Political reforms of Peter I. International Military Historical Association of the State Military Collegium

Following the example of foreign powers to control the military ground forces.

The military collegium was divided into three expeditions: a) army, b) garrison and c) artillery and fortification. Moreover, she had an auditor general, a fiscal general and a chief auditor. Subsequently, when with the increase in the strength of the troops the duties of the higher military administration were to increase, new expeditions were established under the military collegium. In 1798, it was divided into army, garrison, foreign, recruiting, repair and training expeditions; in addition, with her there were military, counting, inspector, commissariat, provisions and artillery expeditions, an audience general, a drawing room with an archive and the Moscow artillery depot.

A few years later, the military board was transformed into the Ministry of War.

presidents

1. Menshikov, Alexander Danilovich (1717-1724)
2. Repnin, Anikita Ivanovich (1724-1726)
3. Golitsyn, Mikhail Mikhailovich (1728-1730)
4. Dolgorukov, Vasily Vladimirovich (1730-1731)
5. Minich, Burchard Christoph (1732-1741)
6. Dolgorukov, Vasily Vladimirovich, again (1741-1746)
7. Trubetskoy, Nikita Yurievich (1760-1763)
8. Chernyshev, Zakhar Grigorievich (1763-1774)
9. Potemkin, Grigory Alexandrovich (1774-1791)
10. Saltykov, Nikolai Ivanovich (1791-1802)

Notes

Links

• Military Collegium in the Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary
• Military Collegium in the Soviet Historical Encyclopedia
• Military Collegium in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia

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• Military College (disambiguation)

See what the "Military Collegium" is in other dictionaries:

MILITARY BOARD- see military courts ... Law Dictionary

MILITARY BOARD- MILITARY BOARD, the central body of military administration in Russia in the 18th and early 19th centuries. Created in 1717 by decree of Tsar Peter I instead of a number of military orders in order to centralize military control. In 1802 1812 it was reorganized into the Ministry of War. ... ... Russian history

Military board- the central body of the military administration of Russia in the XVIII early XIX in. Established by decree of Peter I dated December 11, 1717, began to operate on January 1, 1720. President V.K. was a member of the Senate. The procedure for the proceedings was determined by the general regulations of ... Encyclopedia of Law

military board- in Russia, the highest central body of military administration in the 18th century. Created in 1717-1720 instead of a number of military orders in order to centralize military administration. In 1802 1812 it was reorganized into the Ministry of War. * * * MILITARY BOARD MILITARY ... ... encyclopedic Dictionary

Military board- MILITARY BOARD, organ center. military exercise, formed by Peter V. in the 1st floor. 18th century along with other state colleges. Education V. coll. began with the appointment in 1717 of the 1st president, General. feldm. book. Menshikov and 2nd prez that gene ... Military Encyclopedia

Military board- was established in Russia by Peter I in 1719 following the example of foreign powers for the supreme command of the military land forces. It was attended by the president, vice president and several members of the generals. When V. collegium consisted of its own office ... Encyclopedic Dictionary F.A. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron

Military board- I Military Board in Russia, the highest central body of military administration, formed by Peter I in 1717 20 instead of a number of military orders (See Orders) in order to centralize military control. V. to. consisted of expeditions for infantry affairs ... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

MILITARY BOARD- the central body of military administration in Russia in the 18th - early 19th centuries. It was created by decree of Peter I of December 11, 1717, began to operate on January 1, 1720. By decree of June 3, 1719, it included the president, the 2nd president (after 1720 - vice ... ... Russian statehood in terms. IX - beginning of XX century

MILITARY BOARD- one . in Russia the highest center. military organ. management, formed by Peter I in 1717 20 instead of a number of military. orders in order to centralize the military. management; consisted of expeditions for infantry and cavalry, artillery and fortification, for garrison ... ... Soviet historical encyclopedia

MILITARY BOARD- one of the main structural divisions of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation. Its jurisdiction includes, along with the consideration of cases at first instance (see: The Supreme Court of the Russian Federation), the cassation verification of sentences and other decisions of mid-level military courts, as well as ... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary of Constitutional Law

Books

• Bolshevik order in Georgia Edition in two volumes Volume 1 Great terror in a small Caucasian republic Volume 2 Documents and statistics set of 2 books, Junge M., Bonwetsch B. (comp.). For the first time in the historiography of the Great Terror, on the example of Georgia, the three main mass operations of the NKVD are studied together: the operation by order No. 00447 ("kulak" operation), the operation "...

View of the building of the Twelve Collegia. Unknown artist.

Peter I, who ascended the Russian throne in 1682, at the beginning of the 18th century began to reform the entire system of government. This also affected the central military administration. Its reform was carried out in the context of the ongoing Northern War of 1700-1721 with Sweden for Russia's access to the Baltic Sea and the return of the ancient Novgorod lands on the shores of the Gulf of Finland.

The military reform took place in a constant search for the most successful form of military administration at that time. So, on February 18 (28), 1700, as a result of the transformation of the Foreign and Reitar orders, a Military Order was formed, later called the Order of Military Affairs. The military order had, as part of the army, its own marching bodies of military command - military tents (tents of commissar affairs) with a staff of commissars - clerks and clerks.

The mobilization tasks that the order solved changed over time. If at the first stage in 1701-1705. he was in charge of recruiting units of the nascent regular army and the formation of regiments; was in charge of the command staff of the army; was engaged in the military-technical supply of the army, then already in 1705 recruitment kits (conscription of recruits) were transferred to the Local Order. By the end of 1710, the acquisition of units was transferred to the jurisdiction of the governors, and the supply - to the field bodies of the army.

In connection with the establishment in 1711 of the Governing Senate, the system of command and control of the armed forces is changing again. The order of military affairs is abolished. The Senate began to be in charge of manning the army, and the Commissariat formed under it - financing the troops, supplying them with weapons, provisions and uniforms.

In 1717–1721 reform of the executive bodies was carried out. As a result, the system of orders, which at that time already numbered about a hundred, with very vague functions and duplication of each other, was replaced by 12 colleges. These were the forerunners of ministries, the highest bodies of state administration that exist to this day. The most important, "state" boards were in charge of foreign and military (separately army and navy) affairs.

Thus, in Petrine Russia, new supreme bodies of leadership of land and sea forces appeared, which existed for almost a century. They received the names of the Military College, which was in charge of army affairs, and the Admiralty College, which dealt with the affairs of the navy.

The structure of the Military Collegium was determined by the Petrine decree of June 3 (14), 1719. Its activity began on January 1 (12), 1720. The President headed the Military Collegium (the first was His Serene Highness Prince A.D. Menshikov, the closest associate of Peter I and the future Generalissimo). A vice-president and several members (their number was not constant) from the top generals were also appointed, who had rich experience in being in the highest army positions and participating in wars.

The order of proceedings in the Military Collegium was determined by the general regulations of 1720. Subsequently, the general regulations were repeatedly subjected to changes and additions, set out in the highest decrees about that.

The military college, according to the plan of Tsar Peter, was to deal with all the military affairs of the state. In addition, she was entrusted with monitoring the activities of the Artillery Office, which was under the jurisdiction of the Feldzeugmeister General. The military collegium had three offices in Moscow: artillery, uniform and counting.

At the end of the reign of Peter the Great, the main structural divisions of the Military College (as well as the Admiralty College) began to be transferred from the capital city of Moscow to the new, "northern" capital of the Russian Empire, the city of St. Petersburg.

Soon the Military Board began to be divided into three independent expeditions: a) army (infantry and cavalry), b) garrison and c) artillery and fortification. Mobilization issues were largely the responsibility of the garrison expedition, since the collection of the draft contingent was carried out in the provinces. Starting from the 20s of the 18th century, the regiments received their districts and began to be replenished on a territorial basis. Then the recruits were placed at the disposal of the regimental commanders, who distributed them as they saw fit.

In 1724, new changes took place in the structures of the Military Collegium and the Admiralty Collegium, which continued to be directly subordinate to the Governing Senate, which was responsible to the Sovereign Emperor in everything. All resolutions and legal provisions developed in the colleges were approved by the sovereign and only after that they received legal force.

The military collegium now began to consist of four independent structural formations, which were headed by: the general kriegs commissar, the director of the military office, the general supply master and the general feldzeugmeister. The Military Collegium had a (military) prosecutor who was directly subordinate to its president.

The service of the General-Kriegs-Commissar (in charge of the monetary and clothing allowances of the army troops) consisted of:

Commissariat (Moscow),
Kriegs Commissariat Office (St. Petersburg),
treasury office (St. Petersburg).
The military office of the collegium consisted of four expeditions (offices), which were subordinate to its director:

for infantry (infantry, army and guards),
for cavalry (army and guards),
for artillery and fortification,
keeping a journal and field affairs; it consisted of the chief judge, archivist, translator.
The service of the general-proviantmeister (the provisional office that dealt with food and fodder) consisted of:

offices in Moscow, Vyborg, Narva, Kronstadt, Revel, the Baltic port and Riga.
grocery stores in Smolensk, Astrakhan, on the rivers Dniester, Desna and Don.
The service of the Feldzeugmeister General consisted of two offices:

artillery office,
office of fortification (military engineers).
Be that as it may, but in this form, the centralization of the military leadership in Russia for the first sixteen years of the college's existence, for various reasons, remained incomplete, which could not affect the life and activities of the Russian Imperial Army. This continued until 1736, when Field Marshal B.Kh. Minich, who carried out a number of transformations.

Since 1736, all persons and institutions of the highest military administration in Russia were subordinate to the Military Collegium. The executive bodies of the Military Collegium were now:

The main office, which was in charge of the recruitment, organization, inspection and service of the ground forces, issues of the production and dismissal of officers, the affairs of the Land Militia and the Cossack troops.
A special povyt and the corresponding offices (later renamed expeditions), which dealt with other issues of military leadership.

A special povyt decided on the recruitment of noble undergrowth for military service, the resignation of elderly soldiers and dealt with cases of deserters.

The positive side of centralization consisted in the unity of management and control over all affairs of the military department. But since the Military Collegium was located in St. Petersburg, and its offices were in Moscow, this made management difficult and deprived it of efficiency. To eliminate this shortcoming, in 1736 a military office was opened in St. Petersburg, which was connected with other government bodies and thus exercised control over the implementation of the decrees of the Military Collegium.

The subsequent reorganization of the Military Collegium under Empress Elizaveta Petrovna led to the fact that in 1742 it essentially broke up into departments independent of each other. Things got to the point that in 1746-1760. the post of President of the Military Collegium remained vacant and no measures were taken to fill this official vacuum.

In the 40s. major changes took place in the central military administration: from separate offices - the General-Kriegs-Commissariat, Ammunition and Ober-Zalmeister, the Main Commissariat was formed, subordinated directly to the Governing Senate.

Provisional affairs were also separated from the Military Collegium and concentrated in the Provisional Office. The Fortification Office was abolished, and its affairs were transferred to the Office of the Main Artillery and Fortification, which was an independent body subordinate to the Governing Senate.

The revival of the Military Collegium, as the highest central body of military command, began at the beginning of the reign of Empress Catherine II. In the 70s of the XVIII century. The Board has undergone a number of transformations. As a result, by 1791 it again united all the military authorities of the Russian Empire. All this was connected with the name of Field Marshal His Serene Highness Prince G.A. Potemkin-Tavrichesky, who since 1784 was the president of the Military Collegium.

In 1798, a new reorganization of the Military Collegium brought it closer to the structure of the Military Ministry (Ministry of the Army) of the reign of Alexander I. It gradually, in 1802–12, completely replaced the Collegium. Its abolition was associated, first of all, with the name of the first Minister of War of Russia, General of Infantry S.K. Vyazmitinov.

The supreme body of the naval administration of Russia was established by decree of Peter I on December 11 (22), 1717. The Admiralty Board began to operate on April 4 (15), 1718. It combined the Naval Commissariat formed in 1715 in St. Petersburg and the Moscow Admiralty Office that existed before in the old Russian capital. They were then united by the Naval Office of the Navy.

The Admiralty Board had, as stated in the royal decree, "the upper management over people, buildings and other matters subject to the Admiralty."

She was in charge of the construction, financing and supply of the fleet, the construction and armament of ships, the construction and equipment of ports, shipyards and canals, linen and rope factories, staffing, naval education, the development of charters and instructions, hydrographic and navigational support for navigation, organization of marine expeditions.

The Admiralty Board consisted of the President (Chairman), Vice President and five to seven of the most experienced senior naval commanders. The president of the collegium was directly subordinate to the emperor and was originally a member of the Governing Senate. The first president of the Admiralty College was F.M. Apraksin, Admiral General of the Russian Navy, member of the Governing Senate, one of the associates of Peter the Great, who led the board until 1728.

The building of the Twelve Collegia. Architects D. Trezzini and T. Schwertfeger. Modern look. University embankment of Vasilyevsky Island in St. Petersburg.

The Admiralty Board had executive, functional organs- offices, offices, boards, expeditions. In the early years, the collegium did not yet have a clear functional structure, but its experience suggested the need for structural improvement.

After the reorganization of the Military Collegium, the Admiralty Collegium also underwent major changes, which in 1726 (according to the plan of Emperor Peter the Great who passed away the previous year) consisted of the service of the Quartermaster General and six independent offices.

The quartermaster general part consisted of six offices: the kriegs commissariat, contracting, provisions, treasury, calmeister (financial) and uniform.

Independent offices were:

Moscow Admiralty,
Ober-sarvaevskaya (shipbuilding),
Waldmeisterskaya (in charge of timber, its harvesting and transportation),
control,
Admiralteyskaya (in charge of shipyards and raid equipment),
Artillery.
At the very beginning of its existence, the Admiralty Board developed a number of charters and instructions that regulated naval life. Among them: in 1720 - a collection of naval regulations "The Book of the Charter of the Sea about everything related to good management when the fleet was at sea." In 1722 - a set of maritime admiralty laws "Regulations on the management of admiralties and shipyards and on the positions of the board of the admiralty and other all ranks acquired by the admiralty."

The code of Peter's admiralty laws was in force for more than forty years, until August 1765, when a new "Regulation on the management of the admiralties and the fleet" was approved. The functions and organization of the Admiralty College changed over time. In 1802, she became part of the Ministry of Naval Forces (Naval Ministry) as an advisory body to the minister. The Admiralty Board was abolished on January 1, 1828 in connection with the formation of the Admiralty Board.

The highest bodies of central military administration created by Peter the Great - the Military Collegium and the Admiralty Collegium - played an important role in the Russian Empire. It was expressed, first of all, in the victories of the Russian on land and at sea in many wars of the 18th century. At the beginning of the next century, these colleges became the basis for the creation of two ministries - the Military and the Naval.

In the first half of the XVII century. along with other state colleges. The formation of the Military Collegium began with the appointment in 1717 of the 1st President, Field Marshal General Prince. Menshikov and the 2nd president, General Weide, by order of 1719, the structure of the Military Collegium was announced; On January 1, 1720, she began to act.

By introducing a collegial system of government, Peter had in mind to unite the activities of the higher military administration, to ensure its regularity by destroying autocracy and lack of control over individual authorities.

Under Peter the Great, the collegium consisted of the president, vice president and members: advisers in the rank of general and assessors in the rank; at the Military Collegium there was an office, subdivided into expeditions for managing cavalry and infantry, for garrison affairs, for managing fortifications and artillery, and for keeping journals of incoming and outgoing papers.

The Military Collegium consisted of a General and a General Fiscal; the legality of the decision in her cases was observed by the prosecutor directly subordinate to the prosecutor general.

Under the jurisdiction of the Military Collegium were: "the army and garrisons and all military affairs that were conducted in the military order and which are obtained throughout the state."

In some subordination of the Military Collegium were the Kriegs Commissariat and the Provision Master General; the management of the artillery and engineering departments, which was under the jurisdiction of the Feldzeugmeister General and the artillery office, stood almost independently of the Military Collegium; this latter was granted, in relation to the departments mentioned, only an indefinite right of "supreme directorate".

The establishment of the Military Collegium was not, however, achieved the main goal of the reform - the unification of the activities of the military administration in one body. Therefore, in 1736, during the presidency of gr. , the Military Collegium underwent a radical reorganization with the subordination to it of all persons and institutions belonging to the military department; directly attached to it were: the main office, which was in charge of recruiting, organizing, serving and inspecting the troops, and a special povyt, in charge of the affairs of the fugitives, the entry into the service of undergrowths and some others. All other affairs of the military department were distributed among offices, soon renamed expeditions; offices were managed by special directors who took part in the meetings of the Military Collegium.

The offices decided things on their own; only cases were submitted for consideration by the Military Collegium, in the resolution of which the offices encountered difficulties.

The offices were as follows: general-kriegs-commissariat, ober-zalmeister (salary), provisions, counting, uniform, fortification and artillery; the body of the Military Collegium in Moscow was a special military office.

United in the Military Collegium under Minich, after the accession of Elizabeth, the military administration immediately broke up into several independent parts and from the Military Collegium in 1742 separated into independent departments: commissariat, provisions, as well as the management of artillery and fortification; counting expedition was abolished.

At that time, the Military Collegium lost its significance as a body of central government so much that from 1746 to 1760 the post of its president remained unfilled. The strengthening of the significance of the Military Collegium began only in 1763, when the President of the Military Collegium was put in direct relation to the supreme power, becoming a personal speaker.

In 1781, during the presidency of Prince. Potemkin, a counting expedition reappears as part of the Military Collegium, transferring control over expenditures for the military department to the hands of the Military Collegium, and in 1791 a new organization is given to the Military Collegium, and the highest military administration is again united in it, moreover, the commissariat, provisions and artillery and engineering are part of the Military Collegium, as parts of one whole, in the form of independent departments, called expeditions and departments.

In 1798, the states of the transformed Military Collegium were published, and its composition was determined:

1) from the office, which consisted of expeditions: army, garrison, order, foreign, recruiting, according to the institution of schools and the repair part, and

2) from special expeditions: military, counting, inspection, artillery, commissariat, provisions, military orphanage institutions and subordinate to the Military Collegium, as separate institutions.

Recognizing the need to have an energetic leader for the Military Collegium and, at the same time, not trusting his entourage, he personally took charge of the activities of the Military Collegium, directing its work by transmitting orders through the head of the military camp E. V. Chancellery.

The military college, which was among the first three state colleges, almost throughout its existence occupied a prominent position among other colleges and in relation to the senate. At its head, as presidents, there were often persons who enjoyed powerful influence in the state (Menshikov, Potemkin).

Due to their personal influence in the Military Collegium, the allocation of an individual principle began relatively early, and the power of the presidents was a significant adjustment to the inactive collegial administration, in general, according to the property of military administration, which requires speed, mobility and flexibility.

During the reign of the Military Collegium, she received quite a strong internal organization, and in its main features the departments of the future ministerial organization, introduced in 1802-12, were already outlined.

Sources:

Centenary of the War Department. T. I, St. Petersburg, 1902; A. Dobrovolsky, Fundamentals of the organization of central military control in Russia, St. Petersburg, 1901.

PRESIDENT OF THE MILITARY BOARD

In May 1774, Potemkin received the rank of general-in-chief and was appointed vice-president of the Military Collegium, commander of all light cavalry and all irregular troops, and then in 1784, president of this collegium. Having gone through the brilliant school of the outstanding Russian commander P.A. Rumyantsev, Potemkin made full use of the experience gained to strengthen the Russian army, increase its combat power, and provide military means of security for the southern borders of Russia. All aspects of army life were subjected to significant improvement by the head of the Russian military department, from the organization of troops to uniforms. At the same time, Potemkin followed the same principle as when organizing a civil system in the provinces subordinate to him - to personally consider all problems and questions, to develop reform projects.

In the autumn of 1774, on the instructions of Catherine II, he conducted an inspection check of the troops located in the capital and its environs, examining the regiments: Kazan cuirassier, Vologda and Kexholm infantry. The result of this check was Potemkin's report, in which he made several rather critical remarks. So, for example, speaking about the Kazan cuirassier regiment, Potemkin speaks approvingly about the state of people, horses and ammunition. “But what belongs to those military appeals,” he continues, “with which this regiment acted at the review, they have so far departed from direct cavalry perfection that swiftness and harmony, which is not separated anywhere from it, are like the only heavy cavalry force, without which neither she cannot act at the slightest turn before the enemy, she is not at all in the mentioned regiment, and thus such a regiment cannot fight with an equal number of irregular troops. Here Potemkin not only characterizes the state of the regiments, but also expresses programmatic provisions about changes in the troops, remembering that heavy cavalry is inferior against light Turkish cavalry. The vice-president realized his views later, when, at his insistence, the number of irregular troops was increased. In this report, Potemkin also expresses his attitude to the soldier's life, he will try to change it throughout his life. Having received an approving resolution to his report, Potemkin sent an order on October 27, 1774 to the Kazan cuirassier regiment to correct the situation: commanders, so that they teach everything written above, avoiding as much as possible inhuman and customary beatings that create a disgusting service; but by an affectionate and patient interpretation of everything, having learned the firmness of what they are obliged to teach their subordinates, they will avoid the opportunity to make unintentional mistakes themselves and thereby acquire their full power of attorney, love and respect, and turn the service into a respectable and pleasant exercise for them, performing it as a direct benefit of the service and Her philanthropic imperial majesty intention".

Potemkin strove to follow these principles in organizing military training and commanding the army as president of the Military Collegium, constantly taking care of the thousands of servicemen subordinate to him. In January 1775, Potemkin presented a report to Catherine II, the purpose of which was to clear the regiments "of all uncommon redundancies and put each branch of the army on such a foot of perfection that all decency in it was in accordance with its swift movement." He proposed to train dragoons both on horseback and on foot, so that they could operate without needing reinforcements from either infantry or heavy cavalry.

In the same report, Potemkin pointed out the need to increase the number of hussar regiments needed for intelligence services and rapid movements. Based on Potemkin's considerations, five dragoon regiments (of ten squadrons each) and seven Russian hussar regiments (of six squadrons each) were formed; in 1777, special cavalry chasseur battalions were organized with all cuirassier regiments, and in 1785 the number of grenadiers was ordered to be increased to forty battalions and six jaeger corps (four battalions each) and musketeer four-battalion regiments were formed. Jaegers were selected infantry, accustomed to loose formation, marksmanship and individual combat. They had no analogues in foreign armies, their faint resemblance can be found only in the Prussian troops of Frederick II. Jaegers in battle were built in a square and covered the flanks, and, if necessary, turned around to fire. As a result of the shift in emphasis made by Potemkin in favor of light cavalry, only 5 cuirassier regiments remained in the Russian army, but the number of dragoons was brought to 10, hussars to 16.

Wishing to create among the Cossacks large group its supporters and taking into account the experience of the Pugachev uprising, the government of Catherine went to the fact that many previously selected "on the circle" "initial people" began to receive patents for officer ranks. This idea belonged to Potemkin, who highly appreciated the combat effectiveness of the Cossack troops and even called on the soldiers and officers of the regular cavalry to learn to "sit in the saddle with the freedom that the Cossacks have." Potemkin expressed his pleasure with the Cossack troops in a warrant to Colonel M. Platov. “How pleased I was to see the quick fruits of this newly established army,” he wrote in 1788, “and this was multiplied by the appearance of vigorous warriors that they have ... they have already acquired a posture decent for knights.” Potemkin's admiration was shared by Russia's ally in the second Russo-Turkish war, Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II. In May 1787, traveling with the Empress in the southern regions of Russia, he shared with his famous commander Lassi his observations about the Don Cossacks: such an army in the rear of the frustrated cavalry, it disappeared irrevocably.

An important task for Potemkin as president of the Military Collegium was to change the staffing of the army, especially in the face of increased foreign policy activity in Russia. Since the time of Peter I, the Russian regular army has been built on recruitment sets of the taxable population, while Potemkin for the first time extended recruitment sets to Ukraine and Belarus and at the same time introduced new principles of the regular system and drawing of lots. In these areas, a 15-year term of service was established, the conscription was limited to 2 months, the population was divided into parts and queues of 500 people. Each part had a certain queue, within which recruits were called by lot without being replaced by mercenaries. Potemkin made an attempt to extend these principles to Great Russia, but met with fierce resistance from the landowners, which prevented him from completing the recruitment reform. Pointing out the consequences of this incompleteness, Potemkin wrote to Catherine II at the end of 1788: “The recruits who are given are weak and with diseases, many of them are chronic, so that they die in large numbers, not even reaching the place. How many of them disappear because of their unaccustomed to the climate and because of their steep training for soldier life and service, this is terrible ... The term for recruitment in the state was put just at the wrong time, that recruits do not have time to be soldiers for the future campaign ... "Already during the second Russian-Turkish war 1787–1791 Potemkin came to the conclusion that it was necessary to replace the then indefinite service with an urgent one. To stop the frequent escapes of soldiers to Poland, Potemkin "ordered the infantry and cuirassiers to release a portion, which stopped, saying that the sovereign's will to do military service after the war." He reported this in a letter to Count A.A. Bezborodko and added: “This had the most effect. The Poles are beckoning. She needs to set a deadline, at least starting with the state (peasants. - N.B.)”. This proposal, progressive for its time, to save soldiers from exhausting service to the point of death or disability could not only lead to private benefits, but the army would also become younger and more combat-ready. In the future, military service was introduced in Russia.

The need for improvements in the principles of recruitment was also recognized by one of the closest advisers to Catherine II, A.A. Bezborodko, turning to Potemkin: "It would be highly desirable that for the benefit of the state and its most faithful defense, your plan for military service be put into action and that, although at the end of the war, this would be done." In the course of the reforms of the Russian cavalry carried out by Potemkin in 1783-1786, the settled regiments were transformed into field regiments, which undoubtedly strengthened the armed forces on the eve of the war.

An integral part of the reforms carried out by Potemkin in the army was a change in the uniforms associated with the improvement of soldier's life. No wonder the soldiers composed songs about him, and after his death one of them confessed to General G.G. Engelhardt: “The late His Grace was our father, facilitated our service, contenting us with all needs; in a word, we were his spoiled children ... "

Describing the state of the Russian army in 1764, General A.I. Khrushchev spoke of the harsh and cruel treatment of soldiers, beatings, the burdensome methods used on the march to "keep your knees from breaking", and many other shortcomings. Rumyantsev was the first to draw attention to this. Potemkin, having assimilated his views and seen all the hardships of a soldier's life, managed to carry out a series of consistent reforms.

The experience of the war showed that the army must first of all be required not for ostentatious cleanliness, but for the ability to move quickly and change combat forms. Only at the zenith of favor, having taken the post of vice president, on November 16, 1774, Potemkin sent a note to the Military Collegium about Catherine's oral command, which marked the beginning of a change in the uniform of the army. It said: “1st, that the boots laid down by the state in the entire infantry of the Flemish linen are now forever destroyed ... 2nd. Instead of two pairs of shoes, which are equal in price to boots, as prescribed by the same states for each person, one more pair of boots is to be issued for each person. I announce this for the execution of this State Military Collegium.

In an order to Lieutenant General Tekeli dated June 18, 1775, Potemkin ordered in all light troops corps in the regiments of hussar non-commissioned officers and privates “from now on, do not curl or powder your hair in boucles, do not have braids wrapped in ribbons ... pikemen cut their hair in a circle and no bucol, no braids to wear. In June 1776, even in the midst of Catherine's explanations with Potemkin, she did not allow him to get offended and forget about the duties of a statesman, including those in the military department. Having received a letter from Grand Duke Pavel Petrovich from Riga about the state of the regiments suffering there “in need of shoes and clothes”, the Empress orders the favorite to “visit”, what is the reason for such a plight of the soldiers, and make appropriate orders.

In the keynote report “On Clothing and Armament of the Forces” (1783), Potemkin’s views on uniform reform were fully developed: “When regularity was introduced into Russia, foreign officers entered with the pedantry of that time. And ours, not knowing the direct price of the things of a military shell, considered everything sacred and, as it were, mysterious. It seemed to them that regularity consisted in braids, hats, flaps, cuffs, gun tricks, and so on. Occupying themselves with such rubbish, and to this day they still do not know well the most important things, such as: marching, various formations and revolutions ... They almost don’t know how to shoot ... In a word, our troops’ clothes and ammunition are such that it’s almost impossible to think of a better way to oppress a soldier , all the more so because, being taken from the peasants, at almost 30 years of age he recognizes boots, a lot of garters, a tight underdress and an abyss of things that shorten the age.

Having expressed critical remarks, Potemkin proposed a whole plan for changing appearance soldier. “The beauty of military clothing,” he believed, “is in the equality and in accordance with things with their use: the dress is to be a soldier’s clothing, and not a burden. All panache must be destroyed, for it is the fruit of luxury ... ". For each item of uniform, Potemkin proposed his own changes aimed at freeing the soldier from burdensome, from his point of view, excesses in clothing:

A hat is an unnecessary headdress, because it does not cover the head, and the ends of the cocked hat sticking out in all directions “threat the soldier forever with danger”, “prevents putting his head down ... prevents her from turning, and also does not close her ears from frost.” The prince believed that a helmet is much more acceptable than a hat, and "there is a characteristic military outfit."

A caftan and a camisole with sleeves - "the cut of the caftan gives a lot of reasons to make it diverse, therefore, there can be no equation."

Leggings trousers in the cavalry should be replaced with cloth ones, which will lead to a reduction in the costs of military personnel, who often bought additional cloth ones at their own expense. In addition, in autumn and rainy weather, according to Potemkin, elk pants cause a lot of inconvenience; they are cold in winter and hot in summer.

Narrow boots should be changed to spacious ones, and stockings to onuchi or footcloths. Their soldiers will be able to throw them off at any moment, wipe their feet with a footcloth and wrap them with a dry end, “put on shoes in speed and thus protect them from dampness and chills.”

Potemkin considered the best of the saddles to be Hungarian, which was distinguished by its lightness and convenience for both the rider and the horse. In addition, they were cheaper than the old ones.

"Hair cleaning" brightest paid special attention. “Curling, powdering, weaving braids, is this a soldier’s business? - the prince was indignant. - They have no valets ... Everyone must agree that it is more useful to wash and scratch your head than to weigh it down with powder, lard, flour, hairpins, braids. The soldier's toilet should be such that he got up, then he is ready.

Potemkin introduced a simple, comfortable uniform in the cavalry and infantry, which remained in the main elements for a long time. Braids, curls, powder, hairpins - "all panache" that burdened the soldier was destroyed.

Having studied Potemkin's report "On Clothing and Armament of the Forces", Catherine II on April 4, 1783 signed a rescript on putting the prince's ideas into action, highly appreciating his proposals. The Empress wrote: “The idea of ​​changing the image of clothing and weapons of our troops, made by you at our will, we accept with great pleasure, since we find that by this means, having overcome all the former prejudices, the excesses that have hitherto burdened the warrior are exterminated ... instead of benefit and relief are delivered to him with no small benefit to our treasury.”

His Serene Highness was an opponent of useless drill, he argued that soldiers should be taught not only the parade formation, but most importantly, to act correctly in various battle formations, not only to keep weapons clean, but also to be able to shoot from them. Demanding simplicity and freedom of action from the military service, Potemkin wrote on March 24, 1787 to Prince Dolgorukov: so that the march is not feigned, but the most natural; to teach people to close up and to know the division of parts, like platoons, divisions and other things; so that the rows were somewhat denser, they entered as quickly as possible; with a gun so that they do it smoothly and evenly; to stand under it more vigorously, but not ossified, as it used to be in fashion.

Even very influential people, such as Count A.A. Bezborodko, who participated in solving many political issues along with Potemkin, critically assessed the activities of the prince in the military department. Perhaps this was due to their low awareness of the private orders of the Serene Highness, or perhaps constant competition was the reason. Undoubtedly, at different stages, Potemkin had to concentrate all his attention and strength on solving quite specific, important tasks for the country. So, on the eve of the decisive events in the annexation of the Crimea on March 15, 1784, Bezborodko wrote to Sergei Romanovich Vorontsov in England about the prince: “According to the Military Collegium, he does not deal with except the secret and most important matters, giving a speedy flow to others.” The same nobleman, a month earlier, called his Serene Highness his benefactor and said that "Prince Potemkin treated me in an excellently commendable manner."

The views of the head of the Military Collegium on soldier's uniforms were far ahead of his time. Equally revolutionary was Potemkin's mitigation of the punishments of the soldiers: the prince rebelled against the beatings of the recruits and demanded that they limit themselves to "six sticks" as a last resort. During training, the recruit Potemkin adhered to the method of strict sequence, bringing them "in an insensitive way to the first knowledge of the soldier's rank." Potemkin repeatedly wrote to the chiefs of units, ordering them to treat the soldiers more humanely and not to exceed a certain measure in punishment: just as I do, for I love them like children."

Under pain of severe punishment, Potemkin forbade the use of soldiers for the private work of commanders. “I let you know,” he wrote to General Nashchokin, “that 60 hussars were found in Major General Neranchich’s wagon train, and all, on my order, were taken away. I ordered to collect this with such severity that if I find people in your convoy of military or non-combatants belonging to the army, then I will exact ten recruits for each, and maybe it will be even worse. For Potemkin, it was obvious that "it is better to have a mediocre number of real soldiers than a great number of such warriors who, according to old examples, would only correct commander's work."

The prince personally monitored the correct and timely supply of soldiers with food and clothing, demanded compliance sanitary regulations"Notes on the Causes of Diseases", published by him and put into effect in 1788, and for the second time after Peter I established the positions of inspectors in the army. They were supposed to control the execution of all orders for cavalry and infantry. Delving into all the little things of a soldier's life, Potemkin was engaged in setting up infirmaries - when building new cities, it was mandatory to set up hospitals and quarantines, even controlling the diet of the wounded. Questions of the functioning of hospitals were constantly present in Potemkin's orders to subordinates. In 1788, the worried governor of Yekaterinoslav Sinelnikov proposed changing the route of the recruit, since the former one was longer and more burdensome. The new way would save the army replenishment from complaints, and if you wait out the spring "mud and hollow waters", then this would help to reduce the sick among the recruits. Severe fevers were the scourge of the army, the government of the region liberated state and private houses, "palaces" to convert them into hospitals and accommodate the sick, healers and medical officers, medicines gathered from everywhere.

Unfortunately, the state of medicine at that time was still far behind the needs of the army and the civilian population, which prompted the government to attract a significant number of foreigners, as well as to create a network of special educational institutions. Back in December 1783, the Medical College reported to Empress Catherine II about problems in the medical support of the army, the small number of medical and surgical schools and the need in connection with this "to write out doctors and assistant doctors from foreign lands." The official document said:

“As according to the current movement of the army of Your Imperial Majesty, at the beginning of this year 1783, a lot of medical ranks were required from the Military Collegium in excess of the usual set, and the collegium in its department, due to its position in the state, does not have a single person for such extraordinary business trips, it was forced to collect from other places for needs in the army; and, taking from everywhere, she could only recruit 80 doctors, staff doctors, doctors and assistant doctors. Medical and surgical schools are so few in number that, even without extraordinary needs, the Medical College could never equip the army and navy of Your Imperial Majesty with both doctors and assistant doctors, about which from the Medical College in 1780 a most humble report was submitted to Your Imperial Majesty, in which the multiplication of medical-surgical schools is requested. And as now a lot of medical ranks are still required from the army of Your Imperial Majesty, then do not be pleased, Most Gracious Empress! the highest command for a real need, for the army of Your Imperial Majesty, how many doctors and assistant doctors are required to be ordered from foreign lands, following the example of the past war with the Ottoman Porte. And for the constant staffing of both the army and the navy, multiply the schools at the general hospitals with an increase in students according to the report submitted by Your Imperial Majesty in 1780 and determine the amount for that.

And about this, Your Imperial Majesty, most submissively, the Medical College asks for the highest decree.

Venezuelan Francisco de Miranda, being in 1786, on the eve of a new war with Turkey, in Kherson, visited the local hospital. According to him, it was well planned and built, but because of the disgusting smell felt everywhere, the air seemed fetid to the visiting guest. “Cleanliness and order,” Miranda wrote in his diary, “the hospital is no different. As I was informed, soldiers from each regiment are sent here who do not have enough space in the barracks, and today there are, in addition to the sick, from 300 to 400 people.

With the outbreak of hostilities on the Russian-Turkish front, the shortage of medical personnel and medicines was felt more and more acutely. Potemkin constantly demanded from the Medical Board doctors for the army, leading grueling battles in difficult climatic conditions. On December 1, 1788, the director of the Medical College, Privy Councilor von Vietinghoff, sent a report to Empress Catherine II about a small number of "a noble number of doctors and assistant doctors" in the armies and fleets, in which he rightly wrote: "I find the most important thing that is most important with the armies and fleets of your Imperial Majesty lacks a noble number of doctors and assistant doctors, as shown in the list attached to this. Therefore, in order to satisfy in some way in the armies and navies now the present extreme need in medical ranks, I do not find any other means than by contracts, for no more than three or a quarter of a year, to accept skillful doctors and assistant doctors from foreign lands, in determining but they should be agreed in such a way that they would go to all places without contradiction, where only they, after consideration by the collegium of the need for them, can be sent. According to Fitinghoff's report, a corresponding decree was issued on the same day.

A wide range of reforms in Russian army, carried out by Potemkin as vice president, and then president of the Military Collegium, was most directly connected with the management of the new provinces. It was the troops that performed the functions of border protection, reconnaissance, and participated in the economic development of land. At the same time, it is rather difficult to agree with the prevailing opinion that the main goal of Potemkin's reforms was only to gain popularity in the army. The essence of the transformation is deeper. Undoubtedly, military reform is an internal matter, but it also served in the most direct way to achieve the goals foreign policy.

Contemporaries assessed Potemkin's activity in the field of the head of the military department in different ways. Foreigners were especially interested in the state of the Russian army. Emperor Joseph II, in letters to Field Marshal Lassi, characterized the armed forces of Russia in great detail, and far from in the best way. He constantly repeated that the external brilliance of the army and navy, successfully demonstrated by Potemkin during the trip to Catherine, did not match the internal strength and strength. The troops were dressed in new and very elegant uniforms, but the cavalry, according to Joseph II, the sabers were not suitable. He found the clothes of the soldiers inappropriate for the conditions of the climate, which is why they often get sick with a fever. With the terrible high cost in the south, officers were in need and often suffered hunger, and soldiers often went without shirts. The set of regiments was incomplete, and Joseph II believed that out of the 100,000 people declared by Potemkin who made up the troops in his governorships, in fact there were no more than 40,000, of which many were sick, while others were engaged in construction in new cities. The emperor also criticized the state of the defensive structures in Kherson, Kinburn, the Black Sea Fleet and the professional training of sailors also got it. The skeptical remarks of Joseph II were probably largely due to the fact that Austria quite reasonably competed on the world stage with the Russian Empire and pursued an active foreign policy. It was the gaze of a fierce rival.

The foreigner Francisco de Miranda, who came to Russia from afar and was not bound by political ambitions, was more objective in his assessments. He was very interested in the quantitative and qualitative indicators of the Russian army, he asked a lot and talked on these topics with both Potemkin and military officials during his stay in Russia. A professional military man, endowed with remarkable abilities, an inquisitive mind and determination, was more fair in assessing the condition of the troops in southern Russia on the eve of the war. Almost everyone was convinced that sooner or later Russia would not avoid a collision with Turkey. politicians. In her diary, Miranda constantly returns to the theme of the army, which is so close and familiar to him. On November 18, 1786, he recorded that one of Potemkin's employees, Korsakov, showed him a soldier in artillery uniform, which the Venezuelan liked very much: “a Greek-style helmet or cap made of brass in order to withstand saber blows, as well as fuses on the shoulder . A short sword with a wide blade and point, which serve the soldier for various purposes. And the conclusion of a professional military man: "In general, these troops are equipped with great taste, military elegance and in accordance with the climate (in the English manner)." After that, Miranda and Korsakov continued their conversation, and the stranger found the interlocutor well versed in the art of war. On December 13, the amiable Major Korsakov led the foreigner to an "artillery park" consisting of 30 guns. “The cleanliness, smart appearance and strong build of the local soldiers certainly attract special attention,” Miranda wrote in the evening. “The sentries over their uniforms wore ordinary sheepskin coats, cloth capes, and gloves on their hands (as is customary in this country), without which it would be impossible to endure the cold.” He also managed to obtain from the Russian military the data “on the current state of the army” that he was so interested in, which he carefully recorded in his diary:

Number of persons

Cavalry? 61819

Infantry, minus guards regiments, artillery and garrison battalions? 213 002

Total? 274 821

A tough and severe test for the reformed G.A. The second Russian-Turkish war, which began in 1787, became the Potemkin of the army. Anticipating a significant increase in office work associated with the expected war, Potemkin decided to improve his system and personally drew up the corresponding instruction addressed to Vasily Popov:

“As the time comes in which cares and deeds will multiply, then for the speedy flow and immediate resolutions, it is necessary to establish such an order in my office so that everything has an uninterrupted flow:

1. Commissariat and provisions expedition. Whoever will rule over them must always have a ready answer to give when I ask.

2. Expedition on incoming reports from the commanders of the units on the affairs of the ordinary course, to which the answer should not hesitate to compose and bring to my signing.

3. To the third will belong all the cases of the Cossack troops and volunteer teams.

4. This includes cases in the provinces entrusted to me. All offices are in your exact command,

and the expedition, the secret treasury of extraordinary sums, as well as the admiralty with the fleet in your special and your own jurisdiction.

In August 1787, the flight effendi summoned the Russian ambassador in Istanbul, Yakov Bulgakov, and in an ultimatum demanded that the Moldavian ruler Mavrocordato, who had fled to Russia, be extradited; recognize the Imeretian king Erekle II as a Turkish subject; recall Russian consuls from Iasi, Bucharest and Alexandria, and allow Turkish consuls to all Russian harbors and trading cities in the Northern Black Sea region. The Russian diplomat, who once sat on the same bench with Potemkin at Moscow University and maintained friendly relations with him for many years, resolutely rejected the Turkish government's ultimatum. On August 5, he was arrested and imprisoned in the famous Seven-Tower Castle. The experienced Bulgakov reported to the capital: “No matter how soon they seized me, I managed to hide the most important papers, numbers (ciphers for coding reports. - N.B.), archive of my time, expensive things and so on. The treasury is also intact, although not large. Events developed rapidly. Following the suggestions of the English, Prussian and Swedish ministers, on August 13, 1787, the vizier of the Ottoman Porte declared war on Russia. This happened just a few months after Catherine’s brilliant journey to the territory of the lands that once belonged to Turkey and the birth of the myth of the “Potemkin villages”.

According to A.A. Bezborodko, who was in charge of foreign policy issues, the Russian Empire was ready for the expected fight: "everything is ready and ready for us than in 1768." For Russia, this was the seventh war for access to the Black Sea in a hundred years. Grigory Potemkin was appointed commander of the Yekaterinoslav army, Count P.A. Rumyantsev-Zadunaisky - Ukrainian. The heavy burden of responsibility for the lives of hundreds and thousands of people, the territorial integrity of the Russian Empire, and finally, for the prestige of the country on the world stage, fell on the shoulders of His Serene Highness. On August 21, he writes to Catherine: “War has been declared ... I am in extremes. Shelves with a quarter will not be able to approach soon. There is a terrible number of patients in Kherson. In the Crimea, too, quite. Ships withdrawn - it is difficult to protect on Liman. God alone is able to help. All transports will become bread. If my life could satisfy everything, then I would give it. Order to make a large recruiting set and add a double number to the remaining regiments in Russia. It is difficult for our people to hold on until some help arrives. In pursuit with a courier, another letter flies to the capital about problems in the south, in the army; the brightest again persistently talks about a large recruiting set and complains of very poor health. “I can hardly walk, after the illness I was still weak,” Potemkin ends his message to Catherine, “and now the fever is starting to show. Mother, I'm sorry, I can't write anymore. Who was more likely to know whether Russia was ready for the expected war, a dignitary in the capital, or Potemkin on the spot? Maybe he lacked a month, two, six months? And perhaps the brightest is a doubting person, keenly aware of his unprecedented responsibility, feeling a breakdown after illness and endless, continuous work. Even great figures have the right to feelings, fears and experiences. The image of a person is made up of many fragments; he cannot and should not be only good, without flaws, active and active. The man of the past and the man of the present are different, multifaceted, and this is precisely what is beautiful. For many years, looking back into our past, we saw images of either geniuses or anti-heroes. Black and white, no halftones. Now we can recognize the real, not invented people of the past centuries, who sometimes decided the fate of people, and sometimes were a toy in the wrong hands. Potemkin's life is not a phantasmagoria. He really loved, suffered, fought, thought, doubted, spent cheerful evenings at a rich table and long days in solving pressing problems. He lived.

The 48-year-old Potemkin, who took command for the first time, with every failure, with every failure, was worried, nervous, discouraged, about which he frankly wrote to the Empress. Catherine answered him: “From many of your letters, it might seem to me that you hesitate in carrying out the plan you have outlined and already begun in the reasoning of the Turks. But I don't allow myself to think like that. There is no glory, no honor, no profit, having undertaken some business and fervently led it, then, having not done it, willfully distort it. You carried out the defense of the borders with perfect success; God grant health, my friend, you will lead with success and offensive actions. Potemkin perked up, felt a surge of strength, now his main task is to solve the question: where will the enemy strike the main blow? The most dangerous direction to Kherson was covered by the fortress of Kinburn, erected on a sandy spit opposite Ochakov. It was this combat sector that the brightest instructed Suvorov. “My dear friend, you are more than ten thousand in person,” Potemkin wrote to him on the eve of the declaration of war. - I respect you so much and, by the way, I speak sincerely. God delivers from the evil ones, He was always my helper. My hope does not weaken, but the confluence of various worries oppresses my soul. The tension in this sector of hostilities was growing, Russian troops were being pulled up here. In the fall, the Turks subjected Kinburn to a brutal bombardment, as a result of retaliatory firing, significant damage was inflicted on the enemy. Potemkin is pleased with the actions of Suvorov, he justified all his expectations and showed himself to be an excellent commander. His Serene Highness with sincere pleasure informs Catherine: “Above all of them in Kherson and here Alexander Vasilyevich Suvorov. The truth must be told: here is a man who serves both with sweat and with blood. I will rejoice in the opportunity where God will give me to recommend him. No envy, no signs of enmity and misunderstanding, about which both contemporaries and descendants wrote so much and with pleasure. Potemkin and Suvorov, who is under his command, are still comrades-in-arms, they have common goals and one war.

The autumn of 1787 brought a terrible shock to the Serene Highness: the Sevastopol fleet was shattered by a storm. The tragedy broke Potemkin's resurrected spirit, undermined his faith in God's help and his strength. He again writes to "mother", this letter horrifies Catherine. Never before had her dear friend been so exhausted by circumstances and illnesses, had never been so confused and weak. “Mother Empress, I have become unhappy ... During my illness, I am stricken to the extreme, there is neither mind nor spirit. I asked for an assignment from the authorities to another. Believe what I feel; do not let things endure through this. Hey, I'm almost dead; I throw down all the favors and possessions that I received from your generosity, and I want to end my life in solitude and obscurity, which, I think, will not last ... I lay down everything from myself and remain a simple person. But that I was devoted to you, God is my witness.” But Catherine and the former commander of Potemkin P.A. Rumyantsev supports the staggering colossus with letters, the brightest one comes to his senses. Unit commanders follow orders, the fleet dispersed by a storm gathers in Sevastopol. And, oh miracle! The fleet is intact, suffered significantly, but it exists and is combat-ready.

In January 1788 in active army An officer of the French royal guard arrived, a representative of an old aristocratic family, Count Roger de Dama. Making an exception for him, the empress allowed the foreigner to volunteer in the Russian army. There were many foreign volunteers in the army, and especially in the flotilla, during this war, they witnessed all the most important battles, as well as the luxurious life of Potemkin at headquarters. With passion, Roger de Dame plunged into his native element - war. He clearly sympathized with the brightest and, as an unbiased eyewitness, enthusiastically described his image at the end of his life. Almost every day the Frenchman, among five or six persons, dined at the prince's table, which was served independently of the large table. In the evenings, the prince's inner circle (a French guard entered him with ease) would certainly spend at Potemkin's, and everyone forgot that they were in Tataria, thanks to various pleasures and the society there.

Potemkin, according to the recollections of the memoirist, had a broad nature, combining the most diverse shades of manifestations of the human character, ranging from tenderness, courtesy, commitment to a person? high society and ending with the severity, arrogance and cruelty of the most perfect despot. Possessing extraordinary tact and giving vent to all the movements of his soul, he oppressed those who offended him or did not like him, and at the same time flattered and showered favors on those whom he distinguished and respected. He did not hesitate in means to develop his plans, he worked with ease and was resourceful during entertainment; could seem like an empty person and at the same time be busy with various issues, giving a wide variety of orders. So, he kept in his head the project of the destruction of the Ottoman Empire next to the project of building a palace in St. Petersburg, or the project of changing the uniform of the entire army and the order to prepare a basket of flowers for his nieces. And meanwhile, his thoughts were never confused, and he did not confuse those to whom he expounded them.

The course of his thoughts, which seemed illogical, was in fact correct and strictly adhered to the intended path. He managed to learn all the ways to the satisfaction of ambition and to pleasures; he knew how to step over in time, rise, descend or evade in order to achieve the goal - to control undividedly and to have fun at ease. Prince Potemkin, as Roger de Dama wrote, subordinated military art, politics and government to his personal passions. He did not know anything in the root, but he had a comprehensive superficial knowledge and a special wonderful instinct. His will and mind markedly surpassed his knowledge, but the activity and firmness of the former deceived the lack of the latter, and he seemed to rule by the right of the conqueror; he despised his compatriots and irritated them with his arrogance, but he loved foreigners and captivated them with affectionateness and the most refined attention; in the end, he subjugated the entire state, displaying arbitrary European refinement along with Asiatic rudeness.

Welcoming Potemkin's measures to improve recruitment, Bezborodko, in a personal message in 1788 to the Russian representative in London, Sergei Vorontsov, spoke out more categorically. In his opinion, military power did not correspond to well-being in the financial support of military operations, which was quite enough without resorting to taxes. “Having taken a recruit from a hundred souls,” Bezborodko continued criticizing the military authorities, “they filled only the army, and more than 30,000 are missing in the border garrisons alone. Now we are still preparing gunpowder and shells ... ". He also complained about the slowness of Potemkin in delivering fresh data from the Novorossiysk province, which delayed decision-making. “Time is moving towards the expulsion of the fleet, and it’s up to the troops and the general” - this is how Bezborodko described the situation in the capital. And the leitmotif through many letters and memoirs of this time is the theme of court intrigues. The Count speaks directly about this: “In case of failure, I probably expect that there will be indignation at us, and most importantly at me, with the help of all sorts of insidious intrigues, which again began to multiply here.”

In April 1788, Potemkin, worried about the intensification of intrigues, decided to leave the army and go to the capital, but his opponents at court tried to keep the brightest in the army. It was decided to start a new military campaign with the siege of Ochakov. After long, exhausting and heavy naval battles with the Turkish fleet in the Liman, near Kinburn, the enemy ships were pushed back. In July 1788, the main forces of the Russian army moved towards Ochakovo. It seemed that here it is, a close victory, but the Turkish fortress withstood a five-month siege. Volunteer Frenchman Roger de Dama perceived the military operations around Ochakov with the interest of an outside observer. Once he and Prince de Ligne, who was also in Potemkin's camp, decided to make a sortie towards Ochakovo and try their luck on the other side of the outposts. “Bold and ardent, as they are at 20 years old,” a stranger wrote about the prince and a joint adventure, “he wanted to see the Turks with the same impatience as I did ... Combining his sweet childishness with an interest in me, he expressed a desire that I see enemy on land for the first time with him. Fascinated by his proposal, I mount a horse, and we set off side by side ... ". The adventurers, accompanied by only three people, drove past the Cossack outposts and already made out the minarets of Ochakov, the gardens surrounding the city, the riders prancing around the walls of the fortress. Carried away by the observation of the Turks, Roger de Dame and the Prince de Ligne got too close, they were noticed, and the Turkish cavalry, which had come into greater movement than fruit trees from a hurricane, rushed after them. Having safely returned, the foreigners promised each other to avoid walking to the gardens of Ochakov.

Time passed, the siege dragged on, and the murmur of misunderstanding sounded not only in the capital, but also in the trenches. In November 1788, Count Branitsky, the husband of Potemkin's niece Alexandra, who supplied provisions and everything necessary for his noble relative from his own estates, left the army. In this regard, the brightest had to limit himself in pleasures. Foreigners were surprised at the inaction of the prince. They believed that in Europe the general-in-chief would be responsible for the time he lost, for the disasters that he so uselessly forced to endure, for the many people who died daily from want and disease. "Oh, unknown Russia!" - exclaimed strangers. They saw that “Prince Potemkin was inviolable, he personified the soul, conscience, and power of the Empress, and because of this was not subject to any rules of duty or justice. No one dared to open the eyes of the empress for fear of compromising himself. Everyone endured, though grumbling and cursing fate.

The foreigners who were in the Russian camp were lost in conjecture about the plans of the most illustrious regarding further hostilities. He was frank only in letters to Catherine, to whom he informed about all the actions of the teams entrusted to him, the maneuvers of the fleet, and the attacks of the enemy. On October 17, 1788, Potemkin wrote to the empress about the failure of the second conspiracy in Ochakovo in favor of the Russian army and the execution of its participants. The President of the Military Collegium proposed a new plan: after the intelligence report that the enemy was not planning sorties, he proposed to strengthen the "cannonade" and force the retreat. In the same letter, His Serene Highness thanked Catherine for the "fur coat", sent, as he wrote, "from maternal care." Perhaps it was with her that a curious story was connected, which struck the great Pushkin years later. Prince D.E. Tsitsianov, who served on the staff of Potemkin, told it to his cousin A.O. Smirnova-Rosset: “I was,” he says (Tsitsianov. - N.B.), favorite of Potemkin. He says to me: “Tsitsianov, I want to surprise the empress so that she drank coffee with kalach every morning, you alone are much of a hand, go with a hot kalach.” - "Ready, Your Excellency." So I arranged a box of camphor, laid the kalach and rushed off, the sword only hit the poles all the time, spending, tra, tra, and for breakfast I presented the kalach with my own hands. I deigned to thank and sent Potemkin a fur coat. I arrived and said: “Your Excellency, the Empress, as a token of gratitude, sent you a sable fur coat, which is the best.” "Tell them to open the chest." - "No need, she's in my bosom." The prince was surprised. The fur coat flew like fluff, and it was impossible to catch it ... ".

A month later, on November 17, Potemkin writes to Catherine that heavy snow prevented the assault, but promises that in three days "the breach battery will end and, despite the cold and winter, I will begin to storm, calling on God to help." The French volunteer Roger de Dama recalled that on November 18, 1788, Potemkin staged a truly theatrical spectacle from the attack on the island of Berezan by the “Cossacks”, but these were no longer the same free residents of the Zaporizhzhya Sich, but Don Cossacks devoted to the service of the Empress.

On December 6, 1788, at 4 o'clock in the morning, Russian troops gathered in front of the front of the camp and received the blessing of the priests. All the soldiers were allowed to step out of line and venerate the cross, while each one lowered a copper coin onto the dish and only then returned to his comrades. Formed in columns, the soldiers in complete silence moved from the trenches to the trenches of Ochakov. Three bombs served as a signal for the assault, their action set the entire huge mass of troops in motion. When the first one burst, the soldiers had to drop winter clothes: fur coats and fur boots. To cross the moat, each column received a sufficient number of boards, and the fifth (last) - stairs to storm the fortress walls. Traditional shouts of "Hurrah!" warned the Turks about the start of the attack. This greatly surprised the foreigners, who were accustomed to advancing in silence, which greatly contributed to the unexpectedness of the moment. A few hours later, the fortress, which had been besieged for so long, was taken, the saraskir (commander of the troops) was captured. For several days, the inhabitants of Ochakovo, who had escaped the massacre, carried the dead to the middle of the Liman, so that with the spring thaw they would be carried away to the Black Sea. Roger de Dama, who fought bravely near the walls of the fortress, recalled: “The sight of these terrible bodies on the surface of the Liman, preserved by frost in the positions in which they died, was the most terrible thing you can imagine.”

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Colleges under Peter the Great began to be created in 1717. All of them had single system management: 1 president, 1 vice president, 4 advisers (generals) and 4 assessors (colonels). Each board had broad powers. In particular, they were allowed to act as a legislative body. Under Peter 1, 12 colleges were created: military, admiralty, foreign affairs, berg, manufactories, chief magistrate, patrimonial, justice, chambers, state offices, revision, commerce. Since 1721, the patriarchate has been liquidated. Instead, the 13th collegium is being created - the Spiritual. Later it was transformed into the Synod.

By creating a new system of governing the country, Peter actually eliminated the system of Orders that had previously functioned. At the same time, Peter was doing what he loved - he carried out reforms in a Western manner. Most colleges were created not out of urgent need, but out of a desire to learn something else from the West. For example, 3 financial institutions (chambers, state offices and revision) were a complete copy of similar Swedish colleges. Nevertheless, most colleges have existed for a long time. They disappeared only as a result of the reform activities of Catherine 2 and Alexander 1.

Table 1: Boards under Peter 1 and their functions

Name	Functions and tasks	Years of existence
	Ground Army Management	1719-1802
	fleet management	1717-1827
	Interaction with other states	1718-1832
	heavy industry	1719-1807
	Light industry	1719-1805
	Trade issues	1719-1805
	Government revenues (taxes)	1718-1801 (did not work from 1785 to 1797)
	Government spending	1717-1780
	Financial control	1717-1788
	Litigation	1718-1780
	Land management, resolution of land issues	1721-1786
	City management	1720-1796

Let us consider in more detail each board, its tasks and leaders.

Military board

The decree on the creation of the Military Collegium was signed by Peter 1 at the end of 1719, and the department began to work from the beginning of 1720. The total number of departments under the decree was 530 people, including 454 soldiers assigned to the collegium. At the same time, 83 places were vacant, since there was an acute shortage of professional officers in Russia. The military department was divided into 3 structures:

1. Army - active land army.
2. Artillery - was in charge of artillery affairs.
3. Garrison - troops who carried garrison guard duty.

The leaders of the VK under Peter the Great were:

• Menshikov Alexander Danilovich (1719-1724)
• Repin Anikita Ivanovich (1724-1726)

The department was abolished by decree of 1802 of September 7. It ceased independent existence and transferred its functions to the Ministry.

Admiralty Board

The Admiralty Board was established in 1717. The basis was the decree of December 22, 1717. The department controlled the entire fleet of Russia, both civilian and military. From the moment the board was formed, until the death of Peter 1, Apraksin Fyodor Matveyevich was in charge of it. His deputy was a Norwegian, Kruys Cornelius.

Since 1723, the Admiralty was subdivided into 12 offices: admiralty (issues of work of shipyards), zeihmeister (artillery), commissariat (solving problems of employees), contractor (contracting), provisions (food issues), treasury (financial issues), calmeister (salary) ), supervisory (supervision of finances), uniform (issues of uniforms), chief sarvaer (direct shipbuilding and the receipt of materials for this), waldmeister (forest management for the needs of the fleet), Moscow.

The board ended its independent existence in 1802, when it came under the control of the Naval Ministry. The final termination of existence refers to 1827, when the body became deliberative and did not solve any practical problems.

College of Foreign Affairs

The College of Foreign (Foreign) Affairs was established in 1718. It was converted from the Posolsky order. From 1717 to 1734 (during the reign of Peter the Great, Catherine 1, Peter 2 and Anna Ioannovna) the department was managed by Gavrila Ivanovich Golovkin. The Board was an analogue of the modern Ministry of Foreign Affairs. It was this state structure that resolved all issues related to relations with other (foreign) states.

The collegium existed until 1802, when the Ministry of Foreign Affairs was created, which took over many of the functions of the collegium. The final abolition took place in 1832.

Berg College

The Berg College was formed in 1719 and was responsible for the mining industry. Russian Empire. That is, the department managed heavy industry. The specifics of its work was regulated by tasks, so the main centers of work were concentrated in the Urals and Siberia. During the life of Peter 1, the collegium was managed by Bruce Yakov Vilimovich. It is important to note that under Peter the Berg College worked together with the Manufactory College, so Bruce was in charge of both departments. The main task of this body is to try to expand and increase the number of industrial enterprises, primarily in the Ural region. The board worked intermittently. Continuous work was carried out in the periods 1719-1731 (closed by Anna Ioannovna), 1742-1783 (closed by Catherine 2), 1797-1807 (liquidated by Alexander 1).

Manufactory College

Manufactory College was founded in 1719. Its main task was to create manufactories. That is, the main area of ​​responsibility is light industry.

Leaders under Peter 1:

• Bruce Yakov Vilimovich (1719-1722) - combined the post with the presidency of the Berg College.
• Novosiltsev Vasily Yakovlevich (1722-1731).

After the death of Peter, in 17272, the Manufactory College was liquidated. It was restored only in 1742. In 1779, liquidation again took place, but in 1796 it was restored again. The administration was finally abolished in 1805. The closing order was signed by manufactur802.

College of Commerce

The Collegium of Commerce was founded by Peter the Great in 1716. Initially, it was led by Apraksin, but after the leaders were approved by decree of 1717, Tolstoy Petr Andreevich (1718-1722) was appointed manager. Buturlin Ivan Fedorovich, who held the post from 1722 to 1725, was approved as the next president. The main task of management is to resolve all issues one way or another related to trading activities.

Since 1731, this structure was given the functions of three colleges, which temporarily stopped working: berg, manufactory, chief magistrate. The functions of the first two were performed until 1742, and those of the magistrate until 1743.

September 27, 1796 Catherine 2 signs a decree on the closure of the College of Commerce. This required a certain time, but already on November 2, Catherine 2 died, and Paul 1, who took the throne after her, was preserved by the merchant by decree of November 30, 1796. The liberal reforms of Alexander created the Ministry of Finance, under which the collegium worked temporarily, but with a significant limitation of powers. Its final abolition dates back to 1824, when a corresponding decree was signed on January 8.

Board of Chambers

Chamber College The Chamber College was founded in 1718. It was Peter's favorite brainchild, since this department dealt with taxes, to which the tsar-emperor was extremely supportive.

In the era of Peter the Great, 3 people changed as president of the Chamber Office:

• Golitsyn Dmitry Mikhailovich - in office 1718-1722
• Koshelev Gerasim Ivanovich - in office 1722
• Pleshcheev Alexey Lvovich - in office 1723-1725

The collegium existed until 1785 without major changes in functions, after which it was temporarily closed. The last period of her work, 1797 - 1801, is connected with the control over farming.

State-offices-collegium

The state-office-collegium was created by Peter in 1717 to perform the functions of managing public expenditures. Here, Peter copied the Swedish model, where the financial institutions of the same name functioned (chambers - profits, state office - losses, revision - control).

Even during the life of Peter, the staff-offices-collegium passed under the authority of the Senate. It happened in 1723. Independence of the organ was returned by Anna Ioannovna in 1730. In this form, the collegium existed until 1780, when Catherine II liquidated it.

Revision Board

The Revision Board was established in 1717 to oversee the country's finances. Until 1723, the organ was managed by Dolgorukov Yakov Fedorovich. Later, Revision lost its independence status for 2 years. From 1723 to 1725 the collegium was placed under the control of the Senate. With the return of independence, the collegium was headed by Bibikov Ivan Ivanovich.

The board existed until 1788, when it was liquidated by the reforms of Catherine 2. It should also be noted that during the short reign of Peter 2, the Revision worked in Moscow.

Justice College

The decree on the creation of the College of Justice was signed by Peter the Great in 1717, and its work began a year later, in 1718. The body performed the functions of the Supreme Court of Russia in all types of cases. The board was also responsible for the work of the courts. In the Petrine era, this body was controlled by 2 people:

1. Matveev Andrey Artamonovich (1718-1722)
2. Apraksin Petr Matveyevich (1722-1727)

Already after the death of Peter 1, the College of Justice was endowed with additional powers. The “serf office” was transferred to its jurisdiction (until 1740 and the detective order (1730-1763). The implementation of reforms by Catherine 2 stopped the existence of the justices of the collegium. It was liquidated in 1780.

patrimonial board

The patrimonial board arose in 1721 on the basis of the Local Order. She was responsible for all matters related to the land issue (registration of estates, the transfer of land between people, the issuance of land, confiscation, and so on. Initially, the collegium worked in Moscow, but after 1727 moved to St. Petersburg.

From 1717 to 1721, the justice college was in charge of land issues. In the future, the patrimonial office functioned without major upheavals and changes until the reforms of Catherine II, according to which the patrimonial department was created, and the collegium was closed in 1786.

Chief Magistrate

It was created as a single body that manages all the magistrates of the cities of the Russian Empire. The main magistrate began work in 1720. In addition to the direct management of cities, its functions included the approval of all court decisions in cities: both civil and criminal. There was also control over the collection of taxes in the cities.

Presidents of the college under Peter:

• Trubetskoy Yuri Yurievich (1720-1723)
• Dolgorukov Alexey Georgievich (1723-1727)

After the death of Peter 1, the magistrate was renamed the City Hall (1727). In 1743, the name of the Chief Magistrate was returned to the body, but it was transferred from St. Petersburg to Moscow. The magistrate was abolished in 1796.