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Magadan region. - Vladivostok: Publishing House of the Far Eastern Scientific Center of the USSR Academy of Sciences. - S. 93-117.

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UDC 631.48 (571.61) E.P. Sinelnikov, T.A. Chekannikova

COMPARATIVE EVALUATION OF THE INTENSITY AND DIRECTION OF THE PROCESSES OF TRANSFORMATION OF THE MATERIAL COMPOSITION OF THE PROFILE OF BLEACHED SOILS OF THE PLAIN TERRITORIES OF THE PRIMORSKY TERRITORY AND THE SODDY-PODZOLIC CARBONATE SOILS OF THE SOUTHERN TAIGA

WESTERN SIBERIA

The article provides a detailed analysis of the processes of transformation of the material composition of soils in South Siberia and Primorye. Significant differences in the intensity and direction of the leading elementary soil processes were not revealed.

Key words: Primorsky Krai, Western Siberia, soddy-podzolic soils, carbonate soils, comparative assessment.

E.P. Sinelnikov, T.A. Chekannikova

COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT OF PROFILE MATERIAL STRUCTURE TRANSFORMATION PROCESSES INTENSITY AND ORIENTATION ON THE FLAT TERRITORIES BLEACHED SOILS OF PRIMORSKY KRAI AND CESPITOSE-PODZOLIC CARBONATE SOILS IN THE WESTERN SIBERIA

The detailed analysis of soils material structure transformation processes in the southern Siberia and Primorsky Krai is conducted. Essential distinctions in the intensity and orientation of leading elementary soil processes are not revealed.

Key words: Primorsky Krai, Western Siberia, cespitose-podzolic soils, carbonate soils, comparative assessment.

Evaluation of the degree of differentiation of the material composition of the soil profile as a result of the action of various elementary soil processes has long been an integral part of studies of the genetic properties of the soil cover in any region. The basis of such analyzes was laid by the works of A.A. Rode,

The features of differentiation of the material composition of soils in the southern part of the Russian Far East, in comparison with soils of other regions close in genetic parameters, were studied.

C.V. Zonn, L.P. Rubtsova and E.N. Rudneva, G.I. Ivanov and others. The result of these studies, based mainly on the analysis of genetic parameters, was the statement about the predominance of the processes of glazing, bleaching, pseudo-podzolization and the complete exclusion of podzolization processes here.

In this report, we have made an attempt to compare the direction and intensity of the processes of transformation of the material composition of the profile of bleached soils of the plain part of Primorye with soddy-podzolic residual-calcareous soils of Western Siberia based on quantitative indicators of the balance of the main elements of the material composition.

The choice of Siberian soils as a comparative variant is not accidental and is determined by the following conditions. First, the residual-calcareous soddy-podzolic soils of Siberia were formed on mantle loams with a high content of clay particles and exchangeable bases, which excludes fundamental differences already at the first stage of the analysis. Secondly, this is the presence of detailed monographic data and balance calculations of the transformation of the material composition, published by I.M. Gadzhiev, which greatly simplifies the fulfillment of our task.

For comparative analysis we used the data of I.M. Gadzhiev along sections 6-73 (soddy-strongly podzolic) and 9-73 (soddy-weakly podzolic soils). As bleached soil options

Primorye, we took brown-bleached and meadow gley-weakly bleached soils. The initial data of these soils, as well as an assessment of the transformation of their material composition depending on the geomorphological location and degree of bleaching, are presented by us in the previous message. The main indicators of soddy-podzolic soils are presented in Table 1.

An analysis of the data in Table 1 of this report and Table 1 of the previous one shows two significant points: firstly, this is a fairly similar composition of parent rocks, and secondly, a pronounced division of the profiles of all analyzed sections into accumulative-eluvial and illuvial parts. So, according to E.P. Sinelnikov, the content of clay particles in the soil-forming rock of the plains of Primorye is 73-75%, for the southern taiga of Western Siberia 57-62%. The amount of clay fraction was 40-45 and 35-36 percent, respectively. The total value of exchangeable Ca and Mg cations in the lacustrine-alluvial deposits of Primorye is 22-26 meq per 100 grams of soil, in the covering loams of Siberia 33-34, the value of the actual acidity is 5.9-6.3 and 7.1-7.5 units, respectively. . pH. The residual carbonate content of rocks is manifested in the properties of the parent rocks of the analyzed sections of Siberia, but its effect on the physicochemical state of the upper horizons is minimal, especially in medium and strongly podzolic soils.

Investigating the problem of differentiation of the profile of soddy-podzolic soils, I.M. Gadzhiev notes a clear separation of the eluvial part, depleted in sesquioxides and enriched in silica, and the illuvial part, to some extent enriched in the main components of the material composition, in comparison with the overlying horizons. At the same time, no noticeable accumulation of oxides was found here in relation to the original rock and even reduced. A similar regularity is also manifested in the bleached soils of Primorye.

Referring to the works of A.A. Rode, I.M. Gadzhiev believes that this fact confirms the regularity of the behavior of the substance during the podzol formation process, the essence of which "... consists in the total destruction of the mineral base of the soil and the transit discharge of the resulting products far beyond the soil profile" . In particular, according to I.M. Gadzhiev, the total amount of desiltation of the total thickness of soil horizons relative to the parent rock ranges from 42-44% in strongly podzolic soil to 1.5-2 in weakly podzolic.

Table 1

The main indicators of the material composition of residual-calcareous soddy-podzolic soils of Western Siberia (calculated according to I.M. Gadzhiev)

Horizon Estimated thickness, cm Particle content<0,001 мм Плотность, г/см3 Валовый состав почвы в целом, % Состав крупнозема, % Состав ила, %

2 o so o o o o o) 1_1_ o o 2 2 o o o o o 2 a) o_ o o o o< 2 о со о од < со о од О) 1_1_ со о /2 о со со о 2 а) о_ со о од < 2 о СО со о од < со о од О) 1_1_ со о £ /2 о со со о 2 а) о_ со о од <

Section 6-73 Soddy-strongly podzolic

А1 4 23 1.10 74.7 14.2 4.3 7.5 5.1 79.3 11.1 3.1 10.3 5.7 58.2 25.1 8.5 3.2 4, 6

А2 20 23 1.32 73.8 14.3 4.2 7.4 5.4 78.6 11.1 2.7 10.4 6.4 56.8 25.3 9.4 3.1 4, 2

Bh 18 40 1.43 70.0 16.7 5.5 5.9 4.8 74.4 14.3 4.0 7.5 5.6 55.8 27.9 12.7 2.6 3, 4

B1 31 45 1.55 67.4 17.3 5.6 5.6 4.8 76.6 10.9 1.3 11.3 11.5 55.2 26.5 10.8 2.8 3, 8

B2 27 40 1.53 68.4 18.3 6.2 5.2 4.6 77.0 11.8 2.7 9.7 6.7 55.5 26.7 10.8 2.9 3, 8

BC 24 38 1.52 68.4 16.7 5.6 5.7 4.6 76.3 11.1 2.6 10.2 6.8 55.7 25.9 10.9 2.9 3, 8

C 10 36 1.52 68.4 16.2 6.3 5.7 4.5 75.7 10.8 1.7 10.0 10.4 55.9 25.7 11.3 2.9 3, 5

А1 6 23 0.89 72.0 14.6 4.3 7.0 5.0 76.1 12.0 2.6 9.7 7.3 56.6 24.2 10.8 3.1 3, 5

А2 8 29 1.20 72.1 14.4 4.6 7.0 4.9 78.2 10.4 2.2 11.2 7.3 56.4 24.5 10.6 3.1 3, 6

Bh 30 40 1.35 69.0 15.3 5.7 6.2 4.3 77.4 8.7 2.1 8.1 11.3 55.3 26.1 11.6 2.8 3, 5

B1 22 42 1.46 67.5 17.6 6.2 5.3 4.4 75.4 11.1 2.6 10.0 6.8 55.2 27.6 11.9 2.7 3, 6

B2 18 42 1.45 67.7 16.8 5.6 5.7 4.7 76.3 9.8 1.5 12.3 10.6 54.8 27.3 11.8 2.7 3, 7

BC 38 41 1.46 67.4 16.9 5.6 5.6 4.7 75.2 11.0 2.1 10.5 8.3 54.7 26.5 11.4 2.7 3, 6

C 10 35 1.48 67.4 16.0 5.5 5.9 4.1 74.2 11.5 2.7 8.9 8.6 55.2 25.4 10.7 2.9 3, 7

Similar calculations performed by the author for chernozem soils and gray forest soils showed complete identity of the direction and rate of rearrangement of the material composition in comparison with automorphic soils of the southern taiga subzone of Siberia. Wherein ". the chernozem leached from the soil horizons in terms of the composition of silt, iron and aluminum, in comparison with the original rock, practically repeats the soddy-slightly podzolic soil, the dark gray forest podzolic soil is close to the soddy-medium podzolic soil, and the light gray forest podzolized soil approaches the soddy-strongly podzolic soil in these indicators. This state of affairs allowed the author to conclude, “...that the formation of modern soddy-podzolic soils occurs on an already previously well-differentiated mineral base, in general terms, deeply eluvial-transformed compared to the original rock, therefore, it is hardly appropriate to attribute the eluvial-illuvial differentiation of the profile only due to the podzol formation process in its modern sense”.

The closest in composition to the original rock is horizon C of weakly podzolic soil, and in terms of the analyzed thickness of the modern soil profile, it contained 4537 tons of silt, 2176 tons of aluminum and 790 tons of iron per hectare. In a profile of strongly podzolic soil close in thickness, similar indicators were: 5240, 2585 and 1162 tons per hectare. That is, only due to the increased migration of substances in the profile of strongly podzolic soil, equal in thickness to the original parent rock, 884 tons per hectare of silt, 409 tons of aluminum and 372 tons of iron should have been carried out. If we translate these indicators into a cubic meter, we get, respectively: 88.4; 40.9 and 37.2 kg. In reality, the profile of strongly podzolic soil, according to I.M. Gadzhiev, relative to the parent rock lost 15.7 kg of silica, 19.8 kg of aluminum and 11 kg of iron per m3.

If we consider the loss of analyzed substances in the profile of soddy-strongly podzolic soil relative to the initial content of substances in the rock of weakly podzolic soil, then we get that the loss of silt will be 135 kg/m3, and the accumulation of aluminum, on the contrary, will be 7.5 kg and iron 3.4 kg.

In order to understand the essence of the ongoing processes of transformation of the material composition of the soddy-podzolic soils of Western Siberia and compare the results with the bleached soils of the plains of Primorye, we decomposed, using the method of V.A. Targulyana, the gross content of basic oxides per share coming to the coarse earth (> 0.001 mm) and the silty fraction. The results obtained for the soddy-podzolic soils of Siberia are presented in Table 2 (the corresponding indicators for the bleached soils of Primorye are given in.

The entire profile of the studied soils is fairly clearly divided into four zones: accumulative (horizon A1), eluvial (horizons A2 and Bh), illuvial (horizons B1, B2 and BC) and parent rock (horizon C), relative to which all calculations in Table 2. Such a division allows a more contrasting assessment of the essence and direction of the processes of transformation of the material composition within a specific soil profile and a total assessment of the balance of the material composition.

table 2

The main indicators of the balance of the material composition of residual-carbonate soddy-podzolic

soils relative to parent rock, kg/m3

Gori- Mechanical elements Content in coarse earth Content in clay fraction

Coarse earth Il SiO2 AI2O3 Fe2O3 SiO2 AI2O3 Fe2O3

1 2 ± 1 2 ± 1 2 ± 1 2 ± 1 2 ± 1 2 ± 1 2 ± 1 2 ±

Section 6-73 Soddy-strong podzolic

А1 37 34 -3 23 10 -13 28 27 -1 4 4 0 0.6 1.0 +0.4 13 6 -7 6 2 -4 2.5 0.8 -1.7

А2 187 201 +14 117 63 -54 142 158 +16 20 22 +2 3.2 5.4 +2.2 65 36 -29 30 16 -14 12.6 5.9 -6.7

Bh 168 200 +32 105 58 -47 127 149 +22 18 28 +10 2.9 8.0 +5.1 58 32 -26 27 16 -11 11.3 6.6 -4.7

B1 290 287 -3 181 197 +12 219 220 +1 31 31 0 5.0 9.7 -1.3 101 107 +6 47 54 +7 19.5 24.5 +5.0

B2 253 225 -27 157 187 +30 191 173 -18 27 27 0 4.3 6.1 +1.8 88 104 +16 41 50 +9 17.0 20.0 +3.0

BC 225 217 -8 140 148 +8 170 165 -5 24 24 0 3.8 5.6 +1.8 78 82 +4 36 38 +2 15.1 15.9 +0.8

Section 9-73 Soddy-weakly podzolic

А1 57 41 -16 32 12 -20 42 31 -11 6 5 -1 1.6 1.1 -0.5 18 7 -11 8 3 -5 3.4 1.3 -2.1

А2 80 68 -12 42 28 -14 56 53 -3 9 7 -2 2.1 1.5 -0.6 24 16 -8 11 7 -4 4.6 2.9 -1.7

Bh 285 242 -43 159 163 +4 211 187 -24 33 21 -12 7.8 5.1 -2.7 88 90 +2 41 43 +2 17.1 18.9 +1.8

B1 209 185 -24 117 136 +19 155 139 -15 24 20 -4 5.7 4.8 -0.9 65 75 +10 30 38 +8 12.5 16.2 +3.7

B2 171 152 -19 96 109 +13 127 116 -11 20 15 -5 4.7 2.3 -2.4 53 59 +6 25 30 +5 ​​10.3 12.8 +2.5

BC 361 329 -32 202 225 +23 267 248 -19 41 36 -5 9.9 6.9 -3.0 112 123 +11 52 60 +8 21.7 25.4 +3.7

Note. 1 - initial values; 2 - content currently.

Table 2 shows that the direction and intensity of the processes of transformation of the material composition of “related” soil pairs are far from unambiguous. In the eluvial zone of the profile of strongly podzolic soil, coarse earth fractions are accumulated relative to the parent rock (+46 kg/m3) and silt is removed (-101 kg). In the illuvial zone of these soils, on the contrary, coarse earth is removed (-38 kg) and silt accumulates (+50 kg). The total balance of coarse earth as a whole along the profile is clearly neutral (+5 kg), taking into account some conventionality of the components of the calculated indicators. The total balance of sludge is negative -64 kg.

In the soddy-weakly podzolic soil in all zones of the profile, a decrease in the proportion of coarse earth relative to the parent rock is observed, totaling -146 kg. The accumulation of clay fraction (55 kg) is typical only for the illuvial part, and according to this indicator, horizons B of both strongly podzolic and weakly podzolic soils are practically close, 50–55 kg/m3, but the total accumulation of silt in horizons B prevails over its removal from the eluvial accumulative zone (+25 kg).

Thus, in soils of different degrees of podzolicity, the nature of the redistribution of mechanical elements is different both in direction and in quantitative indicators. In a strongly podzolic soil, there is a more powerful removal of silt from the surface horizons beyond the soil profile, while in a weakly podzolic soil, on the contrary, a weak removal of silt is observed with intensive removal of coarse earth from almost the entire thickness of the soil profile.

In the brown-bleached soil of Primorye (BO), the direction of the processes of redistribution of mechanical elements is of the same type as in strongly podzolic soil, but the intensity (contrast) is much higher. So, the accumulation of coarse earth in the mountains. A2 was 100 kg, and the removal from the illuvial stratum was 183, which is -81 kg in total, at +5 in strongly podzolic soil. The removal of silt is actively going on throughout the eluvial-accumulative part of the profile (-167 kg), and its accumulation in horizons B is only 104 kg. The total silt balance in the BP soil is -63 kg, which is almost identical to the strongly podzolic soil. In the meadow gley weakly bleached soil (LGhb), the direction of the processes of redistribution of mechanical elements is almost the same as in the BS soil, but the intensity is much lower, although the total balance of elements is quite close and even exceeds that of the more bleached soil.

Consequently, the intensity of the bleaching process does not really correlate with the nature of the redistribution of mechanical elements, although the brown-bleached soils are much older and have passed the stage of meadow gley soils in the past.

Analyzing the total and individual participation of the main oxides (NiO2, AI2O3, Fe2O3) in the material composition of coarse earth and silt of individual zones of the soil profile of the sections relative to the parent rock, the following features and regularities can be identified.

In horizon A1 of strongly podzolic soil, with the removal of 3 kg of coarse earth, the amount of oxides is 1.6 kg; in the eluvial part of the profile, the sum of basic oxides is 11 kg greater than the mass of coarse earth, while in the illuvial part, on the contrary, the mass of coarse earth is 14 kg greater than the sum of oxides.

In the humus horizon of slightly podzolic soil, the share of coarse earth is 4 kg more than the total content of oxides, in the eluvial zone this excess was 10 kg, and in the illuvial part - 20 kg.

In horizons A1 and A2 of the chills of Primorye, the mass of coarse earth practically coincides with the mass of basic oxides, and in horizons B it exceeds by almost 50 kg. In the eluvial-accumulative part of the profile of the meadow gley slightly bleached soil, the regularity is preserved, that is, the mass of coarse earth coincides with the mass of oxides, and in the illuvial horizons B it is 20 kg more.

In assessing the analyzed values, the redistribution of mechanical elements and basic oxides of the material composition of the soil is of great importance for the thickness of the calculated layer, therefore, for a real comparison of the direction and intensity of the processes, the obtained balance values ​​should be reduced to an equal layer in thickness. Taking into account the low thickness of the humus horizon of virgin podzolic soils, the calculated layer cannot be more than 5 cm. The results of such recalculations are given in Table 3.

The results of recalculation for equal thickness of the analyzed soil layer clearly show the fundamental difference in the redistribution of the material composition of the soddy-podzolic soils of Siberia and the bleached soils of Primorye, depending on the severity of the main processes of soil formation.

Table 3

Balance of mechanical elements and basic oxides (kg) in the calculated layer 5x100x100 cm

relative to parent rock

Layer, horizons Mechanical elements Coarse earth (> 0.001) Silty fraction (<0,001)

>0,001 <0,001 SiO2 AІ2Oз Fe2Oз Ба- ланс SiO2 AІ2Oз Fe2Oз Баланс

Sod-strongly podzolic soil

A1 -3.7 -16.2 -1.2 0 +0.5 -0.7 -8.7 -5.0 -2.1 -5.8

А2 +В +6.0 -13.3 +5.0 +1.6 +0.9 +7.5 -7.1 -3.2 -1.5 -11.9

B -2.3, +3.0 -1.3 0 +0.1 -1.2 +1.6 +1.1 +0.5 +3.2

Sod-slightly podzolic soil

A1 -13.3 -16.6 -9.1 -0.8 -0.4 -10.3 -9.1 -4.1 -1.7 -14.9

А2 +В -7.1 -1.3 -3.5 -1.8 -0.4 -5.7 +0.8 -0.3 0 +0.5

B -3.0 +2.2 -1.8 -0.6 -0.3 -2.7 +1.1 +0.8 +0.4 +2.3

Brown-bleached soil

A1 +0.6 -22.2 0 +0.9 0 +0.9 -11.4 -8.1 -2.2 -21.7

A2 -9.9 -17.7 +5.4 +2.7 +0.9 +1.9 -8.9 -7.2 -1.8 -17.9

B -9.1 +5.2 -6.4 +0.1 -0.1 -6.4 -2.5 -0.5 +0.5 +2.7

Meadow gley slightly bleached soil

A1 -1.1 -19.0 -0.8 0 +0.3 -0.5 -0.1 -5.9 -2.2 -18.1

А2 +0.5 -13.0 +0.9 +1.0 +0.2 +2.1 -7.0 -3.7 -1.8 -12.4

B -6.6 +2.5 -5.6 +0.4 +0.2 -5.0 +1.9 +0.3 +0.5 +2.3

In particular, only in weakly podzolic soils is there a maximum removal of coarse earth over the entire profile relative to the original rock. The maximum falls on the humus horizon. The accumulation of coarse earth in the eluvial part of the bleached soil profile is 2–3 times higher than in the strongly podzolic soil.

In all analyzed sections, there is an intensive removal of silt from the humus horizon: from 16 kg in podzolic soils to 19-22 in bleached ones. In the eluvial part of the profile, the removal of silt is somewhat less and is almost the same for all sections (13–17 kg). The only exception is the section of weakly podzolic soil, where the removal of silt is minimal - 1.3 kg. In the illuvial part of the profile of all sections, silt accumulates from 2 to 5 kg per 5 cm soil layer, which is absolutely unequal to its removal from the overlying strata.

Most researchers of podzolic and related soils are inclined to believe that the main criterion for the decomposition of silt (podzolization) or its uniformity in profile (lessification) is the indicator of the molecular ratio SiO2 / R2O3, although there are contradictions. In particular, S.V. Zonn et al. emphasize that under conditions of frequent changes in reducing and oxidizing conditions, which is typical for Primorye, there is a significant change not in light, but in large fractions of the granulometric composition of soils, and especially in the content of iron, which, when released, passes into a segregated state. And this, according to the authors, is the fundamental difference between the chemistry of brown-bleached soils and soddy-podzolic soils.

Based on these provisions, we compared the molecular ratios SiO2 / R2O3 and AI2O3 / Fe2O3 in the “coarse-earth” and silt of the sections, taking their value in the parent rock as 100%. Naturally, a value of less than 100% indicates a relative accumulation of sesquioxides in a certain part of the soil profile, and, conversely, a value of more than 100% indicates their decrease. The data obtained are presented in table 4.

An analysis of the data in Table 4 allows us to notice that, judging by the SiO2 / R2O3 ratio of the clay fraction, there are no significant differences between the horizons of podzolic soils (± 7%). In the sections of bleached soils, this trend persists, but the level of expansion of molecular ratios in horizons A1 and A2 reaches 15–25%, depending on the degree of bleaching.

The value of the AI2O3/Fe2O3 ratio in the clay fraction of the section of weakly podzolic and strongly bleached soils is really stable over all horizons and, on the contrary, differs significantly from that of strongly podzolic and

weakly bleached soils. That is, it is impossible to make an unambiguous conclusion about the degree of silt differentiation depending on the severity of the main process of podzolization or bleaching in the sections under consideration.

Table 4

Analysis of the magnitude of molecular ratios relative to the parent rock

Soddy-podzolic soils Bleached soils

strong-weak-strong-weak-

podzolic podzolic bleached bleached

Horizon 3 O3 2 SI /2 o s/e 3 O3 2 1_1_ /3 O3 s 3 O3 2 si 2 o s/e 3 O3 2 1_1_ /3 O3 s 3 O3 2 SI 2 o s/e 3 O3 2 1_1_ / 3 O3 s 3 O3 2 si 2 o s / e 3 O3 2 1_1_ /3 O3<

Fractions of "coarse earth" (> 0.001 mm)

A1 103 55 109 110 108 97 100 100

A2 104 64 126 110 115 87 112 105

B 97 64 138 160 101 87 80 103

C 100 100 100 120 100 100 100 100

Fractions "silt" (< 0,00" мм)

A1 110 131 107 94 126 104 124 120

A2 107 120 107 97 115 98 103 122

B 100 108 93 100 100 102 100 107

C 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

The A12O3 / Pb20s ratio in coarse soil is somewhat more pronounced in the profile of strongly podzolic soil (-40; -45%) and bleaches -13%. In the soil profiles of the weakly pronounced ESP type, this ratio has an opposite positive trend (+5; +10%), and the maximum deviation from the parent rock (+60%) is in the B horizon of the weakly podzolic soil.

Thus, neither the initial data on the material composition, nor attempts to analyze them using various calculated indicators revealed clearly pronounced differences both between podzolic and bleached soil types, and depending on the degree of severity of the leading type of elementary soil formation process, in this case, podzol formation and lessivage. .

Obviously, the fundamental differences in their manifestation are due to more dynamic processes and phenomena associated with humus formation, physical and chemical state, and redox processes.

Literature

1. Gadzhiev I.M. Soil evolution of the southern taiga of Western Siberia. - Novosibirsk: Nauka, 1982. - 278 p.

2. Zonn S.V. On brown forest and brown pseudopodzolic soils of the Soviet Union // Genesis and geogra-

fia soils. - M.: Nauka, 1966. - S.17-43.

3. Zonn S.V., Nechaeva E.G., Sapozhnikov A.P. Processes of pseudo-podzolization and lessivation in forest soils of southern Primorye// Soil Science. - 1969. - No. 7. - P.3-16.

4. Ivanov G.I. Soil formation in the south of the Far East. - M.: Nauka, 1976. - 200 p.

5. Organization, composition and genesis of soddy-pale-podzolic soil on cover loams / V.A. Tar-gulyan [and others]. - M., 1974. - 55 p.

6. Podzolic soils of the central and eastern parts of the European territory of the USSR (on loamy soil-forming rocks). - L.: Nauka, 1980. - 301 p.

7. Rode A.A. Soil-forming processes and their study by the stationary method // Principles of Organization and Methods of Stationary Study of Soils. - M.: Nauka, 1976. - S. 5-34.

8. Rubtsova P.P., Rudneva E.N. On some properties of brown forest soils in the foothills of the Carpathians and plains of the Amur region // Eurasian Soil Sci. - 1967. - No. 9. - S. 71-79.

9. Sinelnikov E.P. Optimization of the properties and regimes of periodically waterlogged soils / FEB DOP RAS, Primorskaya GSHA. - Ussuriysk, 2000. - 296 p.

10. Sinelnikov E.P., Chekannikova T.A. Comparative analysis of the balance of the material composition of soils with different degrees of bleaching in the plain part of Primorsky Krai. Vestn. KrasGAU. - 2011. - No. 12 (63). - P.87-92.

UDC 631.4:551.4 E.O. Makushkin

DIAGNOSIS OF SOILS IN THE UPPER DELTA SELENGI*

The article presents the diagnostics of soils in the upper reaches of the delta of the river. Selenga on the basis of morphogenetic and physicochemical properties of soils.

Key words: delta, soil, diagnostics, morphology, reaction, humus content, type, subtype.

E.O.Makushkin SOILS DIAGNOSTICS IN THE SELENGA RIVER DELTA UPPER REACHES

The soils diagnostics in the Selenga river delta upper reaches on the basis of soils morphogenetic, physical and chemical properties is presented in the article.

Key words: delta, soil, diagnostics, morphology, reaction, humus content, type, subtype.

Introduction. The uniqueness of the river delta Selenga is that it is the only freshwater deltaic ecosystem in the world with an area of ​​more than 1 thousand km2, included in the list of specially protected natural sites of the Ramsar Convention. Therefore, it is of interest to study its ecosystems, including soil ones.

Previously, in the light of the new classification of soils in Russia, we diagnosed the soils of elevated areas of the terraced floodplain and the large island (island) of Sennaya in the middle part of the delta, small and large islands of the peripheral part of the delta.

Target. Carry out classification diagnostics of soils in the upper reaches of the delta, taking into account the presence of a certain contrast in the landscape and the specifics of the influence of natural and climatic factors on soil formation.

Objects and methods. The objects of research were alluvial soils of the upper reaches of the delta of the river. Selenga. The key sites were represented in the near-channel and central floodplain of the main river channel near the village (village) of Murzino, Kabansky district of the Republic of Buryatia, as well as on the islands with local names: Dwelling (opposite the village of Murzino), Svinyachiy (800 m from the village of Murzino upstream).

Comparative geographic, physicochemical and morphogenetic methods were used in the work. The classification position of soils is given according to. In the methodological aspect, taking into account the requirements, the work focuses primarily on the morphogenetic and physico-chemical properties of the upper humus horizons. The numbering of the buried horizons was carried out, starting from the bottom of the soil profile, with Roman capital numerals, as is customary in the study of soil formation in river floodplains.

Results and discussion. About with. Murzino, a number of soil cuts were laid. The first three soil sections were laid along the transect in areas from the lowland facies in front of the artificial dam, directly near the village towards the main left channel of the Selenga River, formed in

To describe the whole variety of reality, any language needs an expression duration, intensity and direction. It is common for SAE and many other language systems to describe these concepts metaphorically. The metaphors used in this case are metaphors of spatial extension, i.e. size, number (plurality), position, form and movement. We express duration, in words: long "long", short "short". great "big", much "a lot", quick "fast", slow "slow", etc., intensity- words: large "big", much "many", heavy "heavy", light "easy", high "high", 1ow "low", sharp "sharp", faint "weak", etc.; orientation- in words: can "more", increase "increase", grow "grow", turn "turn", get "become", approach "approach", go "go", come "come", rise "rise", fall " fall", stop "stop", smooth "smooth", even "smooth" , rapid "fast", slow "slow", etc. One could make an almost endless list of metaphors that we are hardly aware of as such, since they are practically the only linguistic means available. Non-metaphorical means of expressing these concepts, as well as eagle "early", late "late", soon "soon", lastilig "long", intense "tense", very "very", are so few that they can in no way be sufficient.

It is clear how this situation came about. It is part of our whole system - objectification - mental representation of qualities and potencies as spatial, although they are not actually spatial (as far as it is felt by our senses). The meaning of nouns (in SAE), starting from the names of physical bodies, leads to designations of a completely different nature. And since physical bodies and their form in visible space are denoted by terms related to shape and size, and are calculated by various kinds of numerals, then such methods of designation and calculation turn into symbols that are devoid of spatial significance and presuppose an imaginary space. Physical phenomena: move "move", stop "stop", rise "rise", sink "fall", approach "approach", etc. - in the visible, in our opinion, they fully correspond to their designations in the mental space. It has gone so far that we constantly turn to metaphors, even when we are talking about the simplest non-spatial situations. I "grab" the "thread" of my interlocutor's reasoning, but if their "level" is too "high", my attention may "scatter" and "lose connection" with their "flow", so that when he "fits" to the final " point", we are already "widely" separated and our "views" are so "spaced" from each other that the "things" he speaks of "appear" to be "very" conventional or even a "heap" of nonsense.

The complete absence of this kind of metaphor in the Hopi is striking. The use of words expressing spatial relations, when such relations do not actually exist, is simply impossible in the Hopi, in this case, as it were, an absolute ban is imposed on them. This becomes clear when one considers that there are numerous grammatical and lexical means to describe duration, intensity and direction as such, and the grammatical laws in it are not adapted to draw analogies with a conceivable space. Numerous kinds of verbs express duration and focus one or the other action, while some forms pledges express the intensity, direction and duration of causes and factors that invoke these actions. Further, the special part of speech intensifier(thetensors) - the most numerous class of words - expresses only intensity, direction, duration and sequence. The main function of this part of speech is to express the degree of intensity, "strength", as well as the state in which they are and how they change: thus, the general concept of intensity, considered from the point of view of constant change, on the one hand, and continuity - with the other, also includes the concepts of directionality and duration. These special temporal forms - intensifiers - indicate differences in degree, speed, continuity, repetition, increase and decrease in intensity, direct sequence, sequence interrupted by some time interval, etc., as well as quality tension, which we would express metaphorically through such words as smooth "smooth", even "smooth", hard "hard", rough "rough". What is striking is the complete absence in these forms of similarity with words expressing the real relations of space and movement, which for us mean the same thing. There are almost no traces of direct derivation from spatial terms in them.

Thus, although Hopi seems to be an extremely concrete language when considering the forms of its nouns, in the forms of intensifiers it reaches such an abstraction that it almost exceeds our understanding.

The relief-forming role of vertical tectonic movements of a higher order also lies in the fact that they control the distribution of areas occupied by land and sea (cause marine transgressions and regressions), determine the configuration of continents and oceans.

The distribution of areas occupied by land and sea, as well as the configuration of continents and oceans, is known to be the root cause of climate change on the Earth's surface. Consequently, vertical movements have not only a direct effect on the relief, but also indirectly, through the climate, the effect of which on the relief was discussed above (Chapter 4).

RELIEF-FORMING ROLE OF THE LATEST TECTONIC MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH'S CRUST

In the previous chapters, we discussed the reflection of geological structures in the relief and the influence on the relief of various types of tectonic movements, regardless of the time of manifestation of these movements.

It has now been established that the main role in the formation of the main features of the modern relief of endogenous origin belongs to the so-called latest tectonic

Rice. 12. Scheme of the latest (Neogene-Quaternary) tectonic movements on the territory of the USSR (according to, significantly simplified): / - areas of very weakly expressed positive movements; 2-areas of weakly expressed linear positive movements; 3 - areas of intense dome uplift; 4 - areas of weakly pronounced linear ups and downs; 5 - areas of intense linear uplifts with large (o) and significant (b) gradients of vertical movements; 6 - areas of emerging (a) and prevailing (b) subsidence; 7-boundary of areas of strong earthquakes (7 points and more); c - boundary of manifestation of Neogene-Quaternary volcanism; 9 - border of distribution of operating

dvizheniyam, by which most researchers understand the movements that took place in the Neogene-Quaternary time. This is quite convincingly evidenced, for example, by a comparison of the hypsometric map of the USSR and the map of recent tectonic movements (Fig. 12). Thus, areas with weakly pronounced vertical positive tectonic movements in the relief correspond to plains, low plateaus and plateaus with a thin cover of Quaternary deposits: the East European Plain, a significant part of the West Siberian Lowland, the Ustyurt Plateau, the Central Siberian Plateau.

The areas of intense tectonic subsidence, as a rule, correspond to lowlands with a thick layer of sediments of the Neogene-Quaternary age: the Caspian lowland, a significant part of the Turan lowland, the North Siberian lowland, the Kolyma lowland, etc. The mountains correspond to areas of intense, predominantly positive tectonic movements: the Caucasus, Pamir , Tien Shan, mountains of the Baikal and Transbaikalia, etc.

Consequently, the relief-forming role of the latest tectonic movements manifested itself primarily in the deformation of the topographic surface, in the creation of positive and negative relief forms of various orders. Through the differentiation of the topographic surface, the latest tectonic movements control the location on the Earth's surface of areas of removal and accumulation and, as a consequence, areas with a predominance of denudation (worked out) and accumulative relief. The speed, amplitude and contrast of the latest movements significantly affect the intensity of manifestation of exogenous processes and are also reflected in the morphology and morphometry of the relief.

The expression in the modern relief of structures created by neotectonic movements depends on the type and nature of neotectonic movements, the lithology of deformable strata, and specific physical and geographical conditions. Some structures are directly reflected in the relief, in the place of others an inverted relief is formed, in the place of the third - various types of transitional forms from direct to inverted relief. The variety of relationships between relief and geological structures is especially characteristic of small structures. Large structures, as a rule, find direct expression in the relief.

Landforms that owe their origin to neotectonic structures are called morphostructures. At present, there is no single interpretation of the term "morphostructure" either in terms of the scale of forms, or in terms of the nature of the correspondence between the structure and its expression in relief. Some researchers understand by morphostructures both direct and inverted, and any other relief that has arisen at the site of a geological structure, while others understand only direct relief. The point of view of the latter is perhaps more correct. By morphostructures we will call landforms of different scales, the morphological appearance of which largely corresponds to the types of geological structures that created them.

The data currently available to geology and geomorphology indicate that the earth's crust experiences deformations almost everywhere and of a different nature: both oscillatory, and folding, and rupture-forming. So, for example, at present, the territory of Fennoscandia and a significant part of the territory of North America, adjacent to the Hudson Bay, are experiencing uplift. The uplift rates of these territories are very significant. In Fennoscandia, they are 10 mm per year (sea level marks made in the 18th century on the shores of the Gulf of Bothnia are raised above the present level by 1.5-2.0 m).

The shores of the North Sea within Holland and its neighboring areas are sinking, forcing the inhabitants to build dams to protect the territory from the onset of the sea.

Intense tectonic movements are experienced by areas of Alpine folding and modern geosynclinal belts. According to available data, the Alps rose by 3-4 km during the Neogene-Quaternary, the Caucasus and the Himalayas rose by 2-3 km only during the Quaternary, and the Pamirs by 5 km. Against the background of uplifts, some areas within the areas of Alpine folding experience intense subsidence. Thus, against the background of the uplift of the Greater and Lesser Caucasus, the Kuro-Araks lowland enclosed between them is experiencing intense subsidence. Evidence of the multidirectional movements existing here is the position of the coastlines of the ancient seas, the predecessors of the modern Caspian Sea. Coastal sediments of one of these seas - late Baku, the level of which was located at an absolute height of 10--12 m, are currently traced within the southeastern periclinal of the Greater Caucasus and on the slopes of the Talysh Mountains at absolute elevations of + 200-300 m, and within The Kura-Araks lowland was opened by wells at absolute elevations of minus 250-300 m. Intense tectonic movements are observed within the mid-ocean ridges.

The manifestation of neotectonic movements can be judged by numerous and very diverse geomorphological features. Here are some of them: a) the presence of sea and river terraces, the formation of which is not associated with the impact of climate change; b) deformations of sea and river terraces and ancient surfaces of denudation alignment; c) deeply submerged or highly elevated coral reefs; d) flooded marine coastal forms and some underwater karst sources, the position of which cannot be

explain by eustatic fluctuations1 in the level of the World Ocean or other reasons;

e) antecedent valleys formed as a result of sawing by the river of a tectonic rise that occurs in its path - an anticline fold or block (Fig. 13),

The manifestation of neotectonic movements can also be judged by a number of indirect signs. Fluvial landforms are sensitive to them. Thus, areas experiencing tectonic uplifts are usually characterized by an increase in density and depth.

erosional dismemberment in comparison with territories that are tectonically stable or experiencing immersion. The morphological appearance of erosional forms also changes in such areas: valleys usually become narrower, slopes become steeper, there is a change in the longitudinal profile of rivers and sharp changes in the direction of their flow in plan, which cannot be explained by other reasons, etc. Thus, there is a close relationship between the nature and the intensity of the latest tectonic movements and the morphology of the relief. This connection allows the wide use of geomorphological methods in the study of neotectonic movements and the geological structure of the earth's crust.

1 Eustatic fluctuations are slow changes in the level of the World Ocean that occur simultaneously and with the same sign over the entire area of ​​the ocean due to an increase or decrease in the flow of water into the ocean.

In addition to the latest tectonic movements, there are so-called modern dvizheniya, under which, according to

Understand the movements V historical time and manifesting now. The existence of such movements is evidenced by many historical and archaeological data, as well as data from repeated leveling. The high speeds of these movements noted in a number of cases dictate the urgent need to take them into account in the construction of long-term structures - canals, oil and gas pipelines, railways, etc.

CHAPTER 6 MAGMATISM AND RELIEF FORMATION

Magmatism plays an important and very diverse role in relief formation. This applies to both intrusive and effusive magmatism. The relief forms associated with intrusive magmatism can be either the result of the direct influence of igneous bodies (batholiths, laccoliths, etc.), or the result of the preparation of intrusive igneous rocks, which, as already mentioned, are often more resistant to external forces than the host rocks. their sedimentary rocks.

Batholiths are most often confined to the axial parts of anticlinoria. They form large positive relief forms, the surface of which is complicated by smaller forms, which owe their appearance to the influence of certain exogenous agents, depending on specific physical and geographical conditions.

Examples of rather large granitic batholiths on the territory of the USSR are a massif in the western part of the Zeravshan Range in Central Asia (Fig. 14), a large massif in the Konguro-Alagez Range in Transcaucasia.

Laccoliths occur singly or in groups and are often expressed V relief with positive forms in the form of domes "li" loaves. Well-known laccoliths of the North Caucasus

Rice. 15. Laccoliths of Mineralnye Vody, North Caucasus (fig.)

(Fig. 15) in the area of ​​the town of Mineralnye Vody: the mountains of Beshtau, Lysaya, Zheleznaya, Zmeinaya, and others. Typical laccoliths, well expressed in the relief, are also known in the Crimea (mountains Ayu-Dag, Kastel).

Laccoliths and other intrusive bodies often have vein-like branches called apophyses. They cut the host rocks in different directions. The prepared apophyses on the earth's surface form narrow, vertical or steeply dipping bodies, resembling collapsing walls (Fig. 16.5- B). Stratum intrusions are expressed in relief in the form of steps similar to structural steps formed as a result of selective denudation in sedimentary rocks (Fig. 16, L-L). Prepared sheet intrusions are widespread within the Central Siberian Plateau, where they are associated with the intrusion of rocks. trap formation 1.

Magmatic bodies complicate the folded structures and their reflection in the relief. Clearly reflected in the relief are formations associated with the activity of effusive magmatism, or volcanism, which creates a completely unique relief. Volcanism is an object of study of a special geological science - volcanology, but a number of aspects of the manifestation of volcanism are of direct importance for geomorphology.

Depending on the nature of the outlet openings, eruptions are distinguished areal, linear And central. Areal eruptions led to the formation of vast lava plateaus. The most famous of them are the lava plateaus of British Columbia and the Deccan (India).

Rice. 16. Prepared intrusive bodies: A-A- plastovan intrusion (sill); B-B secant vein (dike)

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In the modern geological era, the most common type of volcanic activity is the central type of eruptions, in which magma flows from the interior to the surface to certain "points", usually located at the intersection of two or more faults. The flow of magma occurs through a narrow feeding channel. The products of the eruption are deposited periclinally (that is, with a fall in all directions) relative to the outlet of the supply channel to the surface. Therefore, a more or less significant accumulative form, the volcano itself, usually rises above the center of the eruption (Fig. 17).

In a volcanic process, one can almost always distinguish between two stages - explosive, or explosive, and eruptive, or the stage of ejection and accumulation of volcanic products. The channel-like path to the surface breaks through in the first stage. The release of lava to the surface is accompanied by an explosion. As a result, the upper part of the channel expands like a funnel, forming a negative relief form - a crater. The subsequent outpouring of lava and the accumulation of pyroclastic material occur along the periphery of this negative form. Depending on the stage of volcano activity, as well as the nature of the accumulation of eruption products, several morphogenetic types of volcanoes are distinguished: maars, extrusive domes, shield volcanoes, stratovolcanoes.

Maar- negative landform, usually funnel-shaped or cylindrical, formed as a result of a volcanic explosion. There are almost no volcanic accumulations along the edges of such a depression. All currently known maars are non-active, relic formations. A large number of maars have been described in the Eifel region of Germany, in the Massif Central in France. Most of the maars in a humid climate are filled with water and turn into lakes. Maar sizes - from 200 m to 3.5 km in diameter at a depth of 60 to 400 m

Rice. 17. Volcanic cones. Craters and barrancos on the slopes are clearly visible

Naples "href="/text/category/neapolmz/" rel="bookmark">Naples) arose within a few days literally out of the blue and is currently a hill up to 140 m high. The largest volcanic structures are - stratovolcanoes. The structure of stratovolcanoes involves both layers of lavas and layers of pyroclastic material. Many stratovolcanoes have an almost regular conical shape: Fujiyama in Japan, Klyuchevskaya and Kronotskaya salts in Kamchatka, Popokatepetl in Mexico, etc. (see Fig. 17). Among these formations, mountains 3-4 km high are not uncommon. Some volcanoes reach 6 km. Many stratovolcanoes carry eternal snow and glaciers on their peaks.

Many extinct or temporarily inactive volcanoes have craters occupied by lakes.

Many volcanoes have so-called calderas. These are very large, currently inactive craters, and modern craters are often located inside the caldera. Calderas up to 30 km across are known. At the bottom of the calderas, the relief is relatively even; the sides of the calderas facing the center of the eruption are always very steep. The formation of calderas is associated with the destruction of the volcanic vent by strong explosions. In some cases, the caldera has a failed origin. In extinct volcanoes, the expansion of the caldera may also be associated with the activity of exogenous agents.

A peculiar relief is formed by liquid products of volcanic eruptions. Lava erupted from the central or side craters flows down the slopes in the form of streams. As already mentioned, the fluidity of lava is determined by its composition. Very thick and viscous lava has time to harden and lose mobility even in the upper part of the slope. At very high viscosity, it can solidify in the vent, forming a giant "lava column" or "lava finger", as was the case, for example, during the eruption of Pele volcano on Martinique in 1902. Usually, a lava flow looks like a flattened shaft stretching down the slope , with a very pronounced swelling at its end. Basaltic lavas can give rise to long flows that extend for many kilometers and even tens of kilometers and stop their movement on a plain or plateau adjacent to the volcano, or within the flat bottom of the caldera. Basalt flows 60-70 km long are not uncommon in the Hawaiian Islands and Iceland.

Lava flows of liparitic or andesitic composition are much less developed. Their length rarely exceeds several kilometers. In general, for volcanoes ejecting products of acidic or intermediate composition, a much larger part by volume is pyroclastic rather than lava material.

While solidifying, the lava flow is first covered with a crust of slag. In the event of a break in the crust in any place, the uncooled part of the lava flows out from under the crust. As a result, a cavity is formed - lavagrotto, or lava cave. When the cave roof collapses, it turns into a negative surface relief form - lavochute. Troughs are very characteristic of the volcanic landscapes of Kamchatka.

The surface of the frozen stream acquires a kind of microrelief. The most common are two types of lava flow surface microrelief: a) blocky microrelief and b) gut lava. Blocky lava flows are a chaotic heap of angular or melted blocks with numerous failures and grottoes. Such blocky forms arise at a high content of gases in the composition of lavas and at a relatively low temperature of the flow. Intestinal lavas are distinguished by a bizarre combination of frozen waves, tortuous folds, in general, really resembling "heaps of giant intestines or bundles of twisted ropes" (). The formation of such a microrelief is characteristic of lavas with high temperature and with a relatively low content of volatile components.

The release of gases from a lava flow may have the character of an explosion. In these cases, slag is piled up in the form of a cone on the surface of the flow. Such forms are called forge. Sometimes they look like pillars up to several meters high. With a calmer and more prolonged release of gases and cracks in the slag, so-called fumaroles. A number of products of fumarole release condense under atmospheric conditions, and crater-like elevations, composed of condensation products, form around the place where gases escape.

With fissure and areal outpourings of lavas, vast spaces are, as it were, filled with lava. Iceland is a classic country of fissure eruptions. Here, the vast majority of volcanoes and lava flows are confined to a depression that cuts the island from the southwest and northeast (the so-called Great Graben of Iceland). Here you can see lava sheets stretched along the faults, as well as gaping cracks, not yet completely filled with lavas. Fissure volcanism is also characteristic of the Armenian Highlands. More recently, fissure eruptions have taken place on the North Island of New Zealand.

The volume of lava flows erupted from cracks in the Great Graben of Iceland reaches 10-12 cubic meters. km. Grandiose areal outpourings occurred in the recent past in British Columbia, on the Deccan Plateau, in Southern Patagonia. Merged lava flows of different ages form here continuous plateaus with an area of ​​up to several tens and hundreds of thousands of square kilometers. So the lava plateau of Colombia has an area of ​​​​more than 500 thousand square kilometers, and the thickness of the lavas composing it reaches 1100-

1800 m. Lavas filled all the negative forms of the previous relief, causing its almost perfect alignment. At present, the height of the plateau is from 400 to 1800 m. The valleys of numerous rivers deeply cut into its surface. Blocky microrelief, cinder cones, lava caves and troughs have been preserved on the youngest lava covers.

During underwater volcanic eruptions, the surface of erupted magmatic flows cools rapidly. Significant hydrostatic pressure of the water column prevents explosive processes. As a result, a kind of microrelief is formed. sharoiformes, or pillow, lava.

Lava outpourings not only form specific landforms, but can significantly affect an already existing relief. So, lava flows can affect the river network, cause its restructuring. Blocking the river valleys, they contribute to catastrophic floods or the drying up of the area; the loss of its streams. Penetrating to the seashore and solidifying here, lava flows change the outlines of the coastline and form a special morphological type of sea coasts.

The outpouring of lavas and the ejection of pyroclastic material inevitably causes the formation of a mass deficit in the bowels of the Earth. The latter causes rapid subsidence of parts of the earth's surface. In some cases, the beginning of the eruption is preceded by a noticeable uplift of the terrain. For example, before the eruption of the Usu volcano on the island of Hokkaido, a large fault formed, along which a surface area of ​​about 3 km2 rose by 155 m in three months, and after the eruption, it lowered by 95 m.

Speaking about the relief-forming role of effusive magmatism, it should be noted that during volcanic eruptions, sudden and very fast changes in the relief and the general state of the surrounding area can occur. Such changes are especially great during explosive-type eruptions. For example, during the eruption of the Krakatau volcano in the Sunda Strait in 1883, which had the character of a series of explosions, most of the island was destroyed, and sea depths of up to 270 m formed at this place. The explosion of the volcano caused the formation of a giant wave - a tsunami that hit the coast of Java and Sumatra. It caused great damage to the coastal regions of the islands, leading to the death of tens of thousands of inhabitants. Another example of this kind is the eruption of the Katmai volcano in Alaska in 1912. Before the eruption, the Katmai volcano had the form of a regular cone 2286 m high. During the eruption, the entire upper part of the cone was destroyed by explosions and a caldera up to 4 km in diameter and up to 1100 m depth.

The volcanic relief is further exposed to exogenous processes, leading to the formation of peculiar volcanic landscapes.

As is known, the craters and summit parts of many large volcanoes are centers of mountain glaciation. Since the glacial landforms formed here do not have any fundamental features, they are not specially considered. Fluvial forms of volcanic regions have their own specifics. Melt waters, mud flows, which are often formed during volcanic eruptions, atmospheric waters significantly affect the slopes of volcanoes, especially those in the structure of which the main role belongs to pyroclastic material. In this case, a radial system of the ravine network is formed - the so-called barrancos. These are deep erosion furrows, diverging, as it were, along the radii from the top of the volcano (see - Fig. 17).

Barrancos should be distinguished from furrows plowed in the loose cover of ash and lapilli by large blocks thrown out during the eruption. Such formations are often called scars. Sharrs, as original linear depressions, can then be transformed into erosion furrows. There is an opinion that a significant part of the barrancos was founded on the former sharras.

The general pattern of the river network in volcanic regions also often has a radial character. Other distinctive features of river valleys in volcanic regions are waterfalls and rapids formed as a result of rivers crossing solidified lava flows or traps, as well as dam lakes or lake-like valley extensions in place of drained lakes that occur when a river is blocked by a lava flow. In places of accumulation of ash, as well as on lava covers, due to the high permeability of rocks over vast areas, there may be no watercourses at all. Such areas have the appearance of rocky deserts.

Many volcanic regions are characterized by outlets of pressure hot waters called geysers. Hot deep waters contain many dissolved substances that precipitate when the waters cool. Therefore, the places where hot springs come out are surrounded by sintered, often bizarrely shaped terraces. Geysers and their accompanying terraces are widely known in Yellowstone Park in the USA, in Kamchatka (Valley of Geysers), in New Zealand, and in Iceland.

In volcanic regions, there are also specific forms of weathering and denudation preparation. Thus, for example, thick basalt covers or flows of basalt, less often andesitic, lava, when cooled and under the influence of atmospheric agents, are broken by cracks into columnar units. Quite often, the individual pieces are multifaceted pillars that look very impressive in outcrops. The outcrops of cracks on the surface of the lava cover form a characteristic polygonal microrelief. Such spaces of lava exits, divided by a system of polygons - hexagons or pentagons, are called "bridge giants".

During prolonged denudation of the volcanic relief, accumulations of pyroclastic material are destroyed first of all. More resistant lava and other igneous formations

exposed to preparation by exogenous agents. The characteristic forms of preparation are those mentioned above. dikes, and necks(prepared lava plugs solidified in the crater of a volcano).

Deep erosional dissection and slope denudation can lead to the separation of the lava plateau into separate plateau-like uplands, sometimes far apart from each other. Such residual forms are called Meuse(singular - mesa).

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As a result of a long history of geological development on the territory of Russia, the main types of g e o t e c t u r- flat-platform areas and large orogenic mobile belts. However, within the same geotectures, completely different relief is often distributed (low basement plains of Karelia and the Aldan Highlands on the shields of ancient platforms; low Ural mountains and high-altitude Altai within the Ural-Mongolian belt, etc.); on the contrary, a similar relief can form within different geotectures (the high mountains of the Caucasus and Altai). This is due to the great influence on the modern relief of neotectonic movements that began in the Oligocene (Upper Paleogene) and continue to the present.

After a period of relative tectonic calm at the beginning of the Cenozoic, when low plains predominated and practically no mountains remained (only in the area of ​​Mesozoic folding, in some places, apparently, low hills and low mountains remained), vast areas of Western Siberia and the south of the East European Plain were covered with waters. shallow sea basins. In the Oligocene, a new period of tectonic activation began - a neotectonic stage, which led to a radical restructuring of the relief.

Recent tectonic movements and morphostructures. Neotectonics, or the latest tectonic movements, V.A. Obruchev defined as the movements of the earth's crust that created the modern relief. It is precisely with the latest (Neogene-Quaternary) movements that the formation and distribution of morphostructures across the territory of Russia - large landforms that arose as a result of the interaction of endogenous and exogenous processes with the leading role of the former, is associated.

The latest tectonic movements are associated with the interaction of modern lithospheric plates (see Fig. 6), along the margins of which they manifested themselves most actively. The amplitude of Neogene-Quaternary movements in the marginal parts reached several kilometers (from 4-6 km in Transbaikalia and Kamchatka to 10-12 km in the Caucasus), and in the inner regions of the plates it was measured in tens, less often hundreds of meters. Sharply differentiated movements prevailed in the marginal parts: uplifts of large amplitude were replaced by equally grandiose subsidences of adjacent areas. In the central parts of the lithospheric plates, movements of the same sign occurred over large areas.

Mountains arose in the immediate contact zone of various lithospheric plates. All the mountains that currently exist on the territory of Russia are the product of the latest tectonic movements, that is, they all arose in the Neogene-Quaternary time and, therefore, are of the same age. But the morphostructures of these mountains are very different depending on the mode of their origin, and it is connected with the position of the mountains within the various tectonic structures.

Where mountains arose on the young oceanic or transitional crust of the marginal parts of the plates with a thick cover of sedimentary rocks crumpled into folds (areas of the Alpine and Pacific foldings), young folded mountains formed (the Greater Caucasus, the Sakhalin ridges) sometimes with areas of volcanic mountains (the ridges of Kamchatka ). The mountain ranges here are linearly extended along the margin of the plate. In those places where, at the boundaries of the lithospheric plate, there were territories that had already experienced folding movements and turned into plains on a folded base, with a rigid continental crust that could not be compressed into folds (areas of pre-Paleozoic and Paleozoic folding), the formation of mountains proceeded differently. Here, with lateral pressure arising from the approach of lithospheric plates, the rigid foundation was broken by deep faults into separate blocks (blocks), some of which were squeezed upwards during further movement, others - downwards. So mountains are reborn in place of the plains. These mountains are called revived blocky, or folded-blocky. All the mountains of the south of Siberia, the Urals, the Tien Shan are revived.

In the areas of Mesozoic folding, where by the time of the beginning of intensive movements the mountains could not be completely destroyed, where areas of low-mountain or small-hilly relief were preserved, the orographic pattern of the mountains could not change or change only partially, but the height of the mountains increased. Such mountains are called rejuvenated blocky-folded. They reveal the features of both folded and blocky mountains with a predominance of one or the other. The rejuvenated ones include the Sikhote-Alin, the mountains of the North-East and partly the Amur region. The inner parts of the Eurasian lithospheric plate belong to the areas of weak and very weak uplifts and predominantly weak and moderate subsidence. Only the Caspian lowland and the southern part of the Scythian plate were intensively sinking. Most of the territory of Western Siberia experienced weak subsidence (up to 100 m), and only in the north were subsidence moderate (up to 300 m or more). The southern and western outskirts of Western Siberia and the greater eastern part of the East European Plain were a weakly mobile plain. The greatest amplitudes of uplifts on the East European Plain are characteristic of the Central Russian, Volga and Bugulmino-Belebeevskaya Uplands (100-200 m). On the Central Siberian Plateau, the amplitude of uplifts was greater. The Yenisei part of the plateau is raised by 300-500 m, and the Putorana plateau even by 500-1000 m and higher.

The result of the latest movements was the morphostructure of the platform plains. On the shields, which had a constant tendency to rise, basement plains (Karelia, Kola Peninsula), plateaus (Anabar massif) and ridges (Timansky, Yenisei, eastern spurs of Donetsk) were formed - hills that have an elongated shape and are formed by dislocated rocks of a folded base. On the slabs, where the basement rocks are covered by a sedimentary cover, accumulative plains, stratal plains and plateaus have formed.

Accumulative plains are confined to areas of subsidence in recent times (see Figs. 6 and 7), as a result of which they have a fairly thick cover of Neogene-Quaternary deposits. The accumulative plains are the middle and northern parts of the West Siberian Plain, the Middle Amur Plain, the Caspian Lowland, and the north of the Pechora Lowland. Layered plains and plateaus are morphostructures of plate sections that have experienced predominant uplifts. With a monoclinal occurrence of rocks of the sedimentary cover, inclined layered plains predominate, with a subhorizontal layer - layered plains and plateaus. Layered plains are characteristic of most of the East European Plain, the southern and western outskirts of Western Siberia, and partly of Central Siberia. On the territory of Central Siberia, plateaus are widely represented, both sedimentary (structural - Angara-Lena, Leno-Aldan, etc.) and volcanic (Putorana, Central Tungusskoye, Syverma, etc.).

Volcanic plateaus are also characteristic of mountainous regions (the Eastern Sayan, the Vitim Plateau, the Eastern Range in Kamchatka, etc.). Shield morphostructures can also be found in the mountains, and accumulative and, to a lesser extent, stratal plains (Kuznetsk Basin) can be found in intermountain basins.

1) from the Gakkel Ridge in the Arctic Ocean through the Chersky Ridge, where the Chukchi-Alaska block of the North American Plate broke away from the Eurasian Plate and is moving away at a rate of 1 cm/year;

2) in the region of the basin of Lake Baikal, the Amur Plate broke away from the Eurasian Plate, which rotates counterclockwise and moves away at a speed of 1-2 mm/year in the Baikal region. For 30 million years, a deep gap arose here, within which the lake is located;

3) in the Caucasus region, which falls into the seismic belt stretching along the southwestern margin of the Eurasian plate, where it approaches the African-Arabian plate at a rate of 2-4 cm/year.

Earthquakes testify to the existence of deep tectonic stresses in these areas, which are expressed from time to time in the form of powerful earthquakes and ground vibrations. The last catastrophic earthquake in Russia was the earthquake in the north of Sakhalin in 1995, when the city of Neftegorsk was wiped off the face of the earth.

In the Far East, there are also underwater earthquakes, accompanied by seaquakes and giant destructive tsunami waves.

Platform areas with their flat relief, with weak manifestations of neotectonic movements, do not experience significant earthquakes. Earthquakes are extremely rare here and manifest themselves in the form of weak vibrations. So, the earthquake of 1977 is still remembered by many Muscovites. Then the echo of the Carpathian earthquake reached Moscow. In Moscow, on the 6th-10th floors, chandeliers swayed and bunches of keys rang in the doors. The magnitude of this earthquake was 3-4 points.

Not only earthquakes, but also volcanic activity is evidence of the tectonic activity of the territory. Currently, volcanic phenomena in Russia are observed only in Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands.

The Kuril Islands are volcanic ranges, highlands and solitary volcanoes. In total, there are 160 volcanoes in the Kuril Islands, of which about 40 are currently active. The highest of them is Alaid volcano (2339) on Atlasov Island. In Kamchatka, volcanism gravitates toward the eastern coast of the peninsula, from Cape Lopatka to 56°N, where the northernmost Shiveluch volcano is located.

When determining the volume and intensity of training loads that provide the optimal effect of adaptation, there are two possible ways. First -- intensive way, consisting in a further increase in the total volume of training loads. Along the way, opportunities for further sports growth for highly qualified athletes by now are almost exhausted. More promising in terms of further progress in world sports is the second option -- way of intensification of training activity. On this way, while maintaining the already achieved (almost limiting) volumes of the training load, such a combination of high-intensity, developing loads with supporting loads, maintaining the achieved level of functioning of the necessary systems, is proposed, which creates best conditions for sporting success.

The experience of training the strongest athletes shows the possibility of an annual increase in the total amount of training load by 20%. In young athletes, this increase is possible by 40 - 50 % adapt to it depending on the type of athletics and its individual characteristics. Naturally, the intensity of exercises increases, which is expressed in an increase in the volume of the load performed at the maximum and near-limit speed in running; in increasing the length and height of jumps, throwing range, weight of projectiles and barbells; in a more energetic, increased pace and rhythm of special exercises. One of the indicators of the intensity of sports loads is the increase in the number of competitions.

Modern ideas about the ratio of volume and intensity of training loads in a year-round cycle suggest that the training process be structured in such a way that, without opposing the volume of intensity, periodically simulate the load and tension characteristic of competitions. Year-round applications of special training and the main type (main distance, main projectile, own jump, etc.) are an integral link in modern system workout. This structure makes it possible to expand the competitive calendar, making it year-round. At the same time, it is necessary to provide for the mandatory variability of loads based on the laws of adaptation, then highly qualified athletes will be able to show high results every 1.5 - 2 months.

An organic part of any exercise that affects the load is a properly organized rest. The rational alternation of work and rest underlies all sports training and extends to the repeated impact of the load in one session of the training day, throughout the week, month, year and years.

The repeated use of training and competitive loads is organically linked with the time intervals between them and with the recovery processes. The number of repetitions, exercises, the nature and duration of rest intervals depend on the tasks, means and methods of training, as well as on the characteristics of the types of athletics, the level of preparedness of the athlete and external conditions.

Between individual exercises and classes, in all cases, it is important to establish such breaks for rest, which, taking into account the amount of load used and the nature of the movements performed, provide an appropriate training effect. Depending on the form of organization rest It happens passive And active. In between exercises that require precise movements and great focus, active rest gives good results in restoring performance. For example, while practicing complex-coordinating types of athletics (hurdling, high jumps and pole vaults, hammer and javelin throwing), slow running, walking or short sports and outdoor games are used for recreation. And vice versa, during the lessons of cyclic types, it is possible to offer for rest a short-term performance of movements with complex coordination.

Each new repetition should not take place against the background of fatigue from previous actions. The duration of rest in these cases ranges from 1 minute (in throwing) to 3-4 minutes (in pole vaulting). As for the break between classes, at the first stage of training in sports equipment they should be carried out daily, and in the future - 3-4 times a week. If the break is 48 hours, then this leads to a decrease in the level of learned material of the lesson up to 25%, primarily due to the dulling of kinesthetic sensitivity.

In terms of duration, rest between loads can be divided into four types: 1) complete (ordinary); 2) incomplete (supercompensatory); 3) reduced (hard); 4) long (soft). By varying the rest intervals with the same volume (or intensity) of the load, it is possible to achieve different results in the development of motor qualities. For example, in cyclic athletics, incomplete rest provides the development of endurance to a greater extent, full rest - speed, short rest - speed endurance, and long rest provides recovery of working capacity after a strenuous part of the session or after overwork (overtraining).

The quantitative and qualitative components of the load are organically interconnected. But depending on the construction of the athlete's training process (tasks, means, methods, level of loads, etc.), the relationship between them is different, and accordingly, the adaptation processes are different. Qualitative changes(morphological, physiological, biochemical, psychological and biomechanical) cause changes in the quantitative side in the activity of the athlete's body. An important role in increasing the duration of the exercises is the economization of the body functions of athletes, ensuring the performance of the same work at a lower cost of energy resources.

Execution of any exercise takes time. And no matter how small it is, this is already a certain amount of work, which is the volume of the training or competitive load. And the amount of neuromuscular work that is performed per unit of time and is related to its volume determines the intensity of the load. Volume and intensity in sports are inseparable. They can exist separately only as concepts. In sports practice, these are two organically interrelated aspects of any physical exercise performed by an athlete. So, for example, the length of the distance and the duration of the run are the amount of training work (volume of load), and the speed of movement is its intensity; the number of throws performed by the thrower is the volume of the specific load, and the effectiveness of these throws is its intensity.

Quite accurately determines the level of the training load by the integral indicator of shifts in the body -- heart rate(heart rate). To do this, measure the pulse during exercise, after it and during the rest period. Comparing these indicators with the intensity of the load, with its direction, and taking into account the recovery time after it, it is possible to more objectively manage the training process.

Table 2 gives an idea of ​​how the loads in sports can be classified according to the direction of their impact, which is based on taking into account the ways of energy supply to work. Under the same conditions, it is the direction of the load, which determines the degree of participation in the work performed by various organs and functions, indicates the degree of their oppression and the duration of recovery.

Table 2.

By magnitude, the load can be conditionally divided into maximum, large, medium and small. is within the capabilities of the athlete. Its criteria are the athlete's inability to continue the proposed task. The pulse at the same time reaches a value of 180 or more beats per minute (bpm). If by force of will the athlete tries to cross this limit, then the load becomes prohibitive and can lead to overtraining of the athlete.

in terms of the number of exercises and the intensity of movements, it is 70-80% of the maximum, that is, it makes it possible to continue the action against the background of fatigue. Pulse rates here can be in the range of 150--175 beats / min.

determined by the number of exercises and the intensity of movements within 40 - 60% of the maximum, i.e. the exercise continues until a feeling of fatigue appears. At the same time, heart rate indicators reach 120--145 beats / min.

is 20 - 30% of the maximum in terms of the number of exercises and intensity of movements. The motor task is performed easily, freely, without visible tension, and the pulse does not exceed 120 beats/min.

As the athlete's fitness increases, the load, which was initially considered as maximum, becomes large or medium at subsequent stages, etc. This is especially true for such a component of the load as intensity. The higher the intensity of the exercise, the longer it is, the greater the costs of the athlete's body, the greater the load on his psyche. It is necessary to take into account the requirements for such qualities as courage, determination, the will to win, etc. In principle, the higher the intensity of the training work, the smaller its volume, and vice versa. The level of intensity is determined primarily by the type of athletics. Where success is determined by maximum effort (jumping, throwing, sprinting), naturally, the level of intensity of special training work is also very high; in other sports (running for medium and long distances, race walking), the main thing is a high average level of movement speed.

In order to more effectively perform exercises with a given training effort, intensity zones should be determined as the ratio of the given value of training or competitive stresses to the maximum possible data of the athlete. Table 3 shows the gradation of load by intensity zones in speed-strength types of athletics.

Table 3

The zone of 80-90% of the maximum in all types of athletics is considered a development zone. Applying a training load in zones of 90-100%, there is an impact on the development of speed, it should be included in almost every training session and built in such a way that during each session the load is applied in all zones of intensity, with its optimal ratio. The training load in the zones of 50-80% of the maximum solves mainly the problems of a special warm-up and recovery, which contributes to the favorable flow of the entire training process.

Result in athletics depends on a high level of endurance and dictates a certain selectivity of training effects, which are provided by aerobic (with oxygen access), anaerobic (without oxygen access) and aerobic-anaerobic (mixed) processes of the athlete's body. In Table 4, intensity zones are distributed according to heart rate indicators during a particular training work in the development of endurance.

Table 4

When using the aerobic mode of training effects, the pulse should be in the range of 120 - 160 beats / min. When performing a load in mixed mode, the pulse rate should reach 170-180 beats / min. Anaerobic training mode is possible with a pulse of 190 or more beats per minute.

Very important in determining the adequacy of the proposed loads is the control of the pulse during recovery. primary goal heart rate control is to determine the training voltage, to comply with the main requirement of training - to avoid excessive overstrain, preventing cases of overwork and overtraining. If the athlete's pulse after the load does not recover within a certain time to the desired level (for example, the pulse remains above 120 beats / min for more than 5-6 minutes after an average load), then this indicates that the load is probably very high and the training work (quantity, pace) should be reduced or stopped.

With high-speed training, the recovery time for heart rate to 120 beats / min should take 1 - 4 minutes between repetitions of exercises and 2 - 5 minutes between series to a pulse of 100 - 120 beats / min. When developing speed endurance, one should focus on restoring the pulse to 120-140 beats/min 1-3 minutes after the work is done, and between series the pulse should recover to 100-120 beats/min within 2-5 minutes. When recovering after a stressful workout (control run, assessment), the pulse should reach 100-120 beats / min for 4-10 minutes. Re-execution of such a load is possible after 10-20 minutes, if the pulse during the recovery period reaches less than 100 beats / min. Indicators for the termination of training work should be considered a pulse over 120 beats / min after 5 - 10 minutes of rest.

The levels of recovery of heart rate are somewhat individual and may be determined by age, the state of anaerobic functions, and genetic character. They can be between 108 --132 bpm. Recovery processes are also affected by the following points: the athlete is not in shape, training work is too hard, the previous training load was too high, illness, fatigue or overwork. For most athletes, the level of recovery of many body functions corresponds to a pulse of 120 beats / min. Athletes with greater genetic potential can recover faster even with high training load. With a large amount of work with reduced intensity, it is enough to reduce the heart rate to 120-140 beats / min during rest, in order to partially restore the energy potential, start working again. With a small amount of work with an above-average intensity, it is enough to achieve a heart rate of 120 beats / min during the rest period in order to be able to continue working as efficiently as at the beginning. When "acute", shock work with high intensity is performed, during the recovery (rest) period, the heart rate should reach 90--100 beats / min before repeating the proposed load.