Daily life of the peoples of Ukraine, the Volga region, Siberia and the North Caucasus. Ukrainians Ukrainian lands in the 17th century
Located in Eastern Europe Ukrainian state. This country borders on Belarus, Poland, Slovakia, Hungary, Romania, Moldova and Russia. It has access to the Black and Azov Seas.
In ancient times, the current Ukrainians were called Little Russians and Rusyns. Ukrainian nationality originates from Eastern Slavs. Ukrainians live mostly in their own territories. But in some countries you can still meet representatives of this nationality: In Russia, the USA, Canada and other states.
Poleshchuks, Boikos, Hutsuls, Lemkos - all these ethnographic groups belong to the Ukrainian people.
Peoples inhabiting Ukraine
Today, the main population of Ukraine are Ukrainians and Russians themselves. Also, Belarusians, Moldovans, Tatars, Bulgarians, Hungarians, Romanians and Poles live in Ukrainian territories.
In addition, some Ukrainians live in foreign territories: in Canada, Kazakhstan, Moldova, Romania, Brazil, Argentina and Australia.
The Ukrainian nationality is also made up of foreign Rusyns - Slovaks, Serbs, Americans and Canadians. Also, many Hutsuls live in Ukraine.
Modern Ukraine for a long time included Slavic-speaking and Iranian-speaking peoples. Gradually, the Iranians were evicted by the Turks. The Germans also lived here for some time. But the Greeks, Armenians and Jews lived the longest in the Ukrainian lands.
In Soviet times, the composition of the population of Ukraine changed somewhat - Jews, Poles, Germans, Tatars began to leave the territory of Ukraine, and at the same time the Russian people began to move there.
The ethnic structure of Ukraine has changed under the influence of both external and internal factors - religion, differences in living standards, historical events and foreign policy.
Culture and life of Ukraine
Ukrainian life is full of color and religiosity. Tourists have always admired the beauty of the nature of these places and the character of the people.
The main feature of the Ukrainian nationality is the love for work and agriculture. This feature appeared in ancient times, because the Ukrainian people have always depended on the agricultural year.
What is a tradition or custom in many countries is commonplace and everyday for Ukrainians. For example, folk songs. People just need to entertain themselves by working in the fields.
If speak about national clothes, then the male outfit cannot be compared in brightness and beauty with the female one. A beautiful shirt with embroidery is belted with a hem. A velvet or silk corset and an embroidered apron are worn over this. Clothing is decorated with multi-colored ribbons, giving a special colorfulness to the outfit. The headdress is of particular importance - unmarried women wore a flower wreath, married women - a high ochipok covering their hair.
A men's suit looks much simpler than a woman's: a long shirt, harem pants, a sleeveless jacket and a long belt.
Family in Ukraine is of great importance. Therefore, Ukrainians observe all the rules of marriage and family life.
Traditions and customs in Ukraine
Ukrainians have always honored and respected the traditions of their ancestors. And even after the adoption of Christianity, they were able to connect their past with the present.
Speaking of religious traditions, it is worth noting Christmas, Maslenitsa, Easter, Trinity and Ivan Kupala.
Christmas in Ukraine begins with the celebration of Holy Evening on January 6th. On this day, people cook kutya and uzvar. And on Christmas, each family sets up a festive table overflowing with meat dishes.
One of the Christmas customs is carols. Carol-makers go from house to house and collect gifts and goodies. They distribute roles among themselves - birch, latkovy, treasurer, bread-bearer, star star, dancer, etc.
Maslenitsa is still a pre-Christian holiday. It is held in honor of the end of winter and the onset of warm days. Today this holiday is held a week before Lent. As a rule, these days people cook pancakes with various fillings, treat each other, burning the effigy of Winter.
An Easter custom is to dye chicken eggs and bake Easter cakes. People meet each other with the words: "Christ is Risen!", and in response they hear: "Truly Risen!".
The feast of the Trinity is celebrated for 3 days. Green Sunday is the day when girls perform divination rites. It is believed that on this day the predictions come true. Checkered Monday is the day of consecration of fields from fires, hail and crop failure. The third day is Bogodukh's day. On this day, the girls play various games.
The holiday of Ivan Kupala is famous for its mysticism. They say that on this day you can hear the conversations of evil spirits. And if you bathe in a spring or drink dew, then all negativity is washed off a person.
Map 2. Ukraine between Poland and Russia
Poland, after the suppression of the Cossack uprisings of 1637 and 1638 received a ten-year period of calm. The Poles, it would seem, completely subjugated the Ukrainian Cossacks.
Poland flourished. Ukrainian lands, especially those on the left bank of the Dnieper, Seversk land and Poltava, where the land holdings of Polish and Ukrainian magnates loyal to Poland grew rapidly, became the bread bins of the Commonwealth. Access to the Baltic made it possible to expand trade in Ukrainian wheat and cattle, as well as Belarusian timber, tar and potash. This led to the growth of cities such as Warsaw, Vilna, Lvov, Kamenetz and Kyiv. This decade was often called the era of the "golden world". Prosperity, however, was built on shaky foundations, as Polish rule over the Ukrainian people faced conflicts and contradictions of all kinds - political, national, economic, social and religious.
Analyzing the Polish policy towards Ukraine and the attitude of Ukrainians towards the Polish rule, one should first of all consider the differences in the status of different strata of Ukrainian society. By 1640, there were almost no Ukrainian magnates left, since almost all Ukrainian aristocratic families were converted to the Roman Catholic faith. An outstanding champion of Greek Orthodoxy in Western Russia, Prince Konstantin Konstantinovich Ostrozhsky died in 1608. His descendants became Catholics. Prince Jeremiah Vishnevetsky converted to Catholicism in 1632. Among the few Greek Orthodox nobles who had at least some political weight, Adam Kisel is best known. But, although he was Russian. Kissel felt like a Pole politically.
An extremely large number of representatives of the petty Ukrainian nobility (gentry) remained Greek Orthodox in faith, but Russian in spirit, although they were loyal to the Polish king and were ready to serve Poland faithfully. In addition, in Ukraine there were a large number of small landowners who did not have the official status of the gentry, but who differed little from it economically and socially. It was from these two groups that the Polish government usually recruited officers and privates among the registered (registered) Cossacks.
The Zaporizhian Cossacks, organized around their Sich, sometimes took into their ranks representatives of the Russian-Ukrainian nobility, the majority were ordinary people, occasionally townspeople, but mostly peasants who had fled the lands of the magnates.
Thus, the Cossacks were a link both between the nobility and the townspeople, and between the nobility and the peasants. Most of the Ukrainian people at that time were peasants, whose position both in Ukraine and in Belarus was tantamount to slavery.
As regards religion, the compromise of 1632 greatly strengthened the status of the Greek Orthodox Church in Western Russia. Although the Orthodox did not actually receive all the rights and privileges stipulated in the conditions that were promised to them, the Russian clergy were satisfied with their position. The petty clergy, however, whose social level was closer to the peasantry, were subjected to harassment and insults from the Polish magnates and officials, and it was quite possible to expect that they would take the side of the Cossacks and peasants in any coming unrest.
Indeed, the situation for such unrest in Ukraine is ripe. Dissatisfaction grew both among the peasants and among the Cossacks. A look at the circumstances of the life of the peasants reveals a strange, as it may seem at first glance, situation: corvée was easier on the newly conquered frontier lands than in the northern regions of Ukraine and Belarus. Then why were these peasants from the left bank and the border regions of the right bank of the Dnieper more inclined to rebellion than the rest, whose situation was much more difficult? The reasons were mainly purely psychological. The new settlers in most cases were more energetic and enterprising people than those who lived there permanently. In addition, the very environment in the border lands was different due to the presence of free people - the Cossacks. Any attempt on the part of the estate owners to burden their peasants caused more resentment among the new settlers than in those areas where dependence had existed for a long time. Moreover, in new lands, on the border steppe zone, it was comparatively easier for the offended peasant to flee from his master and join the Cossacks "beyond the [Dnieper] rapids." Peasants from the left bank could even run to the Don Cossacks.
After the uprising of 1638 was suppressed, several divisions of Polish soldiers were stationed in Ukrainian lands as a precaution against possible unrest. The behavior of these soldiers irritated the population as well as the oppression of the masters. Always in need of money due to their profligate lifestyle, landowners often farmed out sources of income from their lands and various structures on their lands, such as water mills, distilleries, taverns and river ferries, to the Jews, who in Poland and Lithuania traditionally provided financial support to kings and nobles and have long been indispensable because of their business enterprise. As a result, for many Ukrainian peasants, Jews began to be identified with the despotic Polish regime. When the revolutionary explosion broke out, the Jews found themselves between two opposing forces (Ukrainians and Poles), their fate was tragic.
Dissatisfied with the fact that only peasants were under their rule, the magnates after 1638 tried to convert Cossacks “excluded from the register” (vyshchiks) into peasants. Registered Cossacks themselves were subject to strict discipline and were subject to harassment by both Polish and their own officers (foremen).
Despite all this, the foundation of Polish rule seemed solid enough. However, latent popular discontent manifested itself in a number of peasant riots in both Western and Eastern Ukraine in 1639 and in subsequent years. These were not yet symptoms of deep-seated indignation in Ukraine. Such riots failed to develop into a general unrest only because of the lack of interaction between the peasants in different areas, as well as between the Cossacks and the peasants.
In 1646, the king of Poland gave the Cossacks a reason for general excitement, although unintentionally. Vladislav IV was an ambitious man and he was annoyed by the rule of the Sejm. He was looking for a suitable opportunity to raise his royal powers and raise the respect for the crown.
Vladislav's lovingly cherished project was the war against Turkey. In these plans, he was supported by Chancellor Jerzy Ossolinski, who was appointed in 1643. In 1645, under pressure from the Turks, Venice asked for help from some European countries, including Poland. Without informing the Sejm about his plans, Vladislav agreed to support Venice in the war against the Turks, but demanded substantial subsidies. He intended to use this money to strengthen the Polish regular army and mobilize the Cossacks. In his military plans, he intended to first attack the vassals of the Turkish Sultan - the Crimean Tatars.
Vladislav had a high opinion of the Cossacks as a fighting force. They supported him even when he, being crown prince, waged war against Moscow in 1617-1618. and again during the capture of Smolensk in 1632-1634. In April 1646, at the invitation of the king, four delegates from the foremen of the registered Cossacks: three captains - Ivan Barabash, Ilya Karaimovich and Ivan Nesterenko But - and the Chigirinsky centurion Bogdan Khmelnitsky - arrived in Warsaw and were received in top secret by the king and chancellor Ossolinsky. Since no minutes of their meeting have been preserved, the exact content of these negotiations is unknown, however, from available sources it can be assumed that Vladislav promised to increase the number of registered Cossacks from one thousand to a much larger number (twelve, or maybe even twenty thousand). It was alleged that the king gave Barabash a decree of similar content, certified by his own seal (and not the seal of the state).
The secret plans of Vladislav and Ossolinsky soon became known to the magnates and caused great indignation. At a meeting in 1646, the Sejm imposed a ban on any increase in the composition of the regular Polish army and began to threaten Ossolinsky with removal from office. Vladislav was forced to abandon this part of his project.
At the next meeting (1647), the Seim turned its attention to Vladislav's interest in the Cossacks and decided to put an end to his military preparations once and for all. It was specially voted that the number of registered Cossacks could not be increased without the approval of the Sejm. Because of these decisions, the senior officers of the registered Cossacks - Barabash and Karaimovich - abandoned attempts to increase the Cossack register to date and decided to keep the whole matter secret. However, it proved impossible for them to stop the spread of rumors and gossip among the ordinary Cossacks, especially because their colleague in the delegation to Vladislav, centurion Bogdan Khmelnitsky, did not want to miss the opportunity to strengthen the Cossack army.
A people living "against the sun, head to the Chumat cart, feet to the blue sea," as the old song says. Whitewashed huts surrounded by gardens, beautiful stove tiles and earthenware, bright, cheerful fairs - all these are recognizable signs of the rich traditional culture of Ukrainians...
Settlement and formation of an ethnos
A group of girls and married women in festive attire
In the south-west of Eastern Europe, "against the sun, head to the Chumatsky cart (Big Bear), feet to the blue sea," as the people sang, the ancient Slavic land of Ukraine is located.
The origin of the name in the meaning "edge, extreme" dates back to the time of existence ancient Russian state - Kievan Rus. So in the XII-XIII centuries. called it the southern and southwestern lands - the right-bank Dnieper region: Kiev region, Pereyaslav region, Chernihiv-Severshchina, which became the center of the formation of the Ukrainian nationality. Subsequently, the name Ukraine was assigned to the entire ethnic territory.
Main occupation
The main occupation of Ukrainians - agriculture regulated the way of life of the peasant family and the community as a whole. Grain and products prepared from it (porridge, kutya, loaf) were present as attributes in almost all rituals of the calendar cycle and rituals associated with the human life cycle. Bread among Ukrainians, like many other peoples, was a symbol of hospitality. There was always bread and salt on the table in the hut. Eyewitnesses noted that the Ukrainians welcomed guests cordially and kindly, sparing nothing for the dear guest. Cattle breeding prevailed in the mountainous regions of the Carpathians.
Settlements and housing
Ukrainian villages were located near rivers, occupying land not suitable for arable land. Farm settlements were built in the steppe regions.
"Towel" - a towel. Late XIX century. Kharkov province, Zmeevsky district
The main dwelling of the Ukrainians was a whitewashed adobe hut with a high hipped roof, covered with straw or reeds, the edges of which protruded significantly above the walls, protecting the inhabitants of the hut from the cold in winter and from the heat in summer. For additional insulation in winter, the walls of the hut were lined with straw. Clean, whitewashed huts were almost always surrounded by gardens, and a light wattle fence and solid gates knocked together from poles made it possible to see the yard and its inhabitants.
The hostess and her daughters whitewashed the hut after every shower, and also three times during the year: for Easter, Trinity and Intercession.
The interior of the house
Painted stove and painting on the wall near the stove
The stove occupied almost a quarter of the hut and was located in the left corner from the entrance. This corner was called "baking", and the empty place under the stove - "pidpiccha" - served to store fuel or a chicken cage was placed there - "heap".
Opposite the stove corner was a red corner - "pokuttya". Here on the shelves - goddesses stood icons called blessed, as they blessed the owner, mistress and their sons before the wedding. The icons were covered with patterned towels - "gods".
The corner to the right of the door, called "deaf", had an exclusively economic purpose. The space above the door and the upper part of the blind corner was occupied by a shelf - "police", on which stood spare pots, turned upside down. Closer to the corner, numerous women's jewelry was stored in earthenware. Below were shelves with the best tableware placed in a conspicuous place: painted glazed clay and wooden bowls, spoons, plates and flasks.
Hutsul ceramics
Ceramic bowls. Poltava province, Zenkovsky district, metro station Opashnya.
The natural and geographical conditions of the Carpathian region predetermined the originality of the culture of its population, known as the Rusyns, or Hutsuls. Despite the fact that this group of the Ukrainian people lived apart from it due to territorial and political alienation, it did not lose cultural and historical unity with its ethnic group. The Hutsul region was famous for its ceramic products.
A special impression on entering the Hutsul hut was made by a stove, the inner part of the chimney of which - a fireplace - was lined with tiles - "kahls". The fireplace consists of two or three tiers of tiles, closed in the upper and lower parts by rows of narrow cornices. The upper edge of the fireplace was completed by two or three pediments - "concealed" and "bumps" at an angle. The tiles depicted scenes from the life of the Hutsuls, churches, crosses, faces of saints, the Austrian coat of arms, and flowers.
Vessel. Eastern Galicia, p. Pistyn. End of the 19th century. Ukrainians are Hutsuls
The decoration of the stove fireplace was consonant with the "mysnik" - a cabinet of three or four shelves, placed in the wall between the door to the hut and the side wall, and the "mysnik" - a shelf above the door where there were pottery: "gleks" ("dzbanks"), "chersaki" (pots), bathhouses, vessels for drinks - kalachi, "splashing", bowls, etc. The most elegant bowls, serving exclusively as interior decoration, were placed on the "namysnik", which, for the same reason, was decorated with carvings and burnt patterns.
Clay products attracted attention with the perfection of forms, variety of decor and colors- brown, yellow and green. All products were covered with glaze, which shone, creating an atmosphere of festivity and elegance in the hut even on cloudy days.
Ceramics were made by Hutsul potters from Kosovo and Pistyn. The most famous of them are: I. Baranbk, O. Bakhmatyuk, P. Tsvilyk, P. Koshak. As a rule, all of them were hereditary potters who embodied in their products not only the best achievements of their predecessors, but, of course, revealed their individuality.
Despite the fact that the main occupations of the Hutsuls were cattle breeding and, first of all, sheep breeding, as well as harvesting and rafting of timber, many of them were also engaged in crafts, especially those that lived in towns and had neither land nor livestock. For a Hutsul girl, there was nothing more honorable than to marry an artisan.
Ukrainian fair
Fair in the village of Yankovtsy. Poltava province, Lubensky district. Ukrainians.
Fairs were held in most Ukrainian villages on major church holidays. The busiest of them took place in autumn, after the harvest. The marketplace was located on the temple square or on a pasture outside the village.
The fair for the peasants was a kind of "club" where social connections and acquaintances were maintained. Fair rows were located in strict sequence: pottery, factory utensils and icons were sold in one row, grocery and tea shops were also located here; in another row - manufactory, haberdashery, caps, women's scarves, shoes; in the next - wood products - wheels, arcs, chests, etc.; in the latter - tar and fish.
Separately, there were places where cattle and horses were sold. Gypsies acted as mediators here. After a successful sale and purchase, it was common to drink magarych: “The beggars changed crutches, and even then they drank magarych for three days,” as the people said.
At fairs, wandering gymnasts or comedians amused the people, but more often performers of folk songs to the accompaniment of a lyre or blind musicians who played the harmonium. The trade lasted three or four hours, then everything was cleaned up, and by evening there was not a trace left of the motley noisy crowd and crowds, except for the fair's rubbish. The big fair lasted two or three days.
The war of Russia against gentry Poland and its consequences
The mighty Russian state came to the defense of Ukraine, which continued to be encroached upon by gentry Poland and sultan Turkey. Russian military people, together with the Ukrainian Cossacks, began to fight against the royal troops.
Especially fierce battles took place near Okhmatov in the Cherkasy region. For three days in January 1655, in severe frost, besieged Cossacks and Russian military men defended the camp together. Their forces were already on the verge of human capabilities. However, at the decisive moment, the detachment of I. Bohun left Uman and attacked the enemy from the rear. The combined Russian and Ukrainian troops inflicted a crushing defeat on the royal army, which, together with its allies, the detachments of the Crimean Khan, retreated beyond the Bug River.
The Russian state also gave a helping hand to the people of fraternal Belarus. A significant army headed here, which, together with the Ukrainian Cossack regiments, led by the order (appointed) hetman Ivan Zolotarenko, liberated a significant part of the Belarusian lands. The power of the Polish and Lithuanian feudal lords was eliminated in the region of Minsk, Mogilev, Gomel, Polotsk.
However, the Russian state could not liberate all Ukrainian and Belarusian lands, since the war with Sweden began, which seized its northwestern territories. In the south, the predatory attacks of Turkish and Tatar feudal lords did not stop. The internal situation in Ukraine has become more complicated.
On July 27, 1657, hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky died in Chyhyryn. Before last days During his life, he persistently and consistently pursued a policy of strengthening the alliance of the Ukrainian people with the fraternal Russian people. The death of Khmelnytsky echoed with deep anguish in the heart of the Ukrainian people. In songs and thoughts that were passed from mouth to mouth, from generation to generation, the people sang the hetman as a national hero.
The long, exhausting war between Russia and the Commonwealth brought heavy losses - thousands of people died, dozens of cities and villages of Ukraine lay in ruins. The Polish economy was also in a state of disarray. Both sides began negotiations, which ended in 1667 with the signing of an armistice agreement in the village of Andrusovo near Smolensk. According to the terms of the Andrusov Treaty, Smolensk and Seversk land were returned to Russia. All Ukrainian lands along the left bank of the Dnieper and Kyiv with the adjacent territory remained part of the Russian state, and the Right-Bank and Eastern Galicia were under the yoke of gentry Poland. The territorial dismemberment of Ukrainian lands was confirmed by the conditions of the so-called "Eternal Peace" of 1686 between Russia and Poland.
The struggle of the popular masses of Ukraine against the aggression of the Turkish and Tatar feudal lords. Ivan Sirko
At that time, the threat of enslavement by Sultan Turkey and its vassal, the Crimean Khanate, hung over the Ukrainian people. The Horde again attacked Ukraine, captured thousands of people. Peasants and Cossacks rose to fight the enemy. The Zaporizhzhya ataman Ivan Sirko especially distinguished himself in this fight. Thanks to his personal qualities, he became well known among the broad circles of the Cossacks, took part in the liberation war of the Ukrainian people in 1648-1654. The next period of his life is closely connected with the Zaporozhian Sich. It was during these years that I. Sirko gained great popularity among the people as an implacable enemy of the Polish gentry and the Crimean hordes, a fearless warrior, a talented military leader. In 1663, he was first elected ataman (it was a very influential and authoritative position in the Zaporozhye Host). In subsequent years, I. Sirko actively prepared for the people's struggle against the Polish-gentry and Turkish aggression on Ukrainian lands. The detachments of the Cossacks led by him carried out a number of successful campaigns against the Right-Bank Ukraine and the Crimean Khanate. The 1667 campaign against the Crimea was especially successful, during which a detachment of Cossacks occupied Kafa and other cities and freed two thousand slaves.
In the summer of 1672, Turkish and Tatar troops invaded Ukraine. Capturing Podolia and part of Volyn, they moved to Eastern Galicia. Destruction and death were carried by foreign enslavers. The Russian state again extended a helping hand to the Ukrainian people - Russian troops and Cossack regiments entered the territory of the Right Bank.
However, Sultan's Turkey did not give up its aggressive plans. V. 1677 -1678 numerous hordes of Turkey and the Crimean Khanate twice attacked Chigirin, which was courageously defended by Russian soldiers and Ukrainian Cossacks. Having suffered huge losses, the enemy troops retreated outside Ukraine.
The struggle of senior groups for power
The political situation of the Ukrainian lands became even more complicated in connection with the struggle for power of senior groups, which often focused on foreign states. Already after the death of Bogdan Khmelnytsky, part of the Cossack elite, headed by I. Vyhovsky, who, with the help of intrigues and bribery, achieved the hetman's mace, sought to reconsider the decision of the Pereyaslav Council, to return the Ukrainian people to a foreign yoke again. The peasant-Cossack masses resolutely opposed these plans. A small group of Vyhovsky's supporters remained in complete isolation, and the hetman himself fled to Poland.
However, the situation in Ukraine remained difficult. The anti-people policy was pursued by Yuri Khmelnitsky, the youngest son of the great hetman. Having sworn allegiance to the Russian Tsar, he repeatedly went over to the side of the Commonwealth, then Sultan's Turkey. Together with his new patrons-conquerors, Y. Khmelnytsky sowed on Ukrainian Khushka. Thus, the left-bank hetman Ivan Samoylovich owned a significant number of villages, mills, workshops, many mines, enterprises for the manufacture of linen and saltpeter. Enriched as the hetman's family, so to his inner circle. Their lands increased mainly due to the seizure of peasant and Cossack allotments. The landownership of the church and monasteries increased. They turned into real feudal lords who owned significant estates and thousands of peasants. In Sloboda Ukraine, the families of colonels Shidlovsky, Donets, Kondratiev became large landowners. Okhtyrsky colonel I. Perekhrest owned, for example, 40 thousand acres of land.
At the same time, the dependence of the peasants on the feudal lords increased, and their duties increased. In the 50-60s of the XVII century. certain categories of peasants of the Left-Bank Ukraine often worked out the corvée. In addition, they performed various field work for the benefit of the foremen's elite, prepared firewood, fished, etc. The position of ordinary Cossacks worsened. The foreman seized their lands and limited personal rights.
Craft, crafts, trade
In the second half of the XVII century. the industrial development of the Left-Bank and Sloboda Ukraine was significantly revived. Among the crafts, weaving, carpentry, blacksmithing and shoemaking, etc. were most widely used. Cossack elders, monasteries and wealthy peasants brought large profits from crafts. On many estates of the feudal lords, there were distilleries that produced vodka, "honey", breweries, as well as malt factories (where malt was produced from grain) factories.
The production of glass - goutnichestvo - developed. Many enterprises for the production of glassware and pharmacy utensils operated in the Chernihiv region. The production of iron from swamp ores was also improved.
Trade revived. The ties between Ukraine and the central regions of the Russian state have become especially strong. Ukrainian lands have become an organic part of the All-Russian market, which was being formed.
Ukrainian and Russian merchants sold cattle, wool, wax, lard, as well as saltpeter, glass, and cloth in the cities and villages of Russia. From the markets of the central regions of Russia, fabrics, metal products, and fish were imported to Ukraine. Great importance at that time, it acquired the trade in salt, which was delivered to Ukraine by the Chumaks (mainly from the Crimea).
Domestic trade was concentrated on fairs and bazaars. Fairs, as a rule, met two or three times a year in Kyiv, Chernigov, Nizhyn and other cities. Here, not only local artisans sold their products, but also merchants from different regions of the country. Merchants from Ukraine also traded in the markets of foreign countries in Europe (especially the Balkan Peninsula) and the Middle East.
Cities
On the territory of Ukraine reunited with Russia, the development of cities has accelerated. According to the 1666 census, there were already about 90 cities and towns on the Left Bank. The internal life of many of them was controlled by magistrates, who were in the hands of the wealthy elite - large merchants, shop masters, etc. However, as feudal relations developed and the power of the Cossack foreman strengthened, a number of cities lost the right to self-government.
Large cities (Kyiv, Nizhyn, Chernihiv, Poltava) became important industrial and shopping malls. New craft specialties and workshops arose in them. In the second half of the XVII century. in Left-Bank Ukraine, there were about 300 handicraft specialties.
Successes in settling the lands of Sloboda Ukraine contributed to the emergence of a number of cities here, for example, Ostrogozhsk (1652), Sumy (1655), Kharkov (1656). In the 60s, there were already 57 cities and towns in Slobozhanshchina. Cities were major economic centers. In Kharkov, for example, thousands of carpets were made every year; Sumy was famous for the products of weavers, potters, tailors, blacksmiths. In Slobozhanshchina, the cities were administratively subordinate to the tsarist governors and the Cossack elders.
Administrative unit
Ukrainian lands in the composition Russian state retained a certain autonomy in the administrative and military structure. Here there were bodies and institutions that arose during the liberation war. The entire territory of the Left-bank Ukraine and Slobozhanshchina was divided into regiments, which in turn were divided into hundreds. They were both administrative and military units.
The supreme power on the Left Bank belonged to the hetman, who was formally elected at the combined arms council. In his activities, the hetman relied on the general foreman - the convoy officer, judge, treasurer, clerk, esauls, bunchzhny. Colonels and centurions had significant local power. The senior elite, as a rule, belonged to large feudal lords who owned land and thousands of dependent peasants.
Traditional self-government bodies were preserved in Zaporozhye, but even there the Cossack foremen seized all the posts. Basically, the decisions of Kosh, the highest body in the Zaporizhzhya Sich, which was in charge of administrative, judicial, military and financial affairs, depended on her will.
The tsarist government resolved all matters related to Ukraine through the Little Russian Order, which was located in Moscow and acted in agreement with the hetman-senior authorities in Ukraine. Together they took care of strengthening the existing feudal system, and suppressed the anti-feudal uprisings of the masses.
Right Bank and Western Ukrainian lands under the yoke of foreign invaders
In the second half of the XVII century. the situation in the Right-bank Ukraine became especially complicated. Its territory became the scene of a fierce struggle between individual Ukrainian hetmans, Polish-gentry, Crimean and Turkish feudal lords. Over the course of several decades, several hetmans were replaced here, who were guided either by the gentry Poland or the Sultan's Turkey. The obedient henchmen of the Commonwealth were Pavel Teterya and Nikolai Khanenko, Petro Doroshenko was guided by the Ottoman Porte (Ottoman Empire).
The hostilities that continued between the warring parties brought devastating devastation to the territory of the Right Bank. Hundreds of villages and cities were burned, thousands of people were destroyed or taken into Turkish slavery. Fertile fields were overgrown with weeds, industrial enterprises ceased to operate, and trade ceased. Podolia, which was under the rule of Sultan Turkey, suffered especially for almost two decades. Only at the end of the century the situation on the Right Bank, as well as Western Ukrainian land stabilized. They finally fell under the rule of foreign states (the Right Bank and Eastern Galicia belonged to gentry Poland, Northern Bukovina - to the Moldavian principality, a vassal of Sultan's Turkey, Transcarpathia - to feudal Hungary). The popular masses not only endured cruel social oppression, but also national-religious oppression. The feudal exploitation of the peasantry intensified again, corvee in most areas reached 4-5 days a week. In addition, the serfs paid their master numerous taxes in kind and money, worked out additional duties. The feudal lord was the sovereign master of his subject: he could punish him in any way, or even kill him.
The offensive of Catholicism and Uniatism intensified. The royal authorities forced the peasant serfs and the urban poor to accept Uniatism. Ukrainian petty bourgeois, as before, were allowed to settle only on certain streets, to engage only in certain types of crafts.
Foreign domination slowed down economic development Right Bank and Western Ukrainian lands. Most of the cities were captured by magnates and gentry, who robbed the inhabitants, forced them to do various jobs.
Anti-feudal movements on the Left Bank, Sloboda and Zaporozhye
The oppression of the masses by the Cossack officers was the main reason for the aggravation of the class struggle. Its forms remained the same as before: filing complaints, refusal to work out duties, escapes and, finally, armed uprisings.
Already in the late 50s of the XVII century. on the Left Bank of Ukraine and Zaporizhia, social contradictions sharply escalated. The uprisings against hetman Ivan Vyhovsky and his henchmen in 1657 were led by Poltava colonel Martyn Pushkar. A detachment of Cossacks led by the ataman Yakov Barabash also arrived to help the rebels. Thousands of peasants, working people of crafts, artisans, and the urban poor joined the rebels. Only in the Poltava region concentrated 20 thousand insurgent people. It was also restless in other regiments of the Left Bank, all of Zaporozhye was seething.
Before the threat of losing the hetman's mace, I. Vyhovsky called on the troops of the Crimean Khan to help him. In the second half of May 1658, the rebels managed to push back and even defeat the punishers. But already in early June, the peasant-Cossack detachments, surrounded by regiments loyal to the hetman and the Horde, were defeated. I. Vygovsky and the Crimean Khan perpetrated a savage reprisal against the local population. They burned Poltava and other cities to the ground, tortured thousands of people. M. Pushkar and Y. Barabash died like heroes. But still, I. Vygovsky was defeated and fled to Poland.
Despite mass violence, the anti-feudal struggle did not stop. In 1666, a major uprising broke out in Pereyaslav, which was attended by local Cossacks, residents of the surrounding villages and towns. The following decades saw a further intensification of the class struggle. Already in 1687, there was a performance by ordinary Cossacks of the Gadyachsky and Priluksky regiments. The rebels killed the colonel, the captain, the judge and some other foremen. During the 80s there were mass unrest of the Cossack poor in Zaporozhye and in separate regiments of the Left Bank. The rebels sacked the estates of the foreman, physically destroyed the feudal lords, and took revenge on them for the offenses they had caused.
Participation of the popular masses of Ukraine in the peasant war of 1667-1671. under the direction of Stepan Razin
A bright page in the joint struggle of brother peoples against tsarism and feudal exploitation was the peasant war of 7667-1671 in Russia under the leadership of Stepan Timofeevich Razin, the main events of which you met in the lessons of the history of the USSR. From the Cossack Don, the flames of the peasant war soon spread to other regions of the Russian state. Under the influence of these events, the anti-feudal struggle of the masses of Ukraine intensified. From the Left Bank and Zaporozhye, the Right Bank and Slobozhanshchina, thousands of peasants and ordinary Cossacks joined Razin's army. They took an active part in the peasant war. Immigrants from Ukraine - Oleksa Khromoy, Yarema Dmitrenko, Nestor Sambulenko even led separate large detachments of Razintsy.
In appeals (“charming letters”) that were distributed in Ukraine, Stepan Razin called on the people to rise up to fight against the elders, boyars, and governor. In September 1670, an uprising broke out in the city of Ostrogozhsk (Sloboda Ukraine). It was headed by local colonel Ivan Dzikovsky. With the help of a detachment of Razintsy, the insurgent people dealt with the royal governor. The management of the city passed into the hands of the Cossacks. Soon the rebels took possession of the neighboring one. Olshansky and a number of other cities of Slobozhanshchina. In the liberated territory, peasants and ordinary Cossacks destroyed the voivodship and foremen's authorities, created self-government.
But the insurgent detachments were poorly organized and armed, did not have a unified plan of action. Taking advantage of this, the tsarist government suppressed the peasant war (remember the fate of its leader Stepan Razin from the history of the USSR).
Strengthening the liberation struggle of the masses on the Right Bank and Western Ukrainian lands. Semyon Paly
Having seized the Right Bank, the Polish magnates and gentry intensified the social and national oppression of the working masses. Peasants and ordinary Cossacks did not obey the feudal lords. In 1663, an uprising of the peasant-Cossack masses of the Pavolochsky regiment broke out. Soon the liberation movement covered the entire territory of the Right-Bank Ukraine - detachments of atamans Ivan Serbin and Datsk Vasilyevich acted in the Kiev region, and Vasily Drozdenko worked in Podolia. Only with the help of regular troops did the royal government and its henchmen from the Ukrainian feudal lords succeed in cracking down on the rebels. In the 80s of the XVII century. the territory of the right bank of the Dnieper region, which was significantly devastated as a result of the aggressive attacks of the Turkish and Tatar invaders, began to be intensively populated. Several Cossack regiments arose here, which over time became a significant force in the struggle against the Polish-gentry domination.
A prominent role in the organization and formation of the regiments belonged to Semyon Filippovich Gurko (Paliy). Originally from the Left-Bank Ukraine, he spent some time in Zaporozhye. He took an active part in the campaigns of the Cossacks against the Crimean Khanate and Sultan's Turkey, showed personal heroism. Having become a colonel of Fastovo, Semyon Paly, with his associates and closest assistants Samuil Ivanovich (Samus), Andrey Abazin, Zakhar Iskra, led the liberation movement in Right-Bank Ukraine.
Cossack regiments liberated a large territory of the Kiev region and Podolia. In the hands of the rebels were the fortress cities of Fastov, Korsun, Bratslav, Boguslav. Semyon Paly sought to reunite Right-Bank Ukraine with Russia. During the 80-90s of the XVII century. he repeatedly appealed to the tsarist government with a request to accept the Cossack regiments into the Russian state. However, the tsarist government, fearing the complication of relations with gentry Poland and Sultan's Turkey, offered S. Paliy with his regiments to first go to the Zaporizhzhya Sich, and later to the Left-Bank Ukraine.
A sharp and tense anti-feudal struggle took place in the Western Ukrainian lands. During the 1950s and 1970s, popular uprisings broke out in the Dolinsky starostvo, and after a while in the Drohobych and Zhydachevsky districts in the Carpathian region. But the most acute form of struggle of the masses of the region remained the movement of the oprishki. Hiding in the hard-to-reach Carpathian mountains, the opryshki carried out successful attacks on the Polish gentry and the Catholic clergy, and instilled fear in the local rich. The number of detachments of oprishkas increased from year to year, their actions became more organized and bold. During the 70s, a detachment of the famous Oprishkov leader Bordyuk operated in the Kolomiysky district, who for several years smashed the local gentry. For almost six years, the struggle of the people's avengers Ivan Vinnik and Vasily Gleb continued. The frightened gentry left their estates and sought protection behind the walls of city fortresses.
Development of culture in Ukraine
Enlightenment, scientific knowledge and printing
The liberation of Ukraine from the Polish nobility and the reunification of Ukraine with Russia had a great positive influence on the development of the culture of the Ukrainian people. The changes that took place in the social and political life of the region contributed to the rapid development of education, literature, art, and were reflected in the spiritual rapprochement of the two fraternal peoples. As before, Kyiv was the main center of education in Ukraine. The famous Kyiv Collegium operated in the city (since 1701 - the Kyiv Academy). It had 8 classes, which lasted 12 years. Within the walls of this educational institution students studied different languages, history, philosophy, learned to write poems, gained knowledge in geography, arithmetic and other subjects. Such well-known scientists as Lazar Baranovich, Ioaniky Galyatovsky, Innokenty Gizel, Stefan Yavorsky and others worked here. They made a significant contribution to the development of philosophy, historical knowledge, Pedagogy. Young men from Russia, Belarus, Moldova, Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece came to study in Kyiv. In small rural and urban primary schools attached to churches and monasteries, children of Cossack foremen and clergy, wealthy Cossacks, peasants and townspeople were taught to read, write, count, sing. The main textbooks used by the students were the Book of Hours and the Psalter. The Primer by Simeon Polotsky and the Grammar by Meletius Smotrytsky were also used.
On the Right Bank and Western Ukrainian lands, the Polish-gentry authorities used the Jesuit and Uniate schools for the spiritual enslavement of the Ukrainian people. They sought to subordinate the Lvov University opened in 1661 to the same goal.
In the second half of the XVII century. old ones were operating, as well as new printing houses were created. The largest of them worked at the Kiev-Pechersk monastery, in Novgorod-Seversky, Chernigov, Lvov. Printing houses, as a rule, published government documents, works of famous writers, school textbooks.
Literature and oral folk art
New polemical works gained great popularity. First of all, these are “Conversation of Belaya Tserkov” and “Foundations” by Ioanikiy Galyatovsky, the journalistic work “Slander”, the work “A New Measure of the Old Faith” by Lazar Baranovich. Their authors opposed Catholicism and Uniatism, exposed the anti-people activities of the Pope. Other genres of literature also developed: sermons, descriptions of the life of saints, novels and stories. They were predominantly religious. But in many works real life was also reflected. The writers condemned various vices of the social system, glorified the struggle of the Ukrainian people against foreign oppressors.
At the end of the XVII century. a number of historical works appeared in Ukraine. The most significant among them were the "Synopsis" by an unknown author and "The Chronicle of the Ancient Chroniclers" by Theodosius Safonovich. On their pages was the Ukrainian people from ancient Russian times to the second half of XVII v. - his ties with the Russian and Belarusian peoples are depicted, the struggle against the Polish-gentry and Turkish oppressors is shown. "Synopsis", in fact, was the first textbook on national history and was very popular among the general population. The events of the liberation war of the Ukrainian people were covered in the annals of Samovidets, where the reunification of Ukraine with Russia is highly appreciated. Along with poems on religious subjects, poetry of a secular nature appeared, in which a person, his inner world was depicted.
The nationwide struggle against the Polish-gentry enslavers remained in the center of attention of oral folk art. These are thoughts, and songs, and sharp satirical works. The best of them - "Cossack Golota", "Ukraine made me sad", "In Tsargrad to the market", "Marusya Boguslavka", "Escape from Turkish captivity" depict real Cossack heroes and their captive sisters. Many songs and thoughts sang the glorious victories of the people under Zhovti Vody, Korsun, Pilyavtsy, glorified Bogdan Khmelnitsky, Danila Nechay, Maxim Krivonos, Ivan Bohun, Martyn Pushkar, Nestor Morozenko and other leaders. The historical epic reflected the hatred of foreign invaders, the desire of the Ukrainian people to unite with the fraternal Russian people. The theme of friendship between the peoples-brothers prevailed in legends, fairy tales, and legends.
Theater and music
In the second half of the XVII century. in Ukraine, the puppet theater-nativity scene became more widespread. As a rule, performances were shown during fairs and bazaars. The characters were the heroes of favorite folk tales, legends, songs. The image of a Cossack - a defender of the disadvantaged masses - had an extraordinary popularity among the audience.
The school theater has received significant development in the Kiev Collegium. Students put on performances on historical and everyday topics.
Music has long been an integral part of the spiritual life of the Ukrainian people. The working people composed historical songs and thoughts in which they talked about their hard life, sang the heroic struggle against feudal oppression and foreign enslavers. Wandering Cossack bandura players spread songs. They often composed their own songs and music.
Professional music continued to develop. At this time, polyphonic singing without instrumental accompaniment spread. A significant role in the development of musical art belonged to Mykola Diletsky, a Ukrainian composer, author of Musical Grammar (1677). His life and work are connected with Kyiv, Moscow, St. Petersburg, Smolensk, Lvov, Vilna, Krakow. Diletsky made a significant contribution to the strengthening of Russian-Ukrainian ties in art.
Architecture and fine arts
As a result of the reunification of Ukraine with Russia, the creative ties between Ukrainian and Russian architects and artists grew stronger. A number of architectural ensembles in Kyiv, Chernigov, Novgorod-Seversky were erected by architects from Russia. At the same time, Ukrainian masters took part in the construction of the city in Moscow.
In the second half of the XVII century. in the architecture and fine arts of Ukraine, the dominant place was finally occupied by the stylistic direction - baroque. It is characterized by splendor and sophistication of forms, solemnity and monumentality.
During the second half of the XVII century. well-known architectural monuments were also built, such as the Transfiguration Cathedral in the city of Izyum, St. Nicholas Cathedral in Kyiv, St. George's Cathedral of the Vydubitsky Monastery and others.
Beautiful artistic decoration, perfection of forms and interior design distinguished the houses of the Cossack elite, monastic buildings. Peasants and ordinary Cossacks lived in small huts with dirt floors and thatched or reed roofs.
Realistic features began to penetrate more and more into painting. The central place in portraits and icon painting was occupied by a man - quite earthly with his thoughts and experiences. A whole gallery of portrait images of public and politicians, representatives of the clergy and the feudal nobility. Here, for example, Hetman Bogdan Khmelnytsky is depicted in full growth, expensive clothes, a hat with an eagle feather and a mace in his hand. A notable phenomenon in the art of that time was the appeal of artists to the image of a Cossack bandura player, who supposedly embodied the heroism of the people, their will to win, conveyed the most secret aspirations of the working masses.
The true creator of spiritual values was the people. Skillful hands of Ukrainian peasants and artisans created unsurpassed examples of decorative and applied art. Wonderful carpets, products of blacksmiths, potters, weavers, the rarest beauty of embroidery, lace and artistic casting have gained fame far beyond the borders of Ukraine.
1. List the stages of European medieval history, name their chronological framework. What is new in the life of society appeared on each of them?
2. Name the largest medieval states in Asia, America and Africa. What were the features of the Middle Ages in these countries?
3. List the empires of the Middle Ages. Which of them survived by the end of the 15th century?
4. What was the contribution of the Arab Islamic civilization to the history and culture of the medieval world?
5. What is a class society? What were the position and duties of each class in medieval society?
6. What do you think, did the separation or class division unite the medieval society?
7. What associations were created by people of the same class or occupation in medieval Europe? Why did people need such associations?
8. In what areas of life in the Middle Ages did cities play a particularly important role? Why?
9. What was the influence of the church on the life of medieval man?
Did the position of the Catholic Church in Europe change during the Middle Ages?
10. In your opinion, what new teachings, events, people of the late Middle Ages brought the New Age closer?
11. Many scientists call the modern world the direct heir to the Middle Ages. What facts can support this point of view?
Islam.
3. The stage of development of society following the primitive system.
4. Religion, the founder of which was<<просветлённый>>Indian prince
5. A large community of people with their own traditions and characteristics in the economy, culture, etc.
6. Closed groups of Indian society, uniting people by origin and occupation.
7. Religion that recognizes the gods Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva and thousands of others.
8. Dependent territory under the authority of the mother country.
Help solveOption 1
A) the reunification of Ukraine with Russia;
B) False Dmitry's campaign against Moscow;
C) a decree on "lesson years", the beginning of the investigation of the peasants.
A) S. Zholkevsky;
B) Sigismund III;
C) False Dmitry I.
A) the policy of Catholicism pursued by False Dmitry I;
B) the need to correct religious books;
C) enslavement of peasants.
4. Indicate the name of the explorer who discovered in 1648 the strait separating Asia from America:
A) Semyon Dezhnev;
B) Erofey Khabarov;
C) Simon Ushakov.
5. An indefinite search for runaway peasants would be legalized:
A) in 1592;
B) in 1649;
B) in 1653
6. The first ironworks in Russia was built during the reign of:
A) Vasily Shuisky;
B) Mikhail Fedorovich;
D) Alexei Mikhailovich.
7. Mark the line that characterizes the economic development of Russia in the 17th century:
A) complete domination of natural economy;
B) the creation of manufactories;
C) widespread slash-and-burn farming system.
8. In 1687 and 1689 Russian troops participated in two campaigns against the Crimean Khanate under the leadership of:
A) D. Pozharsky;
B) B. Khmelnitsky;
C) V. Golitsyn.
9. A vivid illustration of the Naryshkin baroque is the church:
A) Intercession in Fili in Moscow;
B) the Church of Elijah the Prophet in Yaroslavl;
C) the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin in Putinki in Moscow.
10. Who is it about. The former serf of Prince Telyatevsky fled to the Don and became a free man. In one of the Cossack campaigns he was captured by the Turks, fled to Italy, lived in Venice. In 1606 he returned to Russia. He called himself the governor of "miraculously saved Tsarevich Dmitry." Several times he won victories over government troops. It was defeated during the siege of Moscow in 1606. In 1607, near Tula, he was forced to surrender to government troops. In 1608 he was killed.
11. Give a definition - manufactory, black-haired peasants, cattle.
Option 2
1. Arrange in chronological order:
A) Cathedral Code;
B) Copper riot in Moscow;
C) Smolensk war.
2. Indicate the name of the patriarch, the initiator of the church reform:
A) Nikon
B) Habakkuk;
B) Philaret.
3. Determine the cause of the church split:
A) changing part of the dogmas and the order of worship;
B) the creation of religious sects;
C) the termination of the convocation of Zemsky Sobors.
4. In 1654-1667. Russia fought with:
A) Sweden
B) Poland;
B) Turkey.
5. The uprising caused by the issue of copper money and, as a result, an increase in the high cost, occurred:
A) in 1662;
B) in 1648;
B) in 1668
6. Mark the reason why many people joined the army of Stepan Razin:
A) he paid money;
B) he distributed land;
C) he declared each participant in the speech a free person.
7. Specify the outstanding master of painting in the 17th century, the author of the work "The Savior Not Made by Hands":
A) Simeon of Polotsk;
B) Simon Ushakov;
C) Andrey Rublev.
8. Yamskoy order was responsible for:
A) fast mail delivery;
B) tax collection;
B) royal treasury
9. In the 17th century, the church forbade younger girls from marrying:
10. Who is it about. Hetman, who led the liberation struggle of the Ukrainian people against Poland.
11. Give a definition - a barren, owner-occupied peasants, a bobyl.
Option 3
1. Arrange in chronological order:
A) the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich;
B) an uprising led by Stepan Razin;
C) urban uprisings in Russia.
2. Indicate the feature that characterizes the concept of "manufactory":
A) small-scale manual production;
B) master - master, apprentice and apprentices - workers;
C) large-scale machine production.
3. Indicate the name of the opponent of the church reform, the head of the Old Believers:
A) Nikon
B) Habakkuk;
B) Macarius.
4. The reason for the uprising in 1648 was:
A) an attempt to introduce a new tax on salt;
B) issue of copper money;
C) the introduction of an indefinite investigation of runaway peasants.
5. Specify the chronological framework of the uprising led by Stepan Razin:
B) 1654 - 1667;
C) 1667 - 1671.
6. The main entertainment of the king was:
B) falconry or dog hunting;
B) fisticuffs.
7. The expansion of the territory of the Russian state due to the annexation of the Zaporozhian Sich occurs:
A) at the end of the 16th century;
B) in the first half of the 17th century;
C) in the second half of the 17th century.
8. Explorer, by whose name and patronymic the village and the railway station are named, and by whose surname the city is named:
A) Erofey Pavlovich Khabarov;
B) Stepan Timofeevich Razin;
C) Semyon Ivanovich Dezhnev.
9. In the 17th century, a new literary genre appeared:
A) epic;
B) "life";
C) a satirical story.
10. Who is it about. Born into a wealthy Cossack family in the village of Zimoveyskaya on the Don. He possessed not only great physical strength, but also an extraordinary mind and willpower. The outstanding qualities of a military leader manifested themselves during campaigns against the Crimean Tatars and Turks. Diplomatic experience gained in the course of negotiations with the Kalmyks, and then with the Persians.
11. Give a definition - industrialist, serfdom, hetman.
