famous preacher Simon Todorsky (Orthodoxy teacher), the author of the first Russian grammar Vasily Adadurov (Russian language teacher) and choreographer Lange (dance teacher).

In an effort to learn Russian as quickly as possible, the future empress studied at night, sitting at open window in the frosty air. She soon fell ill with pneumonia, and her condition was so severe that her mother offered to bring a Lutheran pastor. Sophia, however, refused and sent for Simon Todorsky. This circumstance added to her popularity at the Russian court. June 28 (July 9), 1744 Sophia Frederick Augusta converted from Lutheranism to Orthodoxy and received the name Catherine Alekseevna (the same name and patronymic as Elizabeth's mother, Catherine I), and the next day she was betrothed to the future emperor.

The appearance of Sophia with her mother in St. Petersburg was accompanied by political intrigue, in which her mother, Princess Zerbstskaya, was involved. She was a fan of King Frederick II of Prussia, and the latter decided to use her stay at the Russian imperial court to establish his influence on foreign policy Russia. To do this, it was planned, through intrigue and influence on Empress Elizaveta Petrovna, to remove Chancellor Bestuzhev, who pursued an anti-Prussian policy, from the affairs and replace him with another nobleman who sympathized with Prussia. However, Bestuzhev managed to intercept the letters of Princess Zerbst Frederick II and present them to Elizabeth Petrovna. After the latter found out about the “ugly role of a Prussian spy” played by her mother Sophia at her court, she immediately changed her attitude towards her and disgraced her. However, this did not affect the position of Sophia herself, who did not take part in this intrigue.

On August 21, 1745, at the age of sixteen, Catherine was married to Peter Fedorovich, who was 17 years old and who was her second cousin. For the first years of their life together, Peter was not at all interested in his wife, and there was no marital relationship between them.

Finally, after two failed pregnancies, On September 20, 1754, Catherine gave birth to a son, Pavel. The birth was difficult, the baby was immediately taken away from her mother at the behest of the reigning Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, and Catherine was deprived of the opportunity to raise, allowing only occasionally to see Paul. So the Grand Duchess saw her son for the first time only 40 days after the birth. A number of sources claim that the true father of Paul was Catherine's lover S. V. Saltykov (there is no direct statement about this in the "Notes" of Catherine II, but they are often interpreted this way). Others - that such rumors are unfounded, and that Peter underwent an operation that eliminated a defect that made conception impossible. The issue of paternity aroused public interest as well.

After the birth of Pavel, relations with Peter and Elizaveta Petrovna finally deteriorated. Peter called his wife “reserve madam” and openly made mistresses, however, without preventing Catherine from doing this, who during this period, thanks to the efforts of the English ambassador Sir Charles Henbury Williams, had a connection with Stanislav Poniatowski, the future king of Poland. On December 9, 1757, Catherine gave birth to a daughter, Anna, which caused great displeasure of Peter, who said at the news of a new pregnancy: “God knows why my wife became pregnant again! I am not at all sure whether this child is from me and whether I should take it personally.

The English ambassador Williams during this period was a close friend and confidant of Catherine. He repeatedly provided her with significant amounts in the form of loans or subsidies: in 1750 alone, 50,000 rubles were transferred to her, for which there are two of her receipts; and in November 1756, 44,000 rubles were transferred to her. In return, he received various confidential information from her - orally and through letters that she quite regularly wrote to him, as if on behalf of a man (for conspiracy purposes). In particular, at the end of 1756, after the start of the Seven Years' War with Prussia (of which England was an ally), Williams, as follows from his own dispatches, received from Catherine important information about the state of the warring Russian army and about the plan of the Russian offensive, which was his transferred to London, as well as to Berlin, the Prussian king Frederick II. After Williams left, she also received money from his successor, Keith. Historians explain Catherine's frequent appeal for money to the British by her extravagance, due to which her expenses far exceeded the amounts that were allocated for her maintenance from the treasury. In one of her letters to Williams, she promised, in gratitude, “to bring Russia to a friendly alliance with England, to render her everywhere the assistance and preference necessary for the good of all Europe and especially Russia, before their common enemy, France, whose greatness is a shame for Russia. I will learn to practice these feelings, base my fame on them and prove to the king, your sovereign, the strength of these my feelings..

Starting from 1756, and especially during the illness of Elizabeth Petrovna, Catherine hatched a plan to remove the future emperor (her husband) from the throne by means of a conspiracy, about which she repeatedly wrote to Williams. To this end, Catherine, according to the historian V. O. Klyuchevsky, “begged for a loan of 10 thousand pounds sterling for gifts and bribes from the English king, pledging to act in good faith in the common Anglo-Russian interests, began to think about bringing the guard to the case in case of death Elizabeth, entered into a secret agreement on this with Hetman K. Razumovsky, the commander of one of the guards regiments. Chancellor Bestuzhev was also privy to this plan of a palace coup, who promised Catherine assistance.

At the beginning of 1758, Empress Elizaveta Petrovna suspected Apraksin, the commander-in-chief of the Russian army, with whom Catherine was on friendly terms, as well as Chancellor Bestuzhev himself, of treason. Both were arrested, interrogated and punished; however, Bestuzhev managed to destroy all his correspondence with Catherine before his arrest, which saved her from persecution and disgrace. At the same time, Williams was recalled to England. Thus, her former favorites were removed, but a circle of new ones began to form: Grigory Orlov and Dashkova.

The death of Elizabeth Petrovna (December 25, 1761) and the accession to the throne of Peter Fedorovich under the name of Peter III alienated the spouses even more. Peter III began to openly live with his mistress Elizaveta Vorontsova, settling his wife at the other end of the Winter Palace. When Catherine became pregnant from Orlov, this could no longer be explained by accidental conception from her husband, since communication between the spouses had completely ceased by that time. Ekaterina hid her pregnancy, and when the time came to give birth, her devoted valet Vasily Grigoryevich Shkurin set fire to his house. A lover of such spectacles, Peter with the court left the palace to look at the fire; at this time, Catherine gave birth safely. This is how Alexei Bobrinsky was born, to whom his brother Paul I subsequently awarded the title of count.

Having ascended the throne, Peter III carried out a number of actions that caused a negative attitude of the officer corps towards him. So, he concluded an unfavorable treaty for Russia with Prussia, while Russia won a number of victories over it during the Seven Years' War, and returned the lands occupied by the Russians to it. At the same time, he intended, in alliance with Prussia, to oppose Denmark (an ally of Russia), in order to return Schleswig taken from Holstein, and he himself intended to go on a campaign at the head of the guard. Peter announced the sequestration of the property of the Russian Church, the abolition of monastic land ownership and shared with others plans for the reform of church rites. Supporters of the coup accused Peter III of ignorance, dementia, dislike of Russia, complete inability to rule. Against his background, Catherine looked favorably - a smart, well-read, pious and benevolent wife, who was persecuted by her husband.

After relations with her husband finally deteriorated and dissatisfaction with the emperor on the part of the guard intensified, Catherine decided to participate in the coup. Her comrades-in-arms, the main of which were the Orlov brothers, sergeant major Potemkin and adjutant Fyodor Khitrovo, engaged in agitation in the guards units and won them over to their side. The immediate cause of the start of the coup was the rumors about the arrest of Catherine and the disclosure and arrest of one of the participants in the conspiracy - Lieutenant Passek.

To all appearances, foreign participation has not been avoided here either. As A. Troyat and K. Valishevsky write, when planning the overthrow of Peter III, Catherine turned to the French and the British for money, hinting to them what she was going to implement. The French were distrustful of her request to borrow 60 thousand rubles, not believing in the seriousness of her plan, but she received 100 thousand rubles from the British, which subsequently may have influenced her attitude towards England and France.

In the early morning of June 28 (July 9), 1762, while Peter III was in Oranienbaum, Catherine, accompanied by Alexei and Grigory Orlov, arrived from Peterhof to St. Petersburg, where the guards swore allegiance to her. Peter III, seeing the hopelessness of resistance, abdicated the next day, was taken into custody and died under unclear circumstances. In her letter, Catherine once pointed out that before his death, Peter suffered from hemorrhoidal colic. After her death (although the facts indicate that even before her death - see below), Catherine ordered an autopsy to dispel suspicions of poisoning. An autopsy showed (according to Catherine) that the stomach is absolutely clean, which excludes the presence of poison.

At the same time, as the historian N. I. Pavlenko writes, “The violent death of the emperor is irrefutably confirmed by absolutely reliable sources” - Orlov’s letters to Catherine and a number of other facts. There are also facts indicating that she knew about the impending assassination of Peter III. So, already on July 4, 2 days before the death of the emperor in the palace in Ropsha, Catherine sent the doctor Paulsen to him, and as Pavlenko writes, “It is indicative that Paulsen was sent to Ropsha not with medicines, but with surgical instruments for opening the body”.

After the abdication of her husband, Ekaterina Alekseevna ascended the throne as the reigning empress with the name of Catherine II, issuing a manifesto in which the basis for the removal of Peter was an attempt to change the state religion and peace with Prussia. To justify her own rights to the throne (and not the heir to Paul), Catherine referred to "the desire of all Our loyal subjects is clear and not hypocritical." On September 22 (October 3), 1762, she was crowned in Moscow. As V. O. Klyuchevsky described her accession, “Catherine made a double capture: she took away power from her husband and did not transfer it to her son, the natural heir of her father”.

The policy of Catherine II was characterized mainly by the preservation and development of the trends laid down by her predecessors. In the middle of the reign, an administrative (provincial) reform was carried out, which determined the territorial structure of the country until 1917, as well as judicial reform. The territory of the Russian state increased significantly due to the annexation of the fertile southern lands - the Crimea, the Black Sea region, as well as the eastern part of the Commonwealth, etc. The population increased from 23.2 million (in 1763) to 37.4 million (in 1796), In terms of population, Russia became the largest European country (it accounted for 20% of the population of Europe). Catherine II formed 29 new provinces and built about 144 cities.

Klyuchevsky about the reign of Catherine the Great: "The army from 162 thousand people was strengthened to 312 thousand, the fleet, which in 1757 consisted of 21 battleships and 6 frigates, in 1790 included 67 battleships and 40 frigates and 300 rowing ships, the amount of state revenue from 16 million rubles rose to 69 million, that is, more than quadrupled, the success of foreign trade: the Baltic - in increasing import and export, from 9 million to 44 million rubles, the Black Sea, Catherine and created - from 390 thousand to 1776 to 1 million 900 thousand rubles in 1796, the growth of domestic turnover was indicated by the issue of a coin in 34 years of the reign for 148 million rubles, while in the 62 previous years it was issued only for 97 million."

Population growth was largely the result of the accession to Russia of foreign states and territories (where almost 7 million people lived), which often took place against the wishes of the local population, which led to the emergence of "Polish", "Ukrainian", "Jewish" and other national issues inherited by the Russian Empire from the era of Catherine II. Hundreds of villages under Catherine received the status of a city, but in fact they remained villages according to appearance and the occupation of the population, the same applies to a number of cities founded by her (some even existed only on paper, as evidenced by contemporaries). In addition to issuing coins, 156 million rubles worth of paper banknotes were issued, which led to inflation and a significant depreciation of the ruble; therefore, the real growth of budget revenues and other economic indicators during her reign was much less than the nominal one.

The Russian economy continued to be agrarian. The share of the urban population has practically not increased, amounting to about 4%. At the same time, a number of cities were founded (Tiraspol, Grigoriopol, etc.), iron smelting increased by more than 2 times (in which Russia took 1st place in the world), and the number of sailing and linen manufactories increased. In total, by the end of the XVIII century. there were 1200 large enterprises in the country (in 1767 there were 663 of them). Exports of Russian goods to other European countries have increased significantly, including through established Black Sea ports. However, in the structure of this export there were no finished products at all, only raw materials and semi-finished products, and foreign industrial products dominated in imports. While in the West in the second half of the XVIII century. the Industrial Revolution took place, Russian industry remained "patriarchal" and serfdom, which led to its lagging behind the Western one. Finally, in the 1770-1780s. an acute social and economic crisis broke out, the result of which was a financial crisis.

Catherine's commitment to the ideas of the Enlightenment largely predetermined the fact that the term "enlightened absolutism" is often used to characterize the domestic policy of Catherine's time. She really brought some of the ideas of the Enlightenment to life.

So, according to Catherine, based on the works of the French philosopher, the vast Russian expanses and the severity of the climate determine the regularity and necessity of autocracy in Russia. Based on this, under Catherine, the autocracy was strengthened, the bureaucratic apparatus was strengthened, the country was centralized and the system of government was unified. However, the ideas expressed by Diderot and Voltaire, of which she was an adherent in words, did not correspond to her domestic policy. They defended the idea that every person is born free, and advocated the equality of all people and the elimination of medieval forms of exploitation and despotic forms of government. Contrary to these ideas, under Catherine there was a further deterioration in the position of serfs, their exploitation intensified, inequality grew due to the granting of even greater privileges to the nobility.

In general, historians characterize her policy as “pro-noble” and believe that, contrary to the empress’s frequent statements about her “vigilant concern for the welfare of all subjects,” the concept of the common good in the era of Catherine was the same fiction as in Russia as a whole in the 18th century.

Under Catherine, the territory of the empire was divided into provinces, many of which remained practically unchanged until the October Revolution. The territory of Estonia and Livonia as a result of the regional reform in 1782-1783. was divided into two provinces - Riga and Revel - with institutions that already existed in other provinces of Russia. The special Baltic order was also eliminated, which provided for more extensive rights than the Russian landowners had for local nobles to work and the personality of a peasant. Siberia was divided into three provinces: Tobolsk, Kolyvan and Irkutsk.

Speaking about the reasons for the provincial reform under Catherine, N. I. Pavlenko writes that it was a response to the Peasant War of 1773-1775. under the leadership of Pugachev, which revealed the weakness of local authorities and their inability to cope with peasant riots. The reform was preceded by a series of memos submitted to the government from the nobility, which recommended that the network of institutions and "police guards" be increased in the country.

Carrying out the provincial reform in the Left-bank Ukraine in 1783-1785. led to a change in the regimental structure (former regiments and hundreds) to a common administrative division for the Russian Empire into provinces and districts, the final establishment of serfdom and the equalization of the rights of the Cossack officers with the Russian nobility. With the conclusion of the Kyuchuk-Kainarji Treaty (1774), Russia received access to the Black Sea and Crimea.

Thus, there was no need to preserve the special rights and management system of the Zaporizhian Cossacks. At the same time, their traditional way of life often led to conflicts with the authorities. After repeated pogroms of Serbian settlers, as well as in connection with the support of the Cossacks of the Pugachev uprising, Catherine II ordered to disband the Zaporozhian Sich, which was carried out on the orders of Grigory Potemkin to pacify the Zaporizhzhya Cossacks by General Peter Tekeli in June 1775.

The Sich was disbanded, most of the Cossacks were disbanded, and the fortress itself was destroyed. In 1787, Catherine II, together with Potemkin, visited the Crimea, where she was met by the Amazon company created for her arrival; in the same year, the Army of the Faithful Cossacks was created, which later became the Black Sea Cossack Host, and in 1792 they were granted the Kuban for perpetual use, where the Cossacks moved, having founded the city of Yekaterinodar.

The reforms on the Don created a military civil government modeled on the provincial administrations of central Russia. In 1771, the Kalmyk Khanate was finally annexed to Russia.

The reign of Catherine II was characterized by the extensive development of the economy and trade, while maintaining the "patriarchal" industry and Agriculture. By decree of 1775, factories and industrial plants were recognized as property, the disposal of which does not require special permission from the authorities. In 1763, the free exchange of copper money for silver was banned so as not to provoke the development of inflation. The development and revival of trade was facilitated by the emergence of new credit institutions (the state bank and the loan office) and the expansion of banking operations (since 1770, deposits were accepted for storage). A state bank was established and for the first time the issue of paper money - banknotes - was launched.

State regulation of salt prices introduced, which was one of the vital goods in the country. The Senate legislated the price of salt at 30 kopecks per pood (instead of 50 kopecks) and 10 kopecks per pood in the regions of mass salting of fish. Without introducing a state monopoly on the salt trade, Catherine counted on increased competition and, ultimately, improving the quality of the goods. However, soon the price of salt was raised again. At the beginning of the reign, some monopolies were abolished: the state monopoly on trade with China, the merchant Shemyakin's private monopoly on the import of silk, and others.

The role of Russia in the world economy has increased- Russian sailing fabric began to be exported to England in large quantities, exports of cast iron and iron to other European countries increased (the consumption of cast iron in the domestic Russian market also increased significantly). But the export of raw materials grew especially strongly: timber (by a factor of 5), hemp, bristles, etc., as well as bread. The volume of exports of the country increased from 13.9 million rubles. in 1760 to 39.6 million rubles. in 1790

Russian merchant ships began to sail in the Mediterranean. However, their number was insignificant in comparison with foreign ones - only 7% of the total number of ships serving Russian foreign trade in late XVIII- the beginning of the 19th century; the number of foreign merchant ships entering Russian ports annually increased from 1340 to 2430 during the period of her reign.

As the economic historian N. A. Rozhkov pointed out, in the structure of exports in the era of Catherine there were no finished products at all, only raw materials and semi-finished products, and 80-90% of imports were foreign industrial products, the import volume of which was several times higher than domestic production. Thus, the volume of domestic manufactory production in 1773 was 2.9 million rubles, the same as in 1765, and the volume of imports in these years was about 10 million rubles.

Industry developed poorly, there were practically no technical improvements, and serf labor dominated. So, from year to year, cloth manufactories could not even satisfy the needs of the army, despite the ban on selling cloth "to the side", in addition, the cloth was of poor quality, and it had to be purchased abroad. Catherine herself did not understand the significance of the Industrial Revolution taking place in the West and argued that machines (or, as she called them, “colosses”) were harmful to the state, since they reduced the number of workers. Only two export industries developed rapidly - the production of cast iron and linen, but both - on the basis of "patriarchal" methods, without the use of new technologies that were actively introduced at that time in the West - which predetermined a severe crisis in both industries that began shortly after the death of Catherine II .

In the field of foreign trade, Catherine's policy consisted in a gradual transition from protectionism, characteristic of Elizabeth Petrovna, to the complete liberalization of exports and imports, which, according to a number of economic historians, was the result of the influence of the ideas of the Physiocrats. Already in the first years of the reign, a number of foreign trade monopolies and a ban on grain exports were abolished, which from that time began to grow rapidly. In 1765, the Free Economic Society was founded, which promoted the ideas of free trade and published its own magazine. In 1766, a new customs tariff was introduced, which significantly reduced tariff barriers compared to the protectionist tariff of 1757 (which established protective duties in the amount of 60 to 100% or more); they were even more reduced in the customs tariff of 1782. Thus, in the "moderately protectionist" tariff of 1766, protective duties averaged 30%, and in the liberal tariff of 1782 - 10%, only for some goods rising to 20%. thirty%.

Agriculture, like industry, developed mainly through extensive methods (increase in the amount of arable land); the promotion of intensive methods of agriculture by the Free Economic Society created under Catherine had no great result.

From the first years of the reign of Catherine, famine began to periodically arise in the village, which some contemporaries explained by chronic crop failures, but the historian M.N. Pokrovsky associated with the beginning of the mass export of grain, which had previously been banned under Elizabeth Petrovna, and by the end of Catherine's reign amounted to 1.3 million rubles. in year. Cases of mass ruin of peasants became more frequent. The famines acquired a special scope in the 1780s, when they covered large regions of the country. Bread prices have risen sharply: for example, in the center of Russia (Moscow, Smolensk, Kaluga) they have increased from 86 kop. in 1760 to 2.19 rubles. in 1773 and up to 7 rubles. in 1788, that is, more than 8 times.

Paper money introduced into circulation in 1769 - banknotes- in the first decade of their existence, they accounted for only a few percent of the metal (silver and copper) money supply, and played a positive role, allowing the state to reduce its costs of moving money within the empire. However, due to the lack of money in the treasury, which became a constant phenomenon, from the beginning of the 1780s, there was an increasing issue of banknotes, the volume of which by 1796 reached 156 million rubles, and their value depreciated 1.5 times. In addition, the state borrowed money from abroad in the amount of 33 million rubles. and had various unpaid internal obligations (bills, salaries, etc.) in the amount of 15.5 million rubles. That. the total amount of government debts amounted to 205 million rubles, the treasury was empty, and budget expenditures significantly exceeded revenues, which Paul I stated upon accession to the throne. All this gave rise to the historian N. D. Chechulin in his economic research to conclude that there was a “severe economic crisis” in the country (in the second half of the reign of Catherine II) and about the “complete collapse of the financial system of Catherine’s reign.”

In 1768, a network of city schools was created, based on the class-lesson system. Schools began to open. Under Catherine, special attention was paid to the development of women's education; in 1764, the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens and the Educational Society for Noble Maidens were opened. The Academy of Sciences has become one of the leading scientific bases in Europe. An observatory, a physics office, an anatomical theater, a botanical garden, instrumental workshops, a printing house, a library, and an archive were founded. On October 11, 1783, the Russian Academy was founded.

Compulsory vaccination introduced, and Catherine decided to set a personal example for her subjects: on the night of October 12 (23), 1768, the empress herself was vaccinated against smallpox. Among the first vaccinated were also Grand Duke Pavel Petrovich and Grand Duchess Maria Feodorovna. Under Catherine II, the fight against epidemics in Russia began to take on the character of state events that were directly within the responsibilities of the Imperial Council, the Senate. By decree of Catherine, outposts were created, located not only on the borders, but also on the roads leading to the center of Russia. The "Charter of border and port quarantines" was created.

New areas of medicine for Russia developed: hospitals for the treatment of syphilis, psychiatric hospitals and shelters were opened. A number of fundamental works on questions of medicine have been published.

To prevent their resettlement in the central regions of Russia and attachment to their communities for the convenience of collecting state taxes, Catherine II established the Pale of Settlement in 1791 outside of which Jews had no right to reside. The Pale of Settlement was established in the same place where the Jews lived before - on the lands annexed as a result of the three partitions of Poland, as well as in the steppe regions near the Black Sea and sparsely populated areas east of the Dnieper. The conversion of Jews to Orthodoxy removed all restrictions on residence. It is noted that the Pale of Settlement contributed to the preservation of Jewish national identity, the formation of a special Jewish identity within the Russian Empire.

In 1762-1764 Catherine published two manifestos. The first - "On allowing all foreigners entering Russia to settle in which provinces they wish and on the rights granted to them" called on foreign citizens to move to Russia, the second determined the list of benefits and privileges for immigrants. Soon the first German settlements arose in the Volga region, allotted for immigrants. The influx of German colonists was so great that already in 1766 it was necessary to temporarily suspend the reception of new settlers until the settlement of those who had already entered. The creation of colonies on the Volga was on the rise: in 1765 - 12 colonies, in 1766 - 21, in 1767 - 67. According to the census of colonists in 1769, 6.5 thousand families lived in 105 colonies on the Volga, which amounted to 23.2 thousand people. In the future, the German community will play a prominent role in the life of Russia.

During the reign of Catherine, the country included the Northern Black Sea region, the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov, Crimea, Novorossia, the lands between the Dniester and the Bug, Belarus, Courland and Lithuania. Total number new subjects acquired in this way by Russia, reached 7 million. As a result, as V. O. Klyuchevsky wrote, in the Russian Empire “the discord of interests intensified” between different nations. This was expressed, in particular, in the fact that for almost every nationality the government was forced to introduce a special economic, tax and administrative regime. Thus, the German colonists were completely exempted from paying taxes to the state and from other duties; for the Jews, the Pale of Settlement was introduced; from the Ukrainian and Belarusian population in the territory of the former Commonwealth, the poll tax at first was not levied at all, and then was levied at half the rate. In these conditions, the indigenous population turned out to be the most discriminated against, which led to such an incident: some Russian nobles in the late 18th - early 19th centuries. as a reward for their service, they were asked to “record as Germans” so that they could enjoy the corresponding privileges.

On April 21, 1785, two charters were issued: "Charter on the rights, liberties and advantages of the noble nobility" and "Charter to cities". The empress called them the crown of her activity, and historians consider them the crown of the "pro-noble policy" of the kings of the 18th century. As N. I. Pavlenko writes, “In the history of Russia, the nobility has never been blessed with such a variety of privileges as under Catherine II.”

Both charters finally secured for the upper classes those rights, duties and privileges that had already been granted by Catherine's predecessors during the 18th century, and provided a number of new ones. So, the nobility as an estate was formed by decrees of Peter I and at the same time received a number of privileges, including exemption from the poll tax and the right to unlimitedly dispose of estates; and by decree of Peter III, it was finally released from compulsory service to the state.

The charter to the nobility contained the following guarantees:

Pre-existing rights confirmed
- the nobility was exempted from quartering military units and teams, from corporal punishment
- the nobility received ownership of the bowels of the earth
- the right to have their own estate institutions, the name of the 1st estate changed: not "nobility", but "noble nobility"
- it was forbidden to confiscate the estates of nobles for criminal offenses; estates were to be passed on to legitimate heirs
- the nobles have the exclusive right to own land, but the "Charter" does not say a word about the monopoly right to have serfs
- Ukrainian foremen were equalized in rights with Russian nobles. a nobleman who did not have an officer rank was deprived of the right to vote
- only nobles whose income from estates exceeds 100 rubles could hold elected positions.

Despite the privileges, in the era of Catherine II, property inequality among the nobles greatly increased: against the background of individual large fortunes, the economic situation of part of the nobility worsened. As the historian D. Blum points out, a number of large nobles owned tens and hundreds of thousands of serfs, which was not the case in previous reigns (when the owner of more than 500 souls was considered rich); at the same time, almost 2/3 of all landowners in 1777 had less than 30 male serf souls, and 1/3 of the landowners - less than 10 souls; many nobles who wanted to enter the civil service did not have the means to purchase appropriate clothing and footwear. V. O. Klyuchevsky writes that many noble children in her reign, even becoming students of the Maritime Academy and “receiving a small salary (stipends), 1 rub. per month, “from barefoot” they could not even attend the academy and were forced, according to a report, not to think about the sciences, but about their own food, on the side to acquire funds for their maintenance.

During the reign of Catherine II, a number of laws were adopted that worsened the situation of the peasants:

The decree of 1763 laid the maintenance of the military teams sent to suppress peasant uprisings on the peasants themselves.
By decree of 1765, for open disobedience, the landowner could send the peasant not only into exile, but also to hard labor, and the period of hard labor was set by him; the landlords also had the right to return the exiled from hard labor at any time.
The decree of 1767 forbade peasants to complain about their master; the disobedient were threatened with exile to Nerchinsk (but they could go to court).
In 1783, serfdom was introduced in Little Russia (the Left-bank Ukraine and the Russian Chernozem region).
In 1796, serfdom was introduced in Novorossiya (Don, North Caucasus).
After the partitions of the Commonwealth, the serfdom regime was tightened in the territories that had ceded to the Russian Empire (Right-Bank Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania, Poland).

According to N. I. Pavlenko, under Catherine "serfdom developed in depth and breadth", which was "an example of a glaring contradiction between the ideas of the Enlightenment and government measures to strengthen the serfdom regime."

During her reign, Catherine gave away more than 800 thousand peasants to landlords and nobles, thus setting a kind of record. Most of these were not state peasants, but peasants from the lands acquired during the partitions of Poland, as well as palace peasants. But, for example, the number of assigned (possession) peasants from 1762 to 1796. increased from 210 to 312 thousand people, and these were formally free (state) peasants, but turned into serfs or slaves. Possession peasants of the Ural factories took an active part in Peasant War 1773-1775

At the same time, the position of the monastery peasants was alleviated, who were transferred to the jurisdiction of the College of Economy along with the lands. All their duties were replaced by a cash quitrent, which gave the peasants more independence and developed their economic initiative. As a result, the unrest of the monastery peasants stopped.

The fact that a woman who had no formal rights to this was proclaimed empress gave rise to many contenders for the throne, which overshadowed a significant part of the reign of Catherine II. Yes, only from 1764 to 1773 Seven False Peter III appeared in the country(who claimed that they are nothing more than the "resurrected" Peter III) - A. Aslanbekov, I. Evdokimov, G. Kremnev, P. Chernyshov, G. Ryabov, F. Bogomolov, N. Krestov; the eighth was Emelyan Pugachev. And in 1774-1775. to this list was added the “case of Princess Tarakanova”, who pretended to be the daughter of Elizabeth Petrovna.

During 1762-1764. 3 conspiracies aimed at overthrowing Catherine were uncovered, and two of them were associated with the name - the former Russian emperor Ivan VI, who at the time of accession to the throne of Catherine II continued to remain alive in custody in the Shlisselburg fortress. The first of them involved 70 officers. The second took place in 1764, when Lieutenant V. Ya. Mirovich, who was on guard duty in the Shlisselburg Fortress, won a part of the garrison over to his side in order to free Ivan. The guards, however, in accordance with the instructions given to them, stabbed the prisoner, and Mirovich himself was arrested and executed.

In 1771, a major plague epidemic occurred in Moscow, complicated by popular unrest in Moscow, called the Plague Riot. The rebels destroyed the Chudov Monastery in the Kremlin. The next day, the crowd took the Donskoy Monastery by storm, killed Archbishop Ambrose, who was hiding in it, and began to smash the quarantine outposts and the houses of the nobility. Troops under the command of G. G. Orlov were sent to suppress the uprising. After three days of fighting, the rebellion was crushed.

In 1773-1775 there was a peasant uprising led by Emelyan Pugachev. It covered the lands of the Yaik army, the Orenburg province, the Urals, the Kama region, Bashkiria, part of Western Siberia, the Middle and Lower Volga regions. During the uprising, the Bashkirs, Tatars, Kazakhs, Ural factory workers and numerous serfs from all provinces where hostilities unfolded joined the Cossacks. After the suppression of the uprising, some liberal reforms were curtailed and conservatism intensified.

In 1772 took place The first section of the Commonwealth. Austria received all of Galicia with districts, Prussia - West Prussia (Pomorye), Russia - the eastern part of Belarus to Minsk (provinces of Vitebsk and Mogilev) and part of the Latvian lands that were previously part of Livonia. The Polish Sejm was forced to agree to the partition and renounce claims to the lost territories: Poland lost 380,000 km² with a population of 4 million people.

Polish nobles and industrialists contributed to the adoption of the Constitution of 1791; the conservative part of the population of the Targowice Confederation turned to Russia for help.

In 1793 took place The second section of the Commonwealth, approved by the Grodno Seimas. Prussia received Gdansk, Torun, Poznan (part of the land along the rivers Warta and Vistula), Russia - Central Belarus with Minsk and New Russia (part of the territory of modern Ukraine).

In March 1794, an uprising began under the leadership of Tadeusz Kosciuszko, whose goals were to restore territorial integrity, sovereignty and the Constitution on May 3, but in the spring of that year it was suppressed by the Russian army under the command of A. V. Suvorov. During the Kosciuszko uprising, the insurgent Poles who seized the Russian embassy in Warsaw discovered documents that had a great public outcry, according to which King Stanislav Poniatowski and a number of members of the Grodno Seim at the time of the approval of the 2nd section of the Commonwealth received money from the Russian government - in In particular, Poniatowski received several thousand ducats.

In 1795 took place The third section of the Commonwealth. Austria received Southern Poland with Luban and Krakow, Prussia - Central Poland with Warsaw, Russia - Lithuania, Courland, Volyn and Western Belarus.

October 13, 1795 - a conference of three powers on the fall of the Polish state, it lost statehood and sovereignty.

An important direction in the foreign policy of Catherine II was also the territories of the Crimea, the Black Sea and North Caucasus under Turkish rule.

When the uprising of the Bar Confederation broke out, the Turkish sultan declared war on Russia (Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774), using as a pretext that one of the Russian detachments, pursuing the Poles, entered the territory of the Ottoman Empire. Russian troops defeated the Confederates and began to win one victory after another in the south. Having achieved success in a number of land and sea battles (the Battle of Kozludzhi, the battle of Ryaba Mogila, the battle of Kagul, the battle of Larga, the battle of Chesme, etc.), Russia forced Turkey to sign the Kyuchuk-Kaynardzhi Treaty, as a result of which the Crimean Khanate formally gained independence, but became de facto dependent on Russia. Turkey paid Russia military indemnities in the order of 4.5 million rubles, and also ceded the northern coast of the Black Sea, along with two important ports.

After the end of the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774, Russia's policy towards the Crimean Khanate was aimed at establishing a pro-Russian ruler in it and joining Russia. Under pressure from Russian diplomacy, Shahin Giray was elected khan. The previous khan - protege of Turkey Devlet IV Giray - at the beginning of 1777 tried to resist, but it was suppressed by A. V. Suvorov, Devlet IV fled to Turkey. At the same time, the landing of Turkish troops in the Crimea was prevented, and thus an attempt to unleash a new war was prevented, after which Turkey recognized Shahin Giray as a khan. In 1782, an uprising broke out against him, which was suppressed by Russian troops brought to the peninsula, and in 1783, by the manifesto of Catherine II, the Crimean Khanate was annexed to Russia.

After the victory, the empress, together with the Austrian emperor Joseph II, made a triumphal trip to the Crimea.

The next war with Turkey took place in 1787-1792 and was an unsuccessful attempt by the Ottoman Empire to regain the lands that had gone to Russia during the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774, including Crimea. Here, too, the Russians won a number of important victories, both on land - the Kinburn battle, the Battle of Rymnik, the capture of Ochakov, the capture of Izmail, the battle of Focsani, the Turkish campaigns against Bendery and Ackerman, etc., and the sea ones - the battle of Fidonisi (1788), Battle of Kerch (1790), Battle of Cape Tendra (1790) and Battle of Kaliakria (1791). As a result, the Ottoman Empire in 1791 was forced to sign the Iasi Peace Treaty, which secured the Crimea and Ochakov for Russia, and also moved the border between the two empires to the Dniester.

The wars with Turkey were marked by major military victories by Rumyantsev, Orlov-Chesmensky, Suvorov, Potemkin, Ushakov, and the assertion of Russia in the Black Sea. As a result of them, the Northern Black Sea region, Crimea, and the Kuban region were ceded to Russia, its political positions in the Caucasus and the Balkans were strengthened, and Russia's authority on the world stage was strengthened.

According to many historians, these conquests are the main achievement of the reign of Catherine II. At the same time, a number of historians (K. Valishevsky, V. O. Klyuchevsky, etc.) and contemporaries (Frederick II, French ministers, etc.) explained the “amazing” victories of Russia over Turkey not so much by the strength of the Russian army and navy, which were still rather weak and poorly organized, as a consequence of the extreme decomposition during this period of the Turkish army and state.

Growth of Catherine II: 157 centimeters.

Personal life of Catherine II:

Unlike her predecessor, Catherine did not conduct extensive palace construction for her own needs. For comfortable travel around the country, she set up a network of small travel palaces along the road from St. Petersburg to Moscow (from Chesmensky to Petrovsky) and only at the end of her life took up the construction of a new country residence in Pella (not preserved). In addition, she was concerned about the lack of a spacious and modern residence in Moscow and its environs. Although she did not visit the old capital often, Catherine for a number of years cherished plans for the restructuring of the Moscow Kremlin, as well as the construction of suburban palaces in Lefortovo, Kolomenskoye and Tsaritsyn. For various reasons, none of these projects was completed.

Catherine was a brunette of medium height. She combined high intelligence, education, statesmanship and commitment to "free love". Catherine is known for her connections with numerous lovers, the number of which (according to the list of the authoritative Ekaterinologist P. I. Bartenev) reaches 23. The most famous of them were Sergey Saltykov, G. G. Orlov, Lieutenant Vasilchikov of the horse guard, hussar Zorich, Lanskoy, the last was the cornet Platon Zubov, who became a general. With Potemkin, according to some sources, Catherine was secretly married (1775, see Wedding of Catherine II and Potemkin). After 1762, she planned a marriage with Orlov, but on the advice of those close to her, she abandoned this idea.

Catherine's love affairs are marked by a series of scandals. So, Grigory Orlov, being her favorite, at the same time (according to M. M. Shcherbatov) cohabited with all her ladies-in-waiting and even with his 13-year-old cousin. The favorite of Empress Lanskoy used an aphrodisiac to increase "male strength" (contarid) in ever-increasing doses, which, apparently, according to the conclusion of the court physician Weikart, was the cause of his unexpected death at a young age. Her last favorite, Platon Zubov, was a little over 20 years old, while Catherine’s age at that time had already exceeded 60. Historians mention many other scandalous details (“bribe” of 100 thousand rubles paid to Potemkin by the future favorites of the empress, many of who were previously his adjutants, testing their "male strength" by her ladies-in-waiting, etc.).

The bewilderment of contemporaries, including foreign diplomats, the Austrian emperor Joseph II, etc., caused rave reviews and characteristics that Catherine gave to her young favorites, for the most part devoid of any outstanding talents. As N. I. Pavlenko writes, “neither before Catherine nor after her, debauchery did not reach such a large scale and did not manifest itself in such a frankly defiant form.”

It is worth noting that in Europe Catherine's "debauchery" was not such a rare occurrence against the backdrop of a general licentiousness of morals. XVIII century. Most kings (with the possible exception of Frederick the Great, Louis XVI and Charles XII) had numerous mistresses. However, this does not apply to reigning queens and empresses. Thus, the Austrian Empress Maria Theresa wrote about the "disgust and horror" that such persons as Catherine II instill in her, and this attitude towards the latter was shared by her daughter Marie Antoinette. As K. Valishevsky wrote in this regard, comparing Catherine II with Louis XV, “the difference between the sexes until the end of time, we think, will give a deeply unequal character to the same actions, depending on whether they are committed by a man or a woman ... besides, the mistresses of Louis XV never influenced the fate of France.

There are numerous examples of the exceptional influence (both negative and positive) that Catherine's favorites (Orlov, Potemkin, Platon Zubov, etc.) had on the fate of the country, starting from June 28, 1762, until the death of the Empress, as well as on its domestic, foreign policy and even on military operations. According to N.I. Pavlenko, in order to please the favorite Grigory Potemkin, who envied the glory of Field Marshal Rumyantsev, this outstanding commander and hero of the Russian-Turkish wars was removed by Catherine from command of the army and was forced to retire to his estate. Another, very mediocre commander, Musin-Pushkin, on the contrary, continued to lead the army, despite his blunders in military campaigns (for which the empress herself called him a “real blockhead”) - due to the fact that he was a “favorite on June 28”, one of those who helped Catherine seize the throne.

In addition, the institute of favoritism had a negative effect on the morals of the higher nobility, who sought benefits through flattery to a new favorite, tried to make “his own man” into lovers to the empress, etc. A contemporary M. M. Shcherbatov wrote that Catherine’s favoritism and debauchery II contributed to the decline in the morals of the nobility of that era, and historians agree with this.

Catherine had two sons: (1754) and Alexei Bobrinsky (1762 - son of Grigory Orlov), as well as her daughter Anna Petrovna (1757-1759, possibly from the future King of Poland Stanislav Poniatovsky), who died in infancy. Less likely is Catherine's motherhood in relation to Potemkin's pupil named Elizabeth, who was born when the Empress was over 45 years old.