In the second half of the XIX century. Russia in the second half of the XIX century. The beginning of the 20th century - the "silver age" of Russian culture

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• • Russia in the second half of the 20th century
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    • Post-war restoration of the national economy - page 2
  • Socio-economic and political reasons that made it difficult for the country to reach new frontiers
    • Socio-economic and political reasons that made it difficult for the country to reach new frontiers - page 2
    • Socio-economic and political reasons that made it difficult for the country to reach new frontiers - page 3
  • The collapse of the USSR. Post-communist Russia
    • The collapse of the USSR. Post-communist Russia - page 2

Russia in the second half of the XIX century.

Modernization of socio-economic and political life The country was prepared by the previous development of Russia. However, there were opponents of the reforms - a significant part of the nobility and bureaucracy.

In the context of the crisis of the feudal-serf system and the growth of peasant uprisings, Emperor Alexander II (1818-1881), who understood the need for reforms, in a speech at the reception of the deputation of the Moscow nobles said: “It is better to abolish serfdom from above than to wait for the time when it will begin to be canceled from below. A radical restructuring has begun public life, "the era of great reforms."

At the beginning of 1857, a Secret Committee on the Peasant Question arose, which, after working for about a year, was transformed into the Main Committee on Peasant Affairs. In 1858-1859. about 50 provincial committees were created to develop projects for the liberation of the peasants. In order to generalize the drafts of the provincial committees at the beginning of 1859, editorial committees were formed.

The Main Committee for the Peasant Affairs, then the State Council, based on the materials of the Editorial Committees, developed the concept of the abolition of serfdom. The plan for the emancipation of the peasants boiled down to making as few concessions as possible on the part of the landowners to the emancipated peasants.

On February 19, 1861, the Manifesto of Alexander II abolished serfdom. The liberation of the peasants was a response to the historical challenge of capitalist Western Europe, which by this time had significantly overtaken Russia. According to the Regulations of February 19, 1861, privately owned peasants became personally free. They received the right to dispose of their property, engage in trade, entrepreneurship, and move to other classes.

The provisions of February 19 obliged the landowners to give land to the peasants, and the peasants to accept this land. The peasants were provided with field land according to regional norms, not for free, but for duties and ransom. The amount of the redemption was determined not by the market value of the land, but by the amount of the capitalized quitrent (6%).

The state, which acted as an intermediary between the landowner and the peasant, paid the landlords in the form of a so-called redemption loan (80% of the value of the land given to the peasant), which the peasant then had to repay in installments with the payment of the mentioned interest. For 44 years, the peasants were forced to give the state about 1.5 billion rubles. instead of 500 million rubles.

The peasants did not have the money to immediately pay the landowner a ransom for the land they received. The state, however, undertook to immediately pay the ransom money to the landlords in cash or six percent bonds. In an effort to give away land within the limits established by the Regulations of February 19, the landowners cut off 1/5 of the land from the former peasant allotment. The plots of land taken from the peasants began to be called segments, which could be leased to the same peasants.

The peasants received the land not for personal ownership, but for the community, which was the legal owner of the land. This meant that the traditional way of life of the village remained intact. The state, the landlords, were interested in this, for the mutual responsibility, the community was responsible for collecting taxes.

Apart from the privately owned peasants, other categories of the peasantry were also freed from serfdom. Appanage peasants, who received personal freedom as early as 1858, were transferred for redemption with the preservation of existing land allotments (an average of 4.8 acres). Behind state peasants by decrees of November 18 and November 24, 1866, they fixed the existing allotments, and they received the perpetual right of their voluntary redemption.

Yard peasants received personal freedom, but remained still in feudal dependence on their masters for two years from the date of the promulgation of the Regulations on February 19, 1861. The serf workers of patrimonial enterprises remained dependent on the owners until they switched to redemption.

Yard peasants and workers of patrimonial enterprises secured for themselves only those lands that they had before the abolition of serfdom. However, the vast majority of yard peasants and serf workers did not own land allotments.

Following the central provinces, serfdom was abolished in Belarus, Ukraine, the North Caucasus and the Transcaucasus. In total, 22 million peasants were liberated from serfdom. Of these, 4 million were set free without land. Landlessness of the peasants facilitated the creation of a labor market in the country.

The reform required a lot of financial costs. In addition, government investment in the country's economy has increased. In 1860, the State Bank of Russia was opened, which alone could issue paper money and issue money. The main source of state funds was the poll tax from the peasants, without taking into account the size of their income. In 1863, the poll tax from the philistines was replaced by a tax on real estate.

The reform of 1861 became a major milestone in the history of the country, it cleared the way for the intensive development of capitalism by creating a labor market. However, the reform was only half-hearted. The peasants, having gained freedom, remained an inferior estate.

Peasant land shortages (on average, privately-owned peasants received 3.3 acres of land per capita, with the necessary 67 acres) served as a factor in aggravating contradictions between peasants and landowners. Moreover, new contradictions appeared - between the peasants and the capitalists, which in the future should have led to a revolutionary explosion.

The peasant ideal of justice and truth did not coincide with the real reform. After 1861, the struggle of the peasants for land did not stop. In the Penza province, the unrest of the peasants was brutally suppressed by the troops.

In order to strengthen public finances in 1862, according to the project of V.A. Tatarinov (1816-1871), a budget reform was carried out, which regulated the preparation of estimates and the expenditure of public funds. For the first time in Russia, the state budget began to be published.

• Implementation of other reforms
• Transition to reaction
• Post-reform development of Russia
• Socio-political movement

Russia in the second halfXIXcentury

Crimean War 1853 - 1856

The reason for this war was the so-called "dispute over the keys" of Christian churches in the Holy Land. The fact is that by this time, part of the keys to the churches of the Holy Land was in the hands of Catholic priests, part in the hands of the Orthodox. But both sides wanted to have the keys to all Christian churches in the Holy Land.

The keys to churches in the Holy Land, at the insistence of France, were given to the Catholics. In the spring of 1853, Russia demanded in an ultimatum from the Turkish sultan to give the keys to the churches in Bethlehem to Orthodox priests and ordered the Russian troops to enter the possessions of Turkey - the Danube autonomous principalities. In response, the Turkish Sultan in October 1853 declared war on Russia.

The war simultaneously took place in the Danube and Caucasian theaters of operations. Initially, the war was successful for Russia. Russian troops in the Caucasus won a number of brilliant victories. The Russian fleet under the command of Admiral P.S. Nakhimov won one of his outstanding victories in his history - near the Turkish harbor of Sinop. The largest Turkish naval base was located in Sinop harbor. In a well-protected bay, there are 14 sailing and 2 steam ships. Admiral P.S. Nakhimov decided to strike at her in order to cut off the enemy's sea communications. As a result of a four-hour battle, the Turks lost all their ships and over 3000 were killed, all coastal fortifications were destroyed. P.S. losses Nakhimov were 37 people. killed and 216 wounded.

The victory of the Russian fleet in the Sinop Bay is inscribed in golden letters in the history of the Russian navy, along with the Battle of Gangut (1714) and the Battle of Chesma (1770).

In the spring of next year there was a sharp complication of the international situation. Turkey came to the aid of England, France, Sardinia, Austria.

On September 14, 1854, a huge fleet of allies - 300 transport ships under the cover of 89 warships - approached the coast of Crimea. The allies surrounded Sevastopol - the main naval base of the Black Sea Fleet. Sevastopol already at that time played an exceptional role in the Black Sea. The loss of Sevastopol meant the loss of Crimea and the inability of Russia to conduct an active foreign policy in the Black Sea and the Balkans. The Black Sea squadron included 26 linear (large) ships, 5 of them were sunk at the entrance to the Sevastopol Bay. The city was impregnable from the sea, but it was defenseless from the land. The Allies landed a well-armed army ashore. For an open battle with such a strong enemy, the Russian fleet was weak. Nevertheless, it was decided not to surrender the city.

The crews of all ships (24.5 thousand people) went ashore and began to defend the city together with soldiers and local residents. Since September 1854, the defense of the city was headed by Admiral V.A. Kornilov and military engineer E.I. Totleben. In a short time, sailors, soldiers, townspeople erected several rows of defensive fortifications around the city. On October 17, a three-day bombardment of the city was carried out. She didn't lead to anything. The defenders of the city did not give up. Then the enemy proceeded to lay siege to the city. 30 thousand garrison of the city held back the siege of 120 thousand. allied armies. After the death on October 5, 1854, V.A. Kornilov, the defense of the city was headed by P.S. Nakhimov. The ring around the city was gradually shrinking. In July 1855, Admiral P.S. was mortally wounded. Nakhimov. In August 1855, up to 2 - 3 thousand defenders of the city perished daily. In early September, Malakhov Kurgan, the key height of the city, fell. On August 27, 1855, the defenders left the ruins of Sevastopol.

Sevastopol occupies a special place in Russian history. Two defenses - during the Crimean, as well as during the Great Patriotic War - turned Sevastopol into a national shrine of Russia.

The defeat of Russia in the Crimean War was a terrible blow for Nicholas I, a military man. At the beginning of February 1855 he caught a slight cold, but did not undertake any treatment. On February 12, after receiving a message about the defeat of Russian troops near Evpatoria, his condition deteriorated sharply. As a result of the sudden development of paralysis, on February 18, 1855, he died. There are versions based on numerous memoirs that, allegedly, Nicholas I took poison. The truth is unlikely to be established, since this legend is in the spirit of Shakespeare's tragedies. It is unlikely that such a strong man as Nicholas I would show sinful weakness, knowing that all his deeds will be carefully studied by descendants. It is unlikely that he wanted to remain in the memory of his descendants as a weak person. But the defeat of Russia, of course, crushed his spirit, and this hastened his death. The emperor bequeathed to his sons: "Serve Russia ...".

The new Emperor Alexander II Nikolayevich came to the throne. He was determined to end the Crimean War.

In 1856, the Paris Peace Treaty took place. Under its terms, Russia was forbidden to have a fleet on the Black Sea and naval bases. Russia gave Turkey Kars, part of Bessarabia. The southern borders of Russia were open to any enemy invasion. Russia lost its leading position in the Balkans and the Middle East and did not play its former role in European affairs.

The main reason for the defeat of Russia in the Crimean War was the economic backwardness of Russia.

The Paris Peace Treaty weakened Russia's position on the Black Sea, but the struggle against the highlanders in the Caucasus continued. But it got harder and harder.

The Caucasus was already seething. Chechnya and part of Dagestan became the center of resistance in the east of the Caucasus, while Abkhazians, Circassians and Adygs fought against the Russian government in the west. At first, the mountaineers were scattered. But after the defeat in the Russian-Turkish war of 1828-1829. Turkish sultan - the spiritual head of the entire Muslim world - declared a ghazavat (holy war) of all Muslims against the "infidels" - Christians. In the 30s. in the mountains of the Caucasus appeared murids - preachers of the holy war. Muridism was especially widespread among the inhabitants of the eastern part of the Caucasus Mountains - Chechnya and Dagestan. The famous Shamil appeared in the mountains of Dagestan. He was a very brave, strong man. He was well versed in the laws of Islam, knew the Koran by heart. He produced a magical effect on the highlanders: they were ready to go with him to certain death. In 1834, all of Chechnya and Dagestan recognized Shamil as a prophet-imam. From 1830 to 1840 the highlanders won a number of victories over the Russian troops. In the central part of Chechnya, Shamil created a strong theocratic state - an imamate with its capital in Vedeno. But the laws in this state were so cruel that soon the highlanders began to show dissatisfaction with Shamil's policy.

The Russians continued to build roads, bridges, and found villages. The highlanders, seeing that the Russians did not harm them, began to move away from Shamil.

In 1856, Alexander II appointed Prince A.I. Baryatinsky - a brilliant young military leader and a talented administrator. The new commander-in-chief strengthened the Caucasian army and instructed General N.I. Evdokimov has the task of conquering Chechnya - a "hornet's nest" in the Caucasus. A.I. Baryatinsky with troops acted in Dagestan. During 1858, the whole of Chechnya was conquered by Russian troops, and during 1859 - Dagestan.

Shamil with a detachment of the most devoted warriors of 600 people. took refuge in his last stronghold - the village of Gunib in the mountainous part of Eastern Dagestan. The aul stood on a huge hard-to-reach rock. On the night of August 26, 1859, the troops surrounded the mountain in a dense ring. The commander-in-chief himself arrived - Prince A.I. Baryatinsky. At night, the Russians sounded the alarm, as if at the beginning of an attack. Highlanders in that direction opened continuous firing. Meanwhile, on the other side, which was considered completely impregnable due to its steepness, the soldiers climbed to the top of the mountain. And when it dawned, Shamil saw a whole regiment in front of him. For reflection Shamil A.I. Baryatinsky took 20 minutes. After a brief hesitation, Shamil decided to give up. Under arms, Shamil was invited to A.I. Baryatinsky. A loud soldier's "cheers" rushed through the ranks when Shamil passed through the ranks. The commander-in-chief announced to the prisoner that he would be sent to Petersburg, and the emperor himself would decide his fate. In the evening of the same day, A.I. Baryatinsky sent Shamil a black bear fur coat, gifts for his wives, daughters-in-law, and children. On the whole route, Shamil, surprisingly for him, was greeted cordially.

In Moscow, Shamil toured the Kremlin, was at the opera. He stayed in Petersburg for two weeks. What he saw shocked Shamil. He said: "If I had known Russia before, I would never have fought with it. Russia is big, Chechnya is small. Chechnya cannot fight Russia."

Shamil lived out his days with his family in Kaluga, where he was given a large pension. In Kaluga in 1869, Alexander II let Shamil go to Mecca to perform the Hajj. Before leaving, being of sound mind and solid memory, Shamil said: "I wish the Russian emperor to continue to successfully manage the highlanders for their own good."

In 1862, the commander-in-chief of the Caucasian army instead of A.I. Baryatinsky was appointed brother of the emperor, Grand Duke Mikhail Nikolaevich. May 21, 1864 - the birthday of the emperor - all Russian troops operating in the Western part of the Caucasus Mountains united. The priests served a prayer service before the troops. Not a single warring tribe remained in the Caucasus. Alexander II replied to his brother about the pacification of the Caucasus with a telegram: "Thank you, Evdokimov and our glorious troops."

The half-century struggle of the mountain peoples with the Russians is over. A new page has begun in the history of the Caucasus.

The era of great reforms

On February 19, 1855, the eldest son of Nicholas I, Alexander II Nikolayevich (1855 - 1881), ascended the throne.

Alexander Nikolaevich, at the request of his father, was brought up in a simple environment. Nicholas I said that he wanted to educate in his son, first of all, a person. The poet V.A. was chosen as the tutor of the Tsarevich. Zhukovsky, a smart, educated, noble person. Six months V.A. Zhukovsky prepared a plan for raising an heir. The purpose of upbringing and education V.A. Zhukovsky proclaimed "education for the benefactor." The best teachers of that time were chosen to teach Alexander Nikolayevich. The heir mastered French, English, German, Polish. Count M.M. Speransky introduced him to legislation and government. Other people introduced me to Russia's relations with other states, to the science of the national economy. The father made sure that the Tsarevich became a "military man." Alexander Nikolayevich from childhood could spend hours watching parades, divorces of the St. Petersburg guards. Alexander Nikolaevich was under the strong influence of his father, adopted many of his qualities, but was a gentle and generous person. In 1837, according to the established tradition, the heir went on a trip to Russia. In 1838, a long trip abroad took place. He visited Denmark, Prussia, Italy, Austria. During this trip, the heir met Princess Maria of Darmstadt, who in 1841 became his wife Maria Alexandrovna. Upon his return, Alexander Nikolayevich was appointed a member of the State Council, and then a committee of ministers.

Thus, even before accession to the throne, Alexander Nikolayevich was well acquainted with the affairs of the highest military and civil administration.

On the first day of his accession to the throne, Alexander Nikolayevich was animated by the most sincere intention to do everything to eliminate the shortcomings of Russian life.

On the day of the coronation, August 26, 1856, an amnesty was granted to the Decembrists, 9,000 people were exempted from police supervision, the censorship committee was closed, the restriction on the number of university students was lifted, the departure of Russian citizens abroad was allowed, many dignitaries of Nikolaev were dismissed by Alexander II.

Compared to the tough Nikolaev rule, it was new policy. Poet F.I. Tyutchev called it the word thaw.

Alexander II was determined to eradicate the shortcomings of Russian life. He considered serfdom to be the main disadvantage. By this time, the idea of ​​abolishing serfdom had become widespread among the "top": the government, among officials, the nobility, and the intelligentsia. Alexander II also considered serfdom the greatest evil and decided to destroy it.

Meanwhile, this was one of the most difficult problems that Alexander II inherited. There were 25 million serfs in the country. Serfdom was formed in Rus' for centuries - from 1497 to 1649 - and was closely connected with various aspects of the life of the Russian peasant. The peasant depended on the feudal lord in personal, land, property, and legal relations. The world around the Russian peasant has not changed for centuries. Now the peasant had to be freed from the guardianship of the landowner, to give him personal freedom.

It was necessary to solve the most difficult task:

free the peasant with or without land;

at whose expense to endow it with land - the state did not have such an amount of land.

In historical science, there are different opinions regarding the reasons that forced the autocracy to abolish serfdom. In the Soviet period, the prevailing point of view was that serfdom had outlived itself: the lack of interest of the peasants in the results of their labor, the tightening of exploitation on landlord estates led to a noticeable stagnation and degradation of agriculture. The income of the landed estates fell. Serfdom hampered the development of productive forces in agriculture, hindered the development of industry and trade. This led to an increase in social tension at the turn of the 50s - 60s. 19th century Social tension was expressed in the rise of the peasant movement and the speeches of radical public figures - N.G. Chernyshevsky, N.A. Dobrolyubov and others. As a result, in the 60s. in Russia there was a revolutionary situation. According to V.I. Lenin, the revolutionary situation did not develop into a revolution, since in Russia in those years there was no revolutionary class. The revolutionary forces were so weak that, by carrying out bourgeois reforms, the government was able to remove the revolutionary situation.

The main provisions of the other point of view are that serfdom has far from exhausted its possibilities, anti-government protests were extremely weak. Neither economic nor social catastrophe threatened Russia. The main misfortune of the Russian peasant at that time was not the lack of land and freedoms, but looseness, unwillingness to work, withdrawal to other religions. But, while maintaining serfdom, Russia could drop out of the ranks of the great powers. The peasant reform was caused primarily by foreign policy factors, the need to maintain Russia's status as a great power.

During the reign of Nicholas I, a large amount of preparatory material for the peasant reform was collected. According to P.D. Kiselyov, shortly before his death, in a conversation about serfdom, Nicholas I said to the heir: "It is much better for this to happen from above than from below."

And Alexander II decided. At the beginning of 1857, a Secret Committee was established to prepare the peasant reform. The government then decided to inform the public of its intentions, and the Secret Committee was renamed the Main Committee. The nobility of all regions was to create provincial committees to develop a peasant reform. In all committees, a real struggle unfolded over the question: to free the peasants with land or without land. In Western Europe, the peasants were freed without land, according to F.M. Dostoevsky, "in what the mother gave birth." The king was inclined to think that the peasants still needed to be released with the land.

At the beginning of 1859, Editorial Commissions headed by Ya.I. Rostovtsev. The commissions began to prepare a draft peasant reform. In September 1860, the developed reform project was discussed by the deputies sent by the committees of the nobility, and then transferred to the highest state bodies.

In mid-February 1861, the Regulations on the emancipation of the peasants were considered and approved by the State Council.

On February 18, 1861, on the sixth anniversary of the death of his father Nicholas I, the emperor prayed for a long time at his tomb in the Peter and Paul Cathedral. The next day, February 19, documents on the abolition of serfdom were brought to him for signing.

It was a great law. Alexander II knew how profound changes in Russian life would follow its signing. He ordered everyone to leave the office. The king wanted to be alone with his conscience.

Manifesto "On the most merciful granting to serfs of the rights of the state of free rural inhabitants";

"Regulations" on the peasants who emerged from serfdom.

These two documents contained the essence of the peasant reform.

The manifesto was announced in both capitals on a big religious holiday - Forgiveness Sunday - March 5, 1861, in other cities - in the next week. The authorities seemed to be asking for forgiveness from the Russian peasantry for all the insults that they had inflicted on them.

The manifesto and "Regulations" dealt with three main issues:

the personal liberation of the peasants;

giving them land;

redemption deal.

Personal liberation. The manifesto provided the peasants with personal freedom and general civil rights. From now on, the peasant could own movable and immovable property, conclude transactions, and act as a legal entity. He was freed from the guardianship of the landowner, could marry without permission, enter the service and in educational institutions, change his place of residence, move into the class of philistines and merchants.

The government took into account that the concept of individual, private freedom was alien to the peasant consciousness. Therefore, the community was preserved for the first time. Communal ownership of land, redistribution of allotments, mutual responsibility for paying taxes and performing state duties were preserved.

The peasants remained the only class that paid the poll tax, had a recruiting duty and could be subjected to corporal punishment.

Allotment of land to peasants. The allocation of land to the peasants was regulated by the "Regulations". The size of the allotments depended on the fertility of the soil. The territory of Russia was conditionally divided into three bands: black earth, non-chernozem, steppe. In each of them, the highest and lowest sizes of the peasant field allotment were established. Within these limits, a voluntary deal was concluded between the peasant community and the landowner. Their relationship was finally fixed by charters. If the landowner and the peasant did not come to an agreement, then mediators were involved to resolve the dispute. Peace mediators mainly defended the interests of the nobles, but some public figures, in particular L.N. Tolstoy, biologist K.A. Timiryazev and others actively defended the peasants. In different regions, the peasants received from 2 to 4 acres of land per audit soul. To conduct a commodity economy, the peasant needed from 5 to 8 acres of land. In the country as a whole, the peasants received 20% less land than they cultivated before the reform. This is how the concept of "segments" appeared, as if taken away by the landowners from the peasants. The peasants continued to consider this land theirs and fought for the return of the cuts until 1917.

Redemption deal. When receiving land, the peasants had to pay its cost. The peasants did not have the money needed to buy the land. These peasants were called "temporarily liable". In order for the landlords to receive the redemption sums at the same time, the state provided the peasants with a loan in the amount of 80% of the value of the allotments. Within 49 years, the peasants had to return the loan to the state with an accrual of 6% per annum. Redemption payments were abolished by the government in 1906.

The remaining 20% ​​was to be paid to the landowner by the peasant community. Until the peasants paid this 20%, they had to continue to pay the landowner dues and perform certain duties.

The redemption operation did not infringe on the rights of landowners, did not worsen the financial situation of the state. All the costs of the reform were paid by the peasants.

From 1858 to 1863, the appanage (belonging to the imperial family) peasants were reformed, and in 1866, the state peasants were reformed.

Significance of the abolition of serfdom. The peasant reform of Alexander II was of great historical significance. It brought freedom to 25 million peasants, it opened the way for the development of bourgeois relations. A new era began in the history of Russia - the rapid development of bourgeois relations. The abolition of serfdom marked the beginning of other important transformations. The moral significance of the reform was that it put an end to serf slavery.

The continuation of the abolition of serfdom in Russia were:

urban;

judicial;

educational reforms;

press reforms.

Their main goal is to bring the state system and administrative management in line with the new social structure in which the multi-million peasantry received personal freedom.

The zemstvo reform was carried out in 1864. According to the "Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions", non-estate elected bodies of local self-government - zemstvos - were introduced. Zemstvos were elected for three years and consisted of administrative bodies (provincial and district zemstvo assemblies) and executive bodies (provincial and district zemstvo councils). Due to the high property qualification they were dominated by landowners. The scope of their activities was limited to economic issues of local importance: the arrangement and maintenance of communication lines, zemstvo schools, hospitals, care for trade and industry. The zemstvos were under the control of the central and local authorities, who had the right to suspend any decision of the zemstvo assembly.

The zemstvos played an important role in the development of education and public health.

City reform. In 1870 it was published " City position", according to which elective self-government was introduced in 509 cities - city dumas. All estates in the city elected representatives to the city duma for 4 years. The city duma elected its permanent executive body - the city government. The city government consisted of the mayor and several members. The head was simultaneously the chairman of the city duma and the city council. The Duma and the council dealt with the improvement of the city, taking care of trade, medicine and education. In the city dumas, due to the high property qualification, the leading role belonged to the big bourgeoisie. Like the zemstvos, they were under strict government control.

The judicial reform was carried out in 1864. It was the most radical of all reforms, as it reflected the latest trends in world judicial practice.

The former court - class, closed, was canceled. The all-estate court, its independence from the administration, the irremovability of judges, publicity, and competitiveness of the trial were introduced. The trial became oral, adversarial. Court hearings became open to the public. The prosecutor accused the defendant, defended - the sworn attorney. The question of the guilt of the defendant was decided by jurors - representatives of society. Jurors - 12 people - were appointed by lot from representatives of all classes. After hearing the debate, the jury delivered a verdict: "guilty", "not guilty", "guilty, but deserves leniency." Based on the verdict of the jurors, the court delivered a sentence.

Various judicial instances with strictly delimited competence were established. The lower court was the world court, which consisted of one person - the justice of the peace. The magistrate was elected for three years by the county zemstvo assembly or the city duma. The Magistrate's Court dealt with petty misdemeanors and civil cases with claims up to 500 rubles. Litigation in the magistrate's court was simplified. The next court instance was the District Court.

In his competence were criminal and serious cases. Particularly important state and political crimes were considered in the judicial chamber. The Senate became the highest court. At that time, Russian general criminal legislation did not have such a measure of punishment as the death penalty. Only special judicial bodies could sentence to death - military courts, the Special Presence of the Senate. To resolve conflicts among the peasants, the estate volost court, consisting of local peasants, was retained. This was explained by the fact that the legal concepts of the peasants were very different from the general civil ones. The volost court judged on the basis of the customs that existed in the area. Corporal punishment was a widespread measure of punishment of the volost court. They existed until 1904.

military reform. In 1861, D.A. became Minister of War. Milyutin. He stayed at his post for 20 years, and in 1861-1874. under his leadership, a whole series of military reforms was carried out. YES. Milyutin became the creator of the new Russian army. The goal of the reforms is to create a combat-ready army with trained personnel, modern weapons and well-trained officers. In 1874, a decree was issued on universal military service. He abolished recruiting and introduced all-class military service for men over the age of 21. The government every year determined the number of recruits, and from among the recruits, by lot, they took only this number. Usually no more than 20-25% of conscripts were called up for service.

Those taken into service were listed on it:

in the ground forces 6 years in active service and 9 years in the reserve;

in the Navy - 7 years in active service and 3 years in the reserve.

The term of active service was largely reduced depending on the educational qualification. For those who received primary education, the term of active service was reduced to 4 years, for those who graduated from a city school - up to 3 years; gymnasium - up to one and a half years. Persons with higher education served for six months. In the 60s. the rearmament of the army began - the replacement of smooth-bore weapons with rifled ones, the introduction of a system of steel artillery pieces, and the improvement of the equestrian park. Railways were built to the western and southern borders of Russia. Particular importance was attached to the development of the military steam fleet. To improve the general educational level of officers, two-year cadet schools and military gymnasiums were created. In order to develop higher military education, military academies were created: the General Staff, Artillery, Engineering, etc. The system of military command and control was improved. During the years of the reforms, initially nine, then four more military districts were created. The commanders of the military districts were placed at the head of the military districts. The size of the army was gradually reduced. By the end of the XIX century. it decreased from 1 million 100 thousand people. up to 742 thousand per 130 million population.

As a result of the military reform, the combat effectiveness of the Russian army was significantly increased, and its strength was significantly reduced in peacetime. At the same time, a well-prepared reserve in case of war made it possible, if necessary, to quickly create a strong army.

Reforms in the field of education. In 1863, a new general university charter was issued, in the development of which professors from St. Petersburg University participated. According to the new charter, the universities were given broad autonomy: the right to choose the rector, deans, professors. University councils received the right to independently decide all scientific, educational, administrative and financial issues. As for student self-government, even at the beginning of the reign of Alexander II, it was allowed to attend lectures at universities for "volunteers" both men and women. This led to riots at a number of universities. Therefore, according to the university charter of 1863, students were not given such broad rights as the teaching staff. According to the charter, students did not have the right to create their own associations and were subject to a disciplinary court, whose members were elected from among the professors by the university council. When entering the university, students gave a subscription to obey the established university rules.

In order to prevent student unrest in the future, it was decided to reform secondary and primary education. On June 14, 1864, the Regulations on Primary Public Schools were approved, according to which from now on the state, church and society (zemstvos) were to be engaged in the education of the people. On November 19, 1864, the "Charter of Gymnasiums and Progymnasiums" appeared. The charter proclaimed the principle of accessibility of secondary education for all classes. But a rather high tuition fee was set, which, of course, gave the right to enter only children from wealthy families.

Gymnasiums were divided into two types:

classic;

real (both those and others - seventh grade).

Classical gymnasiums provided a humanitarian education, which was based on the teaching of ancient languages: Latin, Greek. In real gymnasiums, the volume of teaching mathematics and natural sciences increased due to the reduction of hours for studying the humanities.

The goal of real gymnasiums is to provide a general education to people from all classes with certain practical skills in any profession.

In 1871, a new statute of the gymnasium was issued, according to which those who graduated from the classical gymnasium had the right to enter the university without exams. Those who graduated from real gymnasiums could mainly enter higher technical educational institutions. They had difficulty accessing universities. According to the charter of 1864, progymnasiums were also established - four-year educational institutions corresponding to the first four classes of the seven-year classical gymnasium. Those who graduated from the progymnasium could enter the fifth grade of the classical gymnasium.

Measures were taken to develop women's education. Before the reforms of Alexander II in Russia, there were only closed institutes and private boarding schools for girls "from the noble estates" (from noble families). In 1870, the Regulations of the Ministry of Public Education on women's gymnasiums and pro-gymnasiums appeared. Open gymnasiums for girls from all classes began to appear. At the same time, the Church began to open diocesan women's schools. With the aim of developing higher education for women in a number of cities - St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kazan, Kyiv, Odessa - pedagogical and higher courses for women were opened.

Reforms in the field of printing. From the beginning of the comprehensive reforms in society, the question of a censorship committee was raised. In 1862 it was closed, some of its functions were assigned to the Ministry of the Interior, and some - to the Ministry of Public Education. In 1865, it was allowed to discuss in the press the activities of the government and the problems of public life. In 1865, "Temporary Rules" concerning the press were introduced. Preliminary censorship was abolished on books intended for the wealthy and educated part of society, as well as on central, scientific publications. The publication of periodicals required a large cash deposit, and the publication of some periodicals required permission from the Minister of the Interior. Preliminary censorship was maintained on provincial and popular literature for the people.

The value of the reforms. The abolition of serfdom and the bourgeois reforms carried out during the reign of Alexander II are a significant event in the history of Russia. For the abolition of serfdom, the people nicknamed Alexander II the Liberator. Russia has largely come closer to the European socio-political model. The first step was taken to expand the role of the public in the life of the country and turn Russia into a bourgeois monarchy. The way was opened for the peaceful modernization of Russian society. The rapid growth of the economy and culture of the country began. IN Russian history bourgeois reforms of Alexander II were included as "great reforms".

But the comprehensive reforms of Alexander II had a downside. The acquisition of personal freedom by 25 million Russian peasants, democratic freedoms, the creation of a new structure of local government, a change in legal proceedings, the emergence of a new social structure of society, etc. led to a change in the centuries-old way of Russian life. It soon became clear that, in addition to the beneficial results, one of the results of the reforms was an increase in tension in society. The internal life of the state was upset, the treasury was empty, foreign loans were growing. The revival of commercial and industrial activity was accompanied by widespread financial fraud and ruin. Peasants poured into the city from the countryside, but the city was not ready to receive such an amount of unskilled labor. Peasants everywhere showed dissatisfaction with the reform. The Russian peasant could not "digest" the idea that he had to pay for the land. Rumors stubbornly circulated in the countryside that "the wrong Manifesto" had been read to the peasants. In society, property inequality, poverty, and crime were rapidly growing.

There is an opinion in society that great reform 1861" was a "great deception". The tsar-reformer began to cause hatred. On April 4, 1866, student Dmitry Karakozov shot at the tsar. The attempt by an ordinary person on the life of the Anointed of God caused shock in Russian society. Contemporaries left evidence that on that day a pale, shaking F. M. Dostoevsky suddenly ran in to the poet A. N. Maykov. Seeing no one, he kept repeating: "He shot, ... shot, ... shot." But this shot became a symbolic sign that from now on "everything is allowed "The revolutionaries - populists sentenced the tsar to death. A real hunt for the tsar began. 7 attempts were made on him. And Alexander II at that time was experiencing a personal drama: he realized that his liberalization policy had failed. The tsar grew old, haggard, lost weight " Empress Maria Alexandrovna had long been ill and bedridden. The king was saved by a new love - the young princess Ekaterina Dolgorukaya. She was 34 years younger than the king and bore him three children. Despite the protests of the family, the king settled E.M. Dolgoruky with children in the Winter Palace. Empress Maria Alexandrovna died quietly alone in the summer of 1880. A month and a half later, the tsar married E.M. Dolgoruky and thought about crowning her.

March 1, 1881 Alexander II was mortally wounded by a bomb thrown by student I. Grinevitsky.

Russia responded to the great reforms by assassinating the reformer tsar.

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For the preparation of this work, materials from the site http://websites.pfu.edu.ru/IDO/ffec/

The abolition of serfdom, the reforms of the 1960s and 1970s, the rise of the social movement, the establishment of capitalism - all this contributed to the growth of enlightenment and the further development of culture. The leading role in art in the post-reform period belonged to the progressive raznochintsy intelligentsia.

in Russia in the second half of the 19th century. Primary education developed at the fastest pace. Along with parochial and one-class schools of the Ministry of Public Education, zemstvo schools, which were maintained at the expense of local zemstvos, are becoming widespread. By the end of the century, primary education in rural areas included several million students. Many cities had Sunday schools for adults. But the number of literate people in Russia in 1897 was only 21% of the total population of the country.

By the end of 1914, there were about 124 thousand primary educational institutions in Russia, in which a little more than 30% of children aged 8 to 11 studied (46.6% in cities).

After heated debates about the nature of secondary education, the classical gymnasium became its basis, in which up to 40% of the study time was devoted to the study of Latin and Greek. In 1862, the first women's gymnasiums were opened. A special ministerial circular ("On the cook's children") limited the admission of children of poor parents to the gymnasium.

Successes in the field higher education consisted of both an increase in the number of higher education institutions and an increase in the number of students. In the post-reform period, along with the opening of new universities (in Odessa, Tomsk, Saratov), ​​other higher educational institutions were opened (Medical and Surgical Academy in St. Petersburg, various institutes in St. Petersburg and Moscow).

In the 1913/14 academic year, there were 63 state higher education institutions in Russia. educational institutions where more than 71 thousand students studied.

Literature

In the post-reform period, literature continues to occupy a leading place in Russian culture. Realism is still the predominant direction in it. A feature of realism was the constant desire to reflect reality as broadly as possible, to reveal and denounce public untruth. At the same time, the literature of realism asserted positive social ideals. Nationality, patriotism, protection of the rights and interests of the masses and the individual, the struggle for social justice - these are character traits inherent in advanced Russian literature.

The names of I. Turgenev, N. Nekrasov, F. Dostoevsky, I. Goncharov, M. Saltykov-Shchedrin, L. Tolstoy, A. Chekhov have forever entered the treasury of world literature. Advanced literature, responding to the most important socio-political events of that time, had a significant impact on the development of theater, music and fine arts.

Theater

Russian theatrical culture of the second half of the XIX century. nationality and humanism, ideological and emotional richness, deep reproduction of human characters and historical truth were inherent. Continuing the traditions of Fonvizin, Griboedov, Pushkin, A. Ostrovsky completed the creation of Russian national drama with his work (the plays “Dowry”, “Our people - we will settle”, “Thunderstorm”, “Profitable place”, etc.).

The Maly Theater was rightfully the center of the theatrical life in Russia. The leading place in his repertoire was occupied by Ostrovsky's plays. The great actress M. Yermolova created many memorable female images on the stage of the theater. Among them is the image of Catherine from Ostrovsky's Thunderstorm.

Music

From the middle of the XIX century. music life Russia is increasingly leaving the walls of salons for the elite. In 1859, the Russian Musical Society was created in St. Petersburg. In the early 60s. M. Balakirev founded a free music school in St. Petersburg. The first Russian conservatories are opened in Moscow and St. Petersburg. At the same time, a circle of composers formed around the composer Balakirev in St. Petersburg, known as the “Mighty Handful” (M. Mussorgsky, N. Rimsky Korsakov, A. Borodin, C. Cui). The composers of The Mighty Handful included motifs from folk songs in their symphonic and operatic works. An important place in their work was occupied by operas on historical themes: "Boris Godunov" by Mussorgsky, "Prince Igor" by Borodin, "The Tsar's Bride" by Rimsky-Korsakov. The pinnacle of Russian musical art of the second half of the 19th century. was the work of P. Tchaikovsky. His operas ("Eugene Onegin", "The Queen of Spades"), ballets ("Swan Lake", "Sleeping Beauty", "The Nutcracker"), romances forever entered the history of not only Russian, but also world art.

Painting

In the second half of the XIX century. it is the time of the rise and flourishing in Russia of the national realistic and democratic school of painting. In 1863, a group of the most talented students of the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts, headed by I. Kramskoy, demanded freedom in choosing a subject for graduation work. Having been refused, they left the Academy and created an artel of free artists. In 1870, on the initiative of I. Kramskoy, G. Myasoedov, N. Ge, V. Perov, the Association of Art Traveling Exhibitions was organized in St. Petersburg. The ideological leader of the Wanderers was Kramskoy, who created a whole gallery of portraits of Russian writers, artists, and public figures. The highest achievements of Russian realism in painting are associated with the work of I. Repin (“Barge Haulers on the Volga”, “They Didn’t Wait”, “The Cossacks Write a Letter to the Turkish Sultan”) and V. Surikov (“Morning of the Streltsy Execution”, “Boyar Morozova”, “Conquest Siberia Yermak).

The development of art in the second half of the XIX century. in Russia - one of the most remarkable pages in the history of Russian and world culture.

The beginning of the 20th century - the "silver age" of Russian culture

The Russian culture of the beginning of the new century was a worthy successor to the Russian culture of the 19th century, although its development took place in different historical conditions.

The beginning of the 20th century is the time of the creative rise of Russian science, literature, art, a kind of cultural revival. It seemed to fall apart into several currents: on the one hand, the further development of the best democratic traditions, on the other, doubts, revision of the old, contradictory and rebellious searches for the new, attempts at maximum self-expression. In many ways, it was a culture for the "chosen ones", far from not only the people, but also from the broad circles of the intelligentsia. But it was she who laid the foundation for a new direction in the art of Russia.

New directions in literature. At the beginning of the XX century. Literature continued to play an exceptionally important role in the cultural life of the country. Along with the realistic trend (L. Tolstoy, A. Chekhov, I. Bunin, A. Kuprin, M. Gorky, and others), new trends appear in Russian literature, especially in poetry. This was associated with the names of L. Andreev, A. Blok, V. Bryusov, A. Akhmatova, I. Severyanin, V. Mayakovsky and others. A characteristic feature of the new trends in poetry - decadence, symbolism - was not only a kind of protest and rejection of reality but also the search for new ways of self-expression.

Music

The development of musical art, as in previous years, was closely connected with the names of composers - members of the "Mighty Handful". However, new names also appear in Russian music. At this time, A. Glazunov, S. Rachmaninov, A. Scriabin, I. Stravinsky, S. Prokofiev began their composing activities. In their work, national traditions are associated with active searches in the field of musical form. A lot of wonderful singers were given by the Russian vocal school. Among them, the stars of the first magnitude were F. Chaliapin, L. Sobinov, A. Nezhdanova.

Painting

For Russian painting, however, as for all the fine arts of the early 20th century, two main trends are characteristic: traditional realistic and modernist. The realistic trend in painting was represented by I. Repin, who wrote in 1909-1916. a number of portraits (P. Stolypin, L. Tolstoy, V. Korolenko, V. Bekhterev and others), his student V. Serov, whose portraits are real psychological characteristics of writers, artists, doctors. The activities of the “poet of Russian nature” I. Levitan also belong to this period.

Modernism was associated with the departure of a number of artists from established norms in painting and the search for new artistic solutions. Modernism was not a purely Russian phenomenon in fine arts. It affected all countries, especially France and Italy. At the beginning of the century, impressionist painting was developing in Russia. Its adherents were K. Korovin, V. Borisov-Musatov and others. M. Vrubel can be considered the founder of modernism in Russia. The theme of the Demon, which for decades was the main one in his work, embodied the dissatisfaction, longing and anger of a restless person.

V. Kandinsky and K. Malevich became the true leaders of abstractionism not only in Russia, but also in world art.

It should be noted that the cultural life in Russia was supported by a galaxy of Russian patrons (S. Diaghilev, S. Mamontov, S. Morozov and others), who played a significant role in the development of Russian culture.

World recognition of Russian culture. Culture of Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. reached amazing heights. It contributed not only to the growth of self-awareness of the peoples of Russia, but also influenced the entire European culture.

Russian art has received wide international recognition. Organized by S. Diaghilev "Russian Seasons in Paris" (1906-1912) were notable events in European cultural life.

Thus, in 1906, the exhibition "Two Centuries of Russian Painting and Sculpture" was presented to Parisians, which Diaghilev supplemented with a concert of Russian music. The success was amazing. The following year, Parisians could get acquainted with Russian music from Glinka to Scriabin. In 1908, F. Chaliapin performed in Paris with exceptional success as Tsar Boris in Mussorgsky's opera Boris Godunov. A truly unique phenomenon was the rise of Russian ballet at the beginning of the century. From 1909 to 1912, the “Russian Ballet Seasons” were held annually in Paris, which became a world-class event. The names of Russian dancers flashed on the newspaper pages - Anna Pavlova, Tamara Karsavina, Vatslav Nijinsky. Unprecedented success fell to the share of I. Stravinsky's ballets "The Firebird", "Petrushka", "The Rite of Spring".

THIS IS INTERESTING TO KNOW:

I. Repin in the painting “The Cossacks write a letter to the Turkish Sultan” painted one of the Cossacks from the famous Russian writer V. Gilyarovsky, the author of the book “Moscow and Muscovites”. The sculptor N. Andreev sculpted Taras Bulba from him for a bas-relief on the monument to N. Gogol in Moscow.

Despite the relatively low level of literacy in Russia (less than 30% by 1913), newspapers, magazines, and books are becoming more and more widespread. On the eve of the First World War, 2915 magazines and newspapers were published in the country, and in terms of the number of books published, Russia ranked third in the world (after Germany and Japan).

References:
V. S. Koshelev, I. V. Orzhehovsky, V. I. Sinitsa / The World History New time XIX - early. XX century., 1998.

Deepening of the socio-economic crisis in the country, defeat in the Crimean War Crimean War (1853-1856, Also Eastern War- the war between the Russian Empire and the coalition of the British, French, Ottoman empires and the Kingdom of Sardinia) caused the need for fundamental socio-economic reforms. The peasant reform of 1861 and the series of bourgeois reforms that followed it contributed to the gradual transformation of the absolute monarchy into the bourgeoisie, a series of counter-reforms by Alexander III (1881-1894) failed to change this development.

The highest legislative body - State Council(in 1886 a new “Institution State Council which governs its activities). State. The council consisted of 5 departments: laws, civil and spiritual affairs, military affairs, state economy, industry, sciences, trade. The highest judicial body Governing Senate.

From the autumn of 1857 a new government body began to operate - Council of Ministers(before him the Committee of Ministers). The Council included all ministers and other persons appointed by the emperor. In post-reform Russia, almost all ministries have significantly expanded their functions. Own it imperial majesty office lost the importance of the main state body, but continued to perform certain functions in the management system. The Council of Ministers operated until 1882.

In 1860, the State Bank was established, which was engaged in lending to industrial, commercial and other activities.

The reforms have significantly changed military ministry. Under him, the General Headquarters for command and control of troops was formed, and the departments were transformed into main directorates, which significantly improved the state of affairs in all branches of the military department. In total, in Russia at the end of the 19th century. There were about 15 ministries and institutions.

Formation of all-estate self-government bodies (zemstvos, city dumas) in the 60s - 70s. XIX century. January 1, 1864 "Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions." According to the “Regulations” of 1864, zemstvos were all-class institutions. A wide range of residents was involved in resolving issues of the local economy: representatives of the nobility, the commercial and industrial bourgeoisie and peasants (3 curia). They were elected for 3 years District Zemstvo Assembly which met once a year in September. Executive agency – District Zemstvo Administration– works on a permanent basis, headed by the Chairman and 2-3 deputies. provincial government- Chairman and 5-6 deputies - the executive body of the provincial self-government. All this made local government more flexible and mobile. But nobles still prevailed in the zemstvos. The abolition of serfdom deprived the landowners - the most reliable agents of the autocracy - of power over the peasants, and the government tried to transfer power to them through zemstvo institutions. The viability of the zemstvos was also ensured by their self-financing. They received the main part of their income from taxes on real estate: land, forests, apartment buildings, factories, factories. However, peasant lands turned out to be the main object of taxation. The principles of self-government were a favorable factor in the activity of zemstvos. Despite the tutelage of the bureaucracy, the zemstvos themselves formed the governing bodies, developed the management structure, determined the main directions of their activities, selected and trained specialists, and so on.
According to the "City Regulations" of 1870, in the cities non-estate self-government bodies were established: administrative - the city duma and executive - the city government, elected for 4 years by the payers of city taxes, which included the owners of various commercial and industrial establishments, houses and other profitable properties.
City Dumas were directly subordinate to the Senate. The mayor, being the chairman of the Duma, at the same time headed the city council. In large cities, he was approved by the Minister of the Interior, in small cities - by the governor. The functions of the new city self-government included taking care of the improvement of cities. They received the right to collect taxes from urban real estate, as well as from commercial and industrial establishments. The activity of city self-government bodies had a positive effect on the development of cities, but it also had significant drawbacks: a weak budget, primary concern for the area where the city elite lived and the complete desolation of the working outskirts, and an indifferent attitude towards the poor.

pre-reform court was a class, dependent on the administration, there was no competitiveness, publicity, the investigation was in the hands of the police. All this gave rise to the possibility of abuse. Judicial statutes of 1864 were aimed at eliminating these shortcomings, provided for the introduction of the institution of jurors. The court in Russia was proclaimed fast, right, merciful, equal for all subjects, with a respected and independent judiciary. The court session could only be started in the presence of a lawyer. Judicial statutes allowed cassation in cases of violation of legal proceedings or the appearance of new evidence in favor of the convicted person.

Magistrate's Court The judge is elected by the people for a term of 5 years. Judges are divided into district judges - they have a place, a salary; and a replacement judge - on a voluntary basis. They considered petty criminal cases (up to 2 years of punishment), civil cases (with claims not exceeding 500 rubles). Once a year, a congress of justices of the peace was held to consider complaints against the justices of the peace themselves. They can be appealed to the Senate, which was the highest authority. Main authority - District Court The judge is appointed by the Senate for life. The population elects judicial jurors (12 + 2 alternates) - this is a very democratic judicial reform. Judicial Chamber- to appeal the decisions of the District Court. As a result, Russia received one of the best judicial systems in the world.

The incompleteness of the reforms of the 60-70s. consisted, first of all, in the fact that economic reforms were not accompanied by political reforms, bringing the system of power and administration in line with the level of economic development and the requirements of society.
The position of the government corresponded to the basic principle of Russian conservatism: the state is the main force. The government pursued an openly protectionist policy and a policy of tight financial control. The overall result of the revision of the reforms of the 60-70s. was the creation of administrative bodies for the management of the countryside; minimizing the role of public self-government in zemstvo and city institutions, strengthening the control of the Ministry of Internal Affairs over them; limitation of the elective beginning when filling positions; the transfer of cases from judicial institutions to the jurisdiction of institutions that were in direct connection with the administrative administration. The adopted laws were supposed to return to the nobility its position in the management of the state and society, to preserve the estate structure and autocracy of power. However, this did not happen. The dissemination of conservative ideas by their authors was exaggerated, and a complete turn back did not happen. Society did not allow it to be done, and even in the nobility itself, tendencies towards an all-estate intensified.

Counter-reforms: 1) 1866. Zemstvos were forbidden to take taxes from industrial enterprises; 2) Censorship was imposed on the press of zemstvo institutions. The control of the Governor was expanded - a special presence in zemstvo institutions.

City reform of 1870–"City position"- the population is divided into three categories: the highest taxpayers, the middle ones, the rest - they elect the same number of deputies. elected City Duma– city self-government body (for 4 years). Executive agency - "City Council which is controlled by the Governor.

Assassination of Alexander II. His son, Alexander III, came to the throne. Reforms of the 60-70s not clearly assessed. There were two main assessments. Some believed that the reforms had gone too far, they threatened the foundations of the monarchy, and they should not only be stopped, but also returned back to their original positions, restored "as it was." One of the main leaders of this movement, surrounded by Alexander III, was K.P. Pobedonostsev.
Another group believed and insisted that the reforms were not completed, they needed to be continued and expanded, first of all, to bring them to the reform of the authorities and government controlled. Contemporaries associated this direction, first of all, with the name of M.T. Loris-Melikov, the last Minister of the Interior in the reign of Alexander II. IN recent months During the reign of Emperor Alexander II, he served as Minister of the Interior with expanded powers, pursued a liberal domestic political line. Huge power was concentrated in the hands of Loris-Melikov, which is why contemporaries began to call this time the “dictatorship of Loris-Melikov”

Despite the factors limiting scientific progress and technology in the second half of the 19th century. - this is a period of outstanding achievements in science and technology, which allowed Russian research activities to be introduced into world science. Russian science developed in close connection with European and American science. Russian scientists took part in experimental and laboratory research in scientific centers in Europe and North America, made scientific reports, published articles in scientific journals.

Capitalism with its increased technical potential and scope industrial production, which required an increase in the resource base, led to profound shifts in the field of domestic science and technology. The general ideological atmosphere of the first post-reform decades, the democratic upsurge that shook the whole country, the ideas of revolutionary democrats about a huge social role science also contributed to the "extraordinary success of mental movement" (K.A. Timiryazev).

The Academy of Sciences, universities, scientific societies retained the importance of the main scientific centers. In the post-reform period, the authority of university science grew. Large scientific schools arose here, and the works of some university professors received worldwide recognition. In the mid-1960s, Sovremennik noted that "in many branches of science, representatives of our university scholarship are not only not inferior, but even surpass the representatives of academic scholarship in their merits."

New scientific centers arose in the country: the Society of Lovers of Natural Science, Anthropology and Ethnography (1863), the Society of Russian Doctors, and the Russian Technical Society (1866). A serious contribution to the development of the natural and social sciences was made by scientific societies that, as a rule, existed at universities. In 1872, there were more than 20 such societies in Russia, the majority of which arose in the second half of the 19th century. (Russian Mathematical Society; Russian Chemical Society, later transformed into a physical and chemical society; Russian Technical Society; Russian Historical Society, etc.).

Petersburg became a major center of mathematical research, where math school associated with the name of the outstanding mathematician P.L. Chebyshev (1831-1894). His discoveries, which still influence the development of science, relate to the theory of approximation of functions, number theory and probability theory.

In the second half of the XIX century. domestic science, based on materialistic and scientific traditions, has achieved unprecedented success. The achievements of Russian science, connected with the development of world science, have greatly raised its international prestige. “Take any book from a foreign scientific journal,” wrote K.A. Timiryazev in the mid-90s - and you will almost certainly meet Russian name. Russian science has declared its equality, and sometimes even superiority.

A.M. Lyapunov (1857-1918) created the theory of stability of equilibrium and motion mechanical systems with a finite number of parameters, which influenced the further development of world science.

It is also worth mentioning the first female professor of mathematics S.V. Kovalevskaya (1850-1891), who discovered the classical case of the solvability of the rotation problem solid body around a fixed point.

The brilliant scientist-chemist who created the periodic system of chemical elements was D.I. Mendeleev (1834-1907). (Appendix 2.) He proved the inner strength between several kinds of chemicals. The periodic system was the foundation in the study of inorganic chemistry and advanced science far ahead. The work of D.I. Mendeleev "Fundamentals of Chemistry" was translated into many European languages, and in Russia it was only published seven times during his lifetime.

Scientists N.N. Zinin (1812-1888) and A.M. Butlerov (1828-1886) - the founders of organic chemistry. Butlerov developed the theory of chemical structure and was the founder of the largest Kazan School of Russian Organic Chemists.

The founder of the Russian physical school A.G. Stoletov (1839-1896) made a number of important discoveries in the field of magnetism and photoelectric phenomena, in the theory of gas discharge, which was recognized throughout the world.

From the inventions and discoveries of P.N. Yablochkov (1847-1894) the most famous is the so-called "Yablochkov candle" - practically the first suitable for use electric lamp without a regulator. Seven years before the invention of the American engineer Edison A.N. Lodygin (1847-1923) created an incandescent lamp using tungsten for incandescence.

The discoveries of A.S. Popov (1859-1905), on April 25, 1895, at a meeting of the Russian Physico-Chemical Society, he announced his invention of a device for receiving and recording electromagnetic signals, and then demonstrated the operation of a "lightning detector" - a radio receiver, which soon found practical application.

Major scientific and technical discoveries were made by the physicist P.N. Lebedev (1866-1912), who proved and measured the pressure of light.

The founder of modern aerodynamics was N.E. Zhukovsky (1847-1921). He owns numerous works on the theory of aviation. The first studies in the field of aero- and rocket dynamics by K.E. Tsiolkovsky (1857-1935), a gymnasium teacher in Kaluga, the founder of modern astronautics.

The works of K.E. Tsiolkovsky (1857-1935), one of the pioneers of astronautics. A teacher at a gymnasium in Kaluga, Tsiolkovsky was a scientist on a wide scale, he was the first to indicate the development of rocket science and astronautics, and found solutions for the design of rockets and rocket diesel engines.

A.F. Mozhaisky (1825-1890) explored the possibilities of creating aircraft. In 1876, a flight demonstration of his models was a success. In the 80s. he worked on the creation of the aircraft.

The biological sciences have made great strides. Russian scientists have discovered a number of laws of development of organisms. The largest discoveries were made by Russian scientists in physiology.

In 1863, I.M. Sechenov (1829-1905) "Reflexes of the brain", which laid the foundations of materialistic physiology and psychology, which was of great importance for the development of the doctrine of higher nervous activity. The largest researcher, propagandist and popularizer of scientific knowledge, Sechenov created the physiological school, from which I.P. Pavlov (1849-1936). In the 1970s, he began his career as a physiologist.

I.P. Pavlov (1894-1936) - scientist, physiologist, creator of the science of higher nervous activity and ideas about the processes of digestion regulation; the founder of the largest Russian physiological school made a huge contribution to the development of world science.

Russian natural scientists were staunch propagandists and continuers of Charles Darwin's teachings. A Russian translation of his main work, The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, appeared in Russia six years after its publication in England, in 1865.

Among the first Russian Darwinists was the founder of the evolutionary morphology of plants A.N. Beketov (1825-1902). The development of evolutionary teaching in Russia is associated with the name of I.I. Mechnikov (1845-1916) and A.O. Kovalevsky (1840-1901), who convened comparative embryology. Mechnikov also worked in the field of comparative pathology, laid the foundations of the doctrine of immunity, discovering in 1883 the phenomenon of phagocytosis, the ability of the body's protective properties. Mechnikov's works were world famous. He was elected an honorary doctor of the University of Cambridge, worked at the Louis Pasteur Institute in France.

In the development of Darwinism and natural-science materialism in Russia, the merits of K.A. Timiryazev (1843-1920), one of the founders of the Russian scientific school of plant physiology. He was a brilliant popularizer of science and did much to promote Darwinism. Timiryazev considered the evolutionary doctrine of Darwin as the greatest achievement of science in the 19th century, which affirmed the materialistic worldview in biology.

V.V. Dokuchaev (1846-1903) - the creator of modern genetic soil science, studied the soil cover of Russia. His work "Russian Chernozem", recognized in world science, contains a scientific classification of soils and a system of their natural types.

The expeditions organized by the Russian Geographical Society for the study of Central and Central Asia and Siberia by P.P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky (1827-1914), N.M. Przhevalsky (1839-1888), Ch.Ch. Valikhanov (1835-1865). With the name of N.N. Miklouho-Maclay (1846-1888) are connected with discoveries of world significance in the field of geography and ethnography, which he made while traveling in Southeast Asia, Australia, Oceania.

In the second half of the XIX century. In Russia, humanities scholars fruitfully worked in the field of history, linguistics, literary criticism, and economics, creating important scientific research.

In the field of philology and linguistics, I.I. Sreznevsky (1812-1880) - the founder of the St. Petersburg school of Slavists. He wrote valuable works on the history of the Russian Old Slavonic language, the history of Old Russian literature. A prominent linguist, the founder of the Moscow linguistic school was F.F. Fortunatov (1848-1914). In the post-reform period, a foundation was laid for the study of A.S. Pushkin. The first scientific edition of the works of the great poet was prepared by P.V. Annenkov (1813-1887). He also wrote a number of studies on his life and work.

Intensive work was carried out in the field of Russian folklore, the collection and study of oral folk art was expanding. The published works were extremely valuable for the rich factual material contained in them. Vast work on collecting and studying folk art was done by V.I. Dahl (1801-1872), who published in the 60s " Dictionary living Great Russian language”, which has not lost its scientific significance to this day. In Soviet times, the dictionary of V.I. Dahl has been reprinted several times. (Appendix 3.)

Russian scientists paid special attention to the study of national history. In the 50-70s. the talented Russian historian S.M. Solovyov (1820-1879). On the basis of vast factual material, he showed the transition from tribal relations to statehood, the role of autocracy in the history of Russia.

Of great importance for Russian historiography was the emergence of a Marxist trend associated with the name of G.V. Plekhanov (1856-1918), theorist and propagandist of the ideas of Marxism in Russia. By 1883, his first Marxist work, Socialism and the Political Struggle, dates back.

IN. Klyuchevsky (1841-1911) taught the Course of Russian History, which organically combined the ideas of the state school with an economic and geographical approach, studied the history of the peasantry, serfdom and the role of the state in the development of Russian society. In the works of N.I. Kostomarov (1817-1885) paid much attention to history liberation war Russia and Ukraine with the Polish invaders, the history of medieval Novgorod and Pskov. He is the author of "Russian history and biographies of its main figures." Thus, in the field of science, the 19th century represents the stunning successes of Russian science, bringing it to a leading position in the world. There are two lines in the development of Russian philosophical thought: Slavophiles and Westernizers, who, despite the cardinal divergence of philosophical views on the past and future of Russia, converge in relation to the existing regime of tsarism and its policies.

One of the central themes of Russian social and philosophical thought in the 19th century was the theme of choosing the path of development, the theme of the future of Russia. The clash of the historical views of the Westerners (V.G. Belinsky, A.I. Herzen, T.T. Granovsky, I.S. Turgenev) and the Slavophiles (A.S. Khomyakov, brothers Kireevsky, Aksakov, Yu.F. Samarin) over time, it developed into an irreconcilable ideological conflict.

Westerners believed in the unity of human civilization and argued that Western Europe goes at the head of this civilization, most fully implementing the principles of parliamentarism, humanity, freedom and progress, and points the way to the rest of humanity.

The Slavophiles argued that there is no single universal civilization, and, consequently, a single path of development for all peoples. Each nation lives its own independent original life, which is based on a deeply ideological principle, the “folk spirit”, penetrating all aspects of collective life.

Despite all the ideological differences, the Slavophiles and the Westernizers unexpectedly agreed on the practical issues of Russian life: both trends had a negative attitude towards serfdom and the contemporary police-bureaucratic regime, both demanded freedom of the press, speech, and therefore were unreliable in the eyes of the tsarist government.

A distinctive feature of the scientific life of the post-reform period was the extensive social and educational activities of scientists, the popularization of scientific knowledge through public lectures, and the publication of popular science literature. At this time, the number of scientific and special periodicals increased (from about 60 in 1855 to 500 by the end of the century), and this growth primarily affected the provinces (instead of 7, about 180 scientific journals began to be published) .

The development of science, achievements in the field of natural sciences had a huge impact on social and cultural life. This was reflected in the literature, left an imprint on the state of the school, influenced to some extent on the way of thinking, the level of public consciousness.