Arab conqueror of Spain in the 8th century. Arab conquest. Conquest of Rus' by the Tatar-Mongols
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Part of the vast domains of the Umayyad Caliphate.
IN 711 year, one of the Visigothic groups turned to the Arabs and Berbers from North Africa for help. The conquerors who came from Africa and caused the fall of Visigothic rule were called Moors in Spain.
The Arabs crossed from Africa to Spain and, having won a number of victories, put an end to the Visigothic state that had existed for almost 300 years. In a short time, almost all of Spain was conquered by the Arabs. Despite the desperate resistance of the Visigoths, after ten years only the mountainous regions of Asturias remained unconquered.
Because Spain was conquered by African troops, it was considered dependent on the African possessions of the Umayyad Caliphate. The Emir of Spain was appointed by the African governor, who in turn was subordinate to the Caliph, whose residence was in Damascus, in Syria.
The Arabs did not seek to convert the conquered peoples to Islam. They gave the peoples of the conquered countries the right to either convert to Islam or pay a poll tax (in addition to the land tax). The Arabs, preferring earthly benefits to religious interests, believed that it was not worth forcefully introducing conquered peoples to Islam; after all, such actions deprived them of additional taxes.
The Arabs respected the way of life and customs of the conquered peoples. The bulk of the Spanish-Roman and Visigothic population were governed by their own counts, judges, bishops and used their own churches. The conquered peoples continued to live under Muslim rule in conditions of almost complete civil independence.
Churches and monasteries also paid taxes.
Part of the land was put into a special public fund. This fund included church property and lands that belonged to the Visigothic state, the fleeing magnates, as well as the property of owners who resisted the Arabs.
For those who capitulated or submitted to the conquerors, the Arabs recognized the ownership of all their property with the obligation to pay a land tax on arable land and on land planted with fruit trees. The conquerors did the same in relation to a number of monasteries. In addition, owners were now free to sell their property, which was not so easy in the Visigothic era.
Muslims treated slaves more gently than the Visigoths, while it was enough for any Christian slave to convert to Islam to become free
The advantages of the Arab system of government were devalued in the eyes of the vanquished, since Christians were now subordinated to the infidels. This subordination was especially difficult for the church, which depended on the caliph, who arrogated to himself the right to appoint and depose bishops and convene councils.
The Jews benefited more from the Arab conquest, since the restrictive laws of the Visigothic era were abolished by the conquerors. Jews were given the opportunity to occupy administrative positions in Spanish cities.
Emirate of Cordoba
Noble family Umayyads, who for a long period stood at the head of the Arab caliphate, was eventually overthrown from the throne by representatives of another family - the Abbasids.
The change of dynasties caused general unrest in the Arab possessions. Under similar circumstances, a young man from the Umayyad family named Abdarrahman During military operations, he seized power in Spain and became an emir, independent of the Abbasid caliph. The main city of the new state was Cordoba. From this time begins a new era in the history of Arab Spain ( 756).
For a long time, representatives of various tribes disputed or did not recognize the authority of the new independent emir. The thirty-two years of Abdarrahman's reign were filled with constant wars. As a result of one of the conspiracies organized against the emir, the Frankish king invaded Spain Charlemagne. The plot failed, having conquered several cities in northern Spain, the Frankish king was forced to return with his troops, since other matters required the presence of a ruler in his kingdom. The rearguard of the Frankish army was completely destroyed in Roncesvalles gorge unconquered Basques; the famous Frankish warrior, Count of Breton, died in this battle Roland. A famous legend was created about the death of Roland, which served as the basis for the epic poem " Song of Roland».
Brutally suppressing disturbances and curbing numerous opponents, Abdarrahman strengthened his power and recaptured cities captured by the Franks.
Son of Abdarrahman Hisham I (788-796) was a pious, merciful and modest sovereign. Most of all, Hisham was occupied with religious matters. He patronized theologians - fuqahas, who acquired great influence under him. The importance of fanatics became especially noticeable during the reign of Hisham's successor, Hakama I (796-822). The new emir limited the participation of fuqahs in governance matters. The religious party, striving for power, began to campaign, inciting the people against the emir and organizing various conspiracies. Things got to the point where stones were thrown at the emir as he drove through the streets. Hakam I twice punished the rebels in Cordoba, but this did not help. In 814, fanatics besieged the emir in his own palace. The emir's troops managed to suppress the uprising, many were killed, and Hakam expelled the rest of the rebels from the country. As a result, 15,000 families moved to Egypt and up to 8,000 went to Fetz, in northwestern Africa.
Having dealt with the fanatics, Hakam set about eliminating the danger that posed from the residents of the city of Toledo.
This city, although nominally subordinate to the emirs, actually enjoyed true autonomy. There were few Arabs and Berbers in the city. Residents of Toledo did not forget that their city was the capital of independent Spain. They were proud of this and stubbornly defended their independence. Hakam decided to end it. He called the most noble and wealthy townspeople to his palace and killed them. Toledo, deprived of its most influential citizens, remained subject to the emir, but seven years later, in 829, it again declared its independence.
Hakama's successor Abdarrahman II (829) had to fight with Toledo for eight years. In 837, he took possession of the city due to the disagreements that began in Toledo between Christians and renegades (former Christians who converted to Islam). Under subsequent rulers, attempts were made repeatedly to achieve political independence in various regions of the country.
Cordoba Caliphate
But only Abdarrahman III (912-961), one of the greatest Umayyad rulers, gifted with great political and military abilities, in a short time conquered all the enemies of the central government. IN 923 he discarded the title of independent emir, which had been borne by previous Umayyads. Abdarrahman III took the title caliph, thereby equating himself to the Baghdad caliph. The new caliph had a goal - to establish a lasting absolute monarchy. Having undertaken a series of campaigns against Christians, Abdarrahman III then established friendly relations with the Christian kings. The emir interfered in the internal affairs of Leon, supporting candidates for the throne he liked and sowing unrest in the Christian state. His troops captured North Africa and subjugated it to the Cordoba Caliphate.
With his wise policies, Abdarrahman III gained universal respect; the successes of the caliph attracted the attention of all of Europe to him.
Abdarrahman III had a large, combat-ready army and the most powerful fleet in the Mediterranean.
All European kings sent embassies to him with requests for alliances. Arab Spain became the political and cultural center of Europe.
Abdarrahman patronized development Agriculture, crafts, trade, literature and education. Under him, Arab science and art in Spain reached their highest degree of flourishing. Populous cities adorned the countries, large monuments of art were created. Cordoba had about half a million inhabitants and became one of the most beautiful cities in the world. Many mosques, baths, palaces were built in the city, and gardens were laid out. Grenada, Seville, and Toledo competed with Cordoba.
Son of Abdarrahman poet and scholar Hakam II (961-976), continued his father’s policies, especially in the field of culture. He collected up to 400,000 scrolls in his library; the University of Cordoba was then the most famous in Europe. Hakam II also successfully waged wars, first with the Christians of the north, and then with the rebel Africans.
Son of the Caliph Hisham II (976-1009) ascended the throne at the age of 12. During his reign, the military power of the caliphate reached its apogee. In fact, power was in the hands of the first minister Muhammad ibn Abu Amir, nicknamed al-Mansur(winner). He ruled as if on behalf of Hisham II, in fact, he isolated the young caliph from the world and had all the power in his hands.
Muhammad was a warrior by nature. He reorganized the army to include a large number of personally loyal Berbers, whom he called from Africa. As a result of military campaigns, almost the entire kingdom recognized its dependence on al-Mansur. Only part of Asturias and Galicia and some lands in Castile remained independent
After the death of al-Mansur in 1002, the responsibility for ruling the caliphate fell on his son Muzaffar, who was called hajib, although he was the true caliph.
The transfer of supreme power to representatives of the al-Mansur family outraged many. A struggle for power began. In 1027, Hisham III, a representative of the Umayyad family, was elected caliph. But the new caliph did not have the proper ability to govern, and in 1031 he lost the throne. 275 years after its founding, the Cordoba Caliphate, founded by Abdarrahman I, ceased to exist.
A number of small independent states arose from the ruins of the Cordoba Caliphate.
Until the end of Arab rule, wars, fragmentation, and struggles for power continued.
In 711, when Mohammed's second successor ascended the throne in Damascus, a Muslim army of twelve thousand invaded Spain.
The Ostrogoths, who then ruled Spain, were unable to resist the Arabs and capitulated.
After the conquest, the Arabs left the locals their property, churches and laws. The only demand they made was the payment of an annual tribute. These conditions seemed so easy to the population that they accepted them without indignation, and the Arabs only had to break the resistance of the aristocratic landowners. This struggle was short-lived, and after two years Spain completely submitted to the conquerors.
The Berbers who came with the Arabs taught the locals about irrigation. Lands that were considered unsuitable were plowed.
The Arabs intensively developed science and architecture; they founded universities, which for a long time remained the only centers of intelligence in all of Europe. They translated the works of Greek and Latin authors.
In 756, the Cordoba Caliphate was created in Spain - an independent state, separate from the Arab Caliphate. To separate themselves from Mecca, the Arabs built the famous Mosque of Cordoba here, considered one of the wonders of the world.
The Spanish Arabs, in addition to tolerance, were also distinguished by chivalric customs. The laws of chivalry: to spare the weak, to be generous to the vanquished, to keep one’s word sacred, were adopted later by other Christian countries; These laws had a greater influence on the souls of people than even religion, and they spread in Europe thanks to the Arabs.
The kings of Castile and Navarre trusted the loyalty and hospitality of the Arabs so much that they went to Cordoba without objection to consult with the doctors for whom this city was so famous.
The Arab empire fell not because of external intervention, but as a result of civil strife. Christians took advantage of this to expand their possessions. As a result, kingdoms such as Valencia, Castile, Aragon and others appeared. They gradually united, and from many small possessions four relatively large ones were created: Portugal, Navarre, Aragon and Castile. By the end of the thirteenth century, only Granada remained for the Arabs.
Ferdinand the Catholic, King of Aragon, united the two crowns by marrying Queen Isabella of Castile. In 1492, he besieged Grenada and captured the last refuge of the Muslims.
Muslims were forcibly converted to Christianity; this allowed the Holy Inquisition to destroy them. The policy of the authorities was aimed at the complete liberation of Spanish soil from foreigners.
Unfortunately for Spain, the three million subjects it lost as a result of this policy constituted its intellectual and industrial elite. The Inquisition, in turn, tried to destroy all Christians who were even slightly above mediocrity. The result was obvious: Spain, which was considered a great country, immediately fell into the most shameful decline. Everything came to a decline: agriculture, industry, trade, science, literature, culture. Many centuries have passed since then, but the civilization of Spain has never reached the level of its former heyday.
Gustav Le Bon "The Civilization of the Arabs"
The advent of Islam inspired colossal strength for that time in the nomads of Arabia. Neither the Iranian state nor the Roman Empire ever expected serious danger from these places. Now from here began the great conquests of the Mohammedans, who rapidly, on the wings of a new religion, conquered the provinces of the eastern part of the empire. By 636, the richest Syria finally fell, 2 years later - Jerusalem, Mesopotamia and Iran, and a little later Egypt were also brought under the control of the caliphate. It was the turn of all of northern Africa, and the Caliphate decided this matter by 689, when Carthage finally fell.
Only the small town of Ceuta on the coast near Gibraltar was not taken, but this was already a matter of time. The Caliph's deputy, Musa ibn Nusayr, subjugated the local Berbers and led them to Islam. To achieve their submission, Musa promised them participation in Arab campaigns and countless treasures. According to legend, the king of the Visigoths who ruled Spain, Rodrigo, had shortly before inflicted a mortal insult on the ruler of Ceuta, Julian, and he, thirsting for revenge, offered help and a fleet to the Arabs. Giving the Berbers the opportunity to plunder, thereby fulfilling promises and resolving the issue with Julian, was a gift of fate for Musa. 7,000 Berbers became the basis of the army for the campaign, which was initially planned as just a predatory one.
The ancient world was destroyed not by German conquests, but by Arab ones
What was there at that time on the other side of Gibraltar, where such an attack was not expected at all? The Iberian Peninsula was captured by the Visigoths back in the 5th century, who became the highest military-administrative power. They were better warriors than politicians - for two centuries the Visigoths did not become close to the local population, they even managed to isolate themselves from them even more and cause irritation. Military power allowed them to remain at the top of a society they viewed with contempt. The Visigoths did not even practice marriages with locals. The Romano-Iberians, the old Roman nobility, the Basques and Asturs remembered and clearly saw that the Visigoths were invaders here, only taking advantage of the achievements of the Roman civilization. Therefore, as soon as the Arabs arrived, the local population gave the Visigoths the opportunity to deal with a strong enemy themselves. There was no unity among the Visigoths themselves, who were ruled by King Rodrigo, who some time ago seized power by force and without right. He did not enjoy genuine support from those around him.
In 711, an Arab-Berber army led by Tariq ibn Ziyad landed in Spain and cheerfully plundered the coast. Seeing how easily fame and treasures were obtained, Musa gave reinforcements - at least five thousand soldiers. This force already wanted not just robbery, but to gain a foothold on such a generous land. Meanwhile, Rodrigo in Toledo gathered an army of up to 33,000 people. At first glance, the Arabs could not count on serious success.
The armies met on July 19 or 23, 711, near the Guadalete River. Little is known about the course of the battle. The Rodrigo brothers abandoned their political rival, apparently hoping to solve this problem at the expense of the robbers, who would soon leave anyway. Arab historians paint a heroic picture of how King Rodrigo was killed. Ahmed al-Makkari wrote: “Tariq noticed Roderick, he said to his entourage: “This is the king of the Christians,” and rushed to the attack with his men. The warriors surrounding Roderick were scattered; Seeing this, Tariq broke through the ranks of the enemy until he reached the king and wounded him in the head with a sword, and killed him. When Roderick's people saw that their king had fallen and his bodyguards were scattered, the retreat became general and victory remained with the Muslims. The army, deprived of a leader, did not offer real resistance and was defeated.
Whether this episode is described correctly or whether everything happened differently is unknown. One thing is certain - the Christian Visigoths suffered a complete defeat. On next year Another 18,000 Arabs arrived in Spain, and the capture of the peninsula began. The local population did not start a large-scale fight against the Arabs. The cities surrendered one by one, sometimes immediately, sometimes after a siege. For 5 years, the Mohammedans established control over most of Spain, only the Basques and Asturs offered even more or less serious resistance. The flexible policy of the Arabs allowed them to gain a relatively easy foothold in places where the Visigoths did not show wisdom for this - religious tolerance and tax breaks persuaded the population to the Arab side.
Arab actions in Spain
Within a few years, the Arabs conquered Spain. They were expelled for almost 8 centuries
The Arabs marching north were barely stopped in the south of France at the Battle of Poitiers in 732, when they were defeated by Charles Martell, the grandfather of Charlemagne. If the Visigoths had succeeded in doing this in 711, perhaps the Arabs would have abandoned the plunder and then conquest of Spain, and the Christians would have had a chance to retain their influence in the Mediterranean to a much greater extent than after the loss of the Iberian Peninsula.
Although we know very little about the battle itself due to the paucity of sources in this era, the historical consequences of this event and the Arab conquest of Spain are exceptional in their scope. The fate of many historical processes (some of which are still ongoing) was laid here, by the Arabs, in the 710s. The small surviving Christian kingdoms of Spain fought the Arabs for many more centuries, the last Mohammedan ruler was defeated and expelled only in 1492 by Ferdinand II and Isabella I. For centuries, war-oriented, Spanish society accumulated colossal military and ideological potential, which it now used not for reconquista, and already for the conquest in the New World.
The power of the Spanish Empire would remain incredibly enormous for almost two centuries after 1492, when Columbus's first voyage truly opened America to the world. In addition, the Arab conquest of Spain completed the process of Muslim control over large parts of the Mediterranean Sea. The famous Belgian historian Henri Pirenne, in his fundamental work “The Empire of Charlemagne and the Arab Caliphate,” showed the significance of what happened at the beginning of the 8th century. The ancient Mediterranean world, based on the unity of culture, methods of management and maritime trade, was disrupted by the Arabs. The connection with ancient tradition, cultural and economic, was severed. The economy of the former Western Roman Empire, ruled by the Germans, was also based on urban growth and trade. With the arrival of the Arabs in the region, agriculture, and therefore the landed aristocracy, became increasingly important. Royal power weakened. The Middle Ages began. Conditions developed for the feudal, medieval appearance of Western Europe - with political fragmentation, the high role of subsistence farming, a specific knightly military organization, etc.
The great Arab conquests predetermined the fate of Europe and Russia
In addition, the Arabs deprived Constantinople of the ability to protect and control the Pope. In the middle of the 8th century. Relations between the Pope and Constantinople were severed. Political life, following economic life, shifted from the Mediterranean coast to the north. The popes were now dependent on the support of the Frankish kingdom. This break between the Eastern Empire and the Pope foreshadowed the division of Christianity into Western and Eastern, which finally occurred in 1054, and the beginning of their confrontation. The consequences of this became decisive for our Russian history. Russia, finding itself in the camp of Eastern Christianity, became a counterweight to the Western Christian world for centuries.
Main literature:
Piren A. The Empire of Charlemagne and the Arab Caliphate. The end of the ancient world / Trans. from English Ph.D. ist. Sci. S.K. Merkulova. M.: ZAO Tsentrpoligraf, 2011
The Arab conquest of Spain at the beginning of the 8th century. led to the creation of the powerful Emirate of Cordoba (from the 10th century - caliphate) on the Iberian Peninsula. Arabs and North African tribes - the Berbers, who later received the common name - Moors, took possession of almost all of Spain, with the exception of the mountainous regions in the north of the peninsula. The areas richest in natural resources and economically developed since Roman times fell into Muslim hands.
The conquest of Gothic Spain by the Arabs took place at a stage of its development when an intensified process of feudalization was underway there. This process was accelerated by the strong Romanization of Spain: slaves and colons made up the bulk of the direct producers here. The ancestral nobility of the barbarians by the 7th century. either took the place of the slave-owning class or merged with it. The Visigothic free communities quickly submitted to the nobility, who soon became large landowners after the conquest of southern Gaul and Spain. The feudal dependent peasantry was formed mainly at the expense of the serfs and libertines (Spanish-Roman and German), as well as the colons. The Arabs captured the lands of the Visigothic and Spanish-Roman nobility, the church and the royal fisc. Many Visigothic feudal lords fled north to the mountainous regions of Asturias and the Pyrenees. The peasantry, in most cases, remained in their former places and even experienced some relief at first. But the peasants remained in personal and land dependence and paid feudal rent. In addition, they paid taxes to the conquerors. The oppression of feudal duties and state taxes became increasingly heavier over time. Its severity was subsequently aggravated by outbreaks of Muslim religious fanaticism towards the conquered Christian population.
The Arabs of Spain, who maintained ties with the more highly developed countries of the East, enriched its agriculture. They introduced a number of new crops: rice, sugar cane, date palms, pomegranates, mulberries. Under the Arabs, the system of irrigation canals expanded, which greatly contributed to the rise of agriculture, and viticulture and winemaking flourished. Cattle breeding also developed (mainly transhumance sheep breeding). Mining and various crafts (silk production, cloth making, weapons, glass, ceramics, leather goods, luxury goods, and rag paper) played a significant role in the economy.
Cities experienced a great boom in Arab Spain. Already in the 10th century. there were up to 400 of them. The capital of the Arab state - Cordoba - became in the 10th century. one of the largest craft, trade and cultural centers in Europe. Arab Spain had a strong navy, which contributed to the cities' brisk trade with Africa, Italy, Byzantium and the Levant; overland trade was carried out with southern France and Lombardy. Spanish goods reached India and Central Asia. The main export items were agricultural products, mining products and handicrafts. The slave trade was of great importance. Internal trade also developed.
The economic successes of Arab Spain were accompanied by its cultural rise. There was a huge library and university in Cordoba. Many other cities in the country were famous for their libraries. Higher schools in Arab Spain were among the first in Europe. The sciences are experiencing significant growth: medicine, mathematics, geography. Arab Spain is the birthplace of the most prominent progressive philosophers of their time: Ibn Roshd (Averroes) and Maimonides. The flowering of art and literature, especially poetry, in Spain occurred at a time when the level of culture in the rest of Western Europe was still very low; some Europeans came to study at the universities of Cordoba, Seville, Malaga, and Granada.
Arab culture in Spain influenced not only Europe; it occupies an important place in the history of world culture. Through the Kbrd Caliphate, European countries became acquainted (in translation) with the works of Arab scientists in mathematics, astronomy, geography, physics, alchemy, medicine, anatomy, zoology, and philosophy. The West learned (mainly in Latin translations from Arabic) many works of ancient Greek thinkers and scientists. The construction industry has reached a high level in Spain. Magnificent monuments of Arab-Spanish architecture have survived to this day: the famous mosque in Cordoba, built in the 8th-10th centuries, and in the 13th century. converted into a Christian temple, the palace of the rulers of Granada Alhambra (XIII-XV centuries), the Alcazar palace-fortress in Seville (XII century), etc.
Secondary school at the Russian Embassy in
Spain
Second student research conference
Arab and Mongol conquests, their influence on the historical destinies of Russia and Spain
Performed
9th grade student
Yakusheva Olga
Madrid
April 2011
Introduction........................................................ ........................................................ ................3
Chapter I Conquest......................................................... ................................................4
1. Conquest of Spain by the Arabs.................................................... ................................4
2. Conquest of Rus' by the Tatar-Mongols.................................................... ........................5
3. Similarities and differences................................................... ...........................................6
Chapter II Dominance................................................... ...................................................7
1. Dominion that lasted eight centuries.................................................... .......................7
2. Rus' under the yoke of the Tatar-Mongols.................................................... ..................................8
3. Similarities and differences................................................... ...............................................10
Chapter III Land liberation................................................................ ............................eleven
1. Reconquista period.................................................... ...............................................eleven
2. Liberation of Russian lands from Tatar-Mongol yoke...........................13
3. Similarities and differences................................................... ...............................................15
Chapter IV Influence................................................. ........................................................ 15
1. Arab influence on the Iberian Peninsula.................................................... ....15
2. The influence of the Tatar-Mongols on Rus'.................................................... ...........................18
3. Similarities and differences................................................... ...............................................20
Conclusion................................................. ........................................................ ............21
List of materials used................................................................... ........................22
Applications
Introduction
The history of mankind is the gradual development of society. Unfortunately, not the last place in this process was occupied by wars of conquest and the enslavement of some peoples by others.
It happened that conquerors who were at a higher stage of development brought progress with them and contributed to an increase in the standard of living of the captured peoples. They improved everything: from the political system to the economy and agriculture: they influenced education, culture and cuisine.
Other conquerors came to destroy and plunder. They were driven only by the thirst for profit; enslaved peoples were a source of enrichment for them. Such conquerors had an indirect influence on the political system, economy, etc. Their barbaric actions led to decline and a decrease in the standard of living of the population in the occupied territories.
As an example of two opposites, consider the Arab conquest of Spain and the Tatar-Mongol yoke in Russia. This topic is interesting to me because it concerns the history of my Motherland, Russia, and the history of Spain, the country in whose territory I now live, and which has become close to me.
In my work I used reference materials and historical comments, articles and studies found on the Internet, information from Russian and Spanish history textbooks, encyclopedias, etc.
Chapter I
Conquests
Conquest of Spain by the Arabs
At the time of the Arab invasion of the Iberian Peninsula, the concept of “Spain” did not yet exist. Here at that time the kingdom of the Visigoths was located. Their reign was a confusing series of power struggles. Feudal relations developed. Cities fell into decay, churches and monasteries turned into fortresses. Famine, dynastic strife, and lack of law and order destabilized society. ¹
By the beginning of the 8th century, the Arabs had conquered all of northwestern Africa, the indigenous population of which were warlike Berber tribes. The Arab Caliphate was powerful and vast and constantly sought to expand its possessions. Berbers and Arabs have long encroached on the fertile lands of Andalusia, located on the other side of the Strait of Gibraltar.
In 711, luck smiled on the future conquerors. In Spain there was a struggle for power between King Rodrigo and the heir to the previous ruler, Aquila. The latter entered into an agreement with Arab and Berber military leaders. No one expected that the consequences of a simple military agreement would be so catastrophic. The allies were offered to defeat Rodrigo's army, and as a reward receive the treasury of the capital city of Toledo.
In the spring of 711, an Arab army of seven thousand entered the European continent. It crossed on ships provided by Aquila, since the Arabs did not have their own fleet at that time. Between July 19 and July 26, 711, a battle took place whose name, to the ears of the Spaniards, sounds like the sound of a funeral bell: the Battle of Guadaleta. Rodrigo was completely defeated. ²
But the conquerors did not stop. Their goal was to further advance into Europe. By 714, the entire territory of the peninsula, except Asturias, was captured and henceforth belonged to the Damascus Caliphate.
The Arabs moved on. They managed to capture a small territory beyond the Pyrenees. In 732, a grandiose battle took place near Poitiers, a real battle of nations, where the invaders’ troops were defeated and driven back. And although the Arabs more than once made forays against Christians, they never again managed to advance so far into Europe, much less gain a foothold there for a long time. It was thanks to this battle that the spread of Islam to the west stopped.
The conquest passed surprisingly quickly and easily. From 711 to 718, the Arabs occupied almost all of Spain. True, Christian uprisings sometimes broke out in their rear, but on the whole the campaign unfolded successfully. Most areas surrendered without resistance. Spain at that time was sparsely populated and in many places there was simply no one to repel the tireless Arab cavalry. Therefore, it is clear how the Muslims quickly moved north in such a short time. The Arabs settled on the Iberian Peninsula and stayed here for about eight centuries. ³
Conquest of Rus' by the Tatar-Mongols
The Russian state, formed on the border of Europe and Asia, which reached its peak in the 10th - early 11th centuries, at the beginning of the 12th century broke up into many principalities. This collapse occurred under the influence of the feudal mode of production. The external defense of the Russian land was especially weakened. The princes of individual principalities pursued their own separate policies and entered into endless internecine wars. This led to the loss of centralized control and to a strong weakening of Rus' as a whole. At the beginning of the 13th century, the state of the Mongol-Tatars, located on early stage development of feudalism, was distinguished by its strength and solidity. The nobility was interested in expanding pastures and organizing predatory campaigns against neighboring agricultural peoples who were at a higher level of development. Most of them, like Rus', experienced a period of feudal fragmentation, which greatly facilitated the implementation of the aggressive plans of the Tatar-Mongols. Since 1206, Genghis Khan, elected leader of the Mongols, began uniting disparate tribes into a cohesive, strong, mobile army-state with strict discipline. The Tatar-Mongols began their campaigns by conquering the lands of their neighbors. Then they invaded China, conquered Korea and Central Asia, defeated the allied forces of the Polovtsian and Russian princes on the Kalka River. According to the chronicle, the battle took place on May 31, 1223. The troops of the Russian princes, who crossed the river, were almost completely destroyed; the camp of the Russian army, set up on the other bank and strongly fortified, was stormed by the Tatars for 3 days and were able to take it by cunning and deceit. The Battle of Kalka was lost not so much because of disagreements between the princes, but because of historical factors. Firstly, the Mongol army was tactically and positionally completely superior to the united regiments of the Russian princes. Russian army did not have sufficient unity, was not trained in combat tactics, and was based on the personal courage of each warrior. Secondly, there was no single commander. Thirdly, the Russian troops made a mistake in assessing the enemy’s forces and were unable to choose the right place for the battle. The terrain completely favored the Tatars. In fairness, it must be said that at that time, not only in Rus', but also in Europe, there would not have been an army capable of competing with the formations of Genghis Khan. Reconnaissance in force showed that it was possible to wage aggressive campaigns against Rus' only by organizing an all-Mongol campaign against European countries. The head of this campaign was the grandson of Genghis Khan, Batu. A campaign to the west was declared by a council of war in 1235. The first city that stood in the way of the conquerors was Ryazan. After five days of siege, the walls of the city, destroyed by powerful siege weapons, could not stand it. In December 1237, Ryazan fell. For ten days, the army of nomads plundered the city, divided the spoils, and plundered neighboring villages. Then Kolomna and Moscow fell. Cities were burned and residents were killed. On the way to Vladimir, the conquerors had to storm every city, repeatedly fight with Russian warriors, and defend against surprise attacks from ambushes. The heroic resistance of the ordinary Russian people held back the conquerors. Vladimir fell after a difficult battle in February 1238, causing enormous damage to the conqueror. Rostov surrendered without a fight, as did Uglich. As a result of the February campaigns of 1238, the Mughal Tatars destroyed Russian cities in the territory from the Middle Volga to Tver, a total of fourteen cities.
The defense of Kozelsk lasted 7 weeks. Residents attacked the invaders with knives, axes, clubs, and strangled them with their bare hands. Batu lost about 4 thousand soldiers. The Tatars nicknamed Kozelsk “the evil city.” All residents were killed and the city was destroyed to the ground.
The battered and thinned army of the Tatar-Mongols retreated beyond the Volga. The campaign against Rus' was resumed in 1239. Murom, Pereslavl, and Chernigov were devastated.
In the autumn of 1240, the Tatar hordes approached Kyiv. Batu was amazed by the beauty and grandeur of the ancient Russian capital. He wanted to take Kyiv without a fight. The people of Kiev decided to fight to the death. All residents, young and old, rose to defend their hometown. But the forces turned out to be unequal; the Tatars managed to destroy the fortress walls and break into the city. For several days the invaders destroyed and looted houses and exterminated the remaining inhabitants. Weakened by numerous battles with the Russians, the Tatars did not dare to move west. Batu understood that Rus' remained defeated, but not conquered, in the rear. He abandoned further conquests. As A.S. said Pushkin: “The barbarians did not dare to leave enslaved Rus' in their rear and returned to the steppes of their East.” * The Horde yoke was established in Rus' by the end of the 13th century and lasted for almost two and a half centuries. The state of the Golden Horde extended from the Danube to the Irtysh.
Similarities and differences
Comparative analysis the conquests of Spain by the Arabs and Russia by the Tatar-Mongols shows that, despite the temporary difference in the events that occurred, the causes and consequences of the invasions were similar. Both the Arab Caliphate and the Golden Horde needed new lands. At the time of the conquests, neither Russia nor Spain were ready to give a worthy rebuff to the conquerors, as they were mired in internecine conflicts and strife. The troops of the Arabs and Tatar-Mongols already had experience in conducting offensive wars, were well trained and disciplined.
Among the differences, it is worth noting that the conquest of Spain by the Arabs occurred six centuries earlier than the capture of Russia by the Mongols. Due to the vastness of the territories of Rus' and the fierce resistance of the people, the Tatar-Mongol conquest lasted almost seventeen years, while Spain was conquered by the Arabs, who encountered virtually no resistance, in 7 years. The Arabs, who were at a higher stage of development, did not use “scorched earth” tactics when seizing territories and tried not to destroy the local population, unlike the Mongols, whose invasion led to a demographic catastrophe and the destruction of cities in Rus'.
Arab rule on the Iberian Peninsula lasted for eight centuries, and the Tatar-Mongol yoke in Rus' was only about two and a half centuries. To understand why this happened, we must analyze the eras of their dominance.
Chapter I I
Domination
A reign that lasted eight centuries
The Arabs who captured the territory of Spain were far from Islamic fanaticism. At that time, Islam was a very young religion. Lovers of the joys of life, patrons of free secular poetry and various sciences, the rulers of the Arabs were not aggressive towards the peoples of the occupied territories. They did not seek to forcibly convert the inhabitants of the conquered lands to Mohammedanism: they did not chop off the heads of civilians, did not pour molten lead down their throats, in a word, they did not do anything that, say, Rus' got used to during the Mongol-Tatar invasion.
According to historians, in foreign policy, the Arabs of that era were not inclined to bloodshed on the occupied lands: everything came down to more or less regular fleecing. Residents were subject to tribute, which, in essence, was the main economic goal of Arab military campaigns. The Islamic poll tax turned out to be much lighter than the onerous taxes that the Visigothic nobility levied on the local population. It was reconciling. Women, children and other socially vulnerable elements were automatically exempted from taxes. And most importantly, all those who converted to Islam had equal rights with the winners and did not pay any tribute. ²
The Arabs were very tolerant of Christians and Jews, granted autonomy to various regions, and in every large city, in addition to a mosque, there was a church and a synagogue. IN various fields During the Arab administration one could often see Christian Spaniards. The Muslim army had Christian mercenary troops. Muslims and Christians entered into dynastic marriages. ³
Almost the entire population was bilingual: they spoke El Romance and colloquial Arabic. Arabs, Jews, and Spaniards communicated freely, traded, and entered into marriage alliances.
Spain, conquered by the Arabs, was called Al-Andalus or Andalusia. The capital of Andalusia was Cordoba. It was ruled by an emir subordinate to the caliph seated in Damascus. Local leaders strove to separate from Cordoba and become independent emirs in Toledo or Zaragoza, Christians raised their voices, and then there was the difficult international situation: either the Vikings would come from the sea and burn flourishing Seville, or the Franks would pull forces to the Pyrenees.
It was after the terrible devastation of Seville by the Vikings in 845 that the Emir of Cordoba made a great decision: to build a fleet capable of protecting Andalusia from attacks from the sea. Soon the Arab fleet of Spain became one of the strongest in Europe.
Borrowing the experience of Egypt and Rome in constructing irrigation structures, the Arabs were able to use the melting snow on the mountain peaks and created a powerful hydraulic system, turning waterless Spain into a flourishing land.*****
The University of Cordoba was highly respected. People came here to study from France, England, and Germany. Cordoba was famous throughout the world for its libraries. The caliph's library consisted of at least four hundred thousand volumes. The famous philosopher Averroes lived here, translator of Aristotle into Arabic, who also left works on physics, mathematics, astronomy, medicine, religion and law.
The Arabs made a huge contribution to the development of Spanish culture, creating a unique style in architecture and fine arts.
Rus' under the yoke of the Tatar-Mongols
In order to prevent Rus' from becoming too strong, the Horde khans decided to create a perfect system of control over political life. The Horde creates two great principalities in order to push them together to control Southern and North-Eastern Rus'. The Russian princes realized the power of the Golden Horde and tried to live peacefully with the conquerors. Under those conditions, this was the only way to protect one’s people from death or being driven into slavery. There were frequent intrigues between the princes; the government of the Golden Horde was interested in this, because the weaker the princely power in Rus' became, the greater the authority the khan became. The Russian principalities made attempts to disobey the Horde, but they were severely punished. The strength to overthrow the Tatar-Mongol yoke was still not enough. At the same time, the Russian princes understood that peace with the Horde, peace on Russian soil had to be paid for. Russian lands were considered by the Horde as a constant and reliable source of income in the form of tribute.
In order to get the Russians to pay tribute on time, the Empire had a well-established system that operated according to Mongolian models. The entire territory of the occupied country was divided into districts capable of fielding ten thousand combat-ready men into the militia in case of war.
In order to know how many people survived after the devastating campaigns, the Mongols conducted a population census. The result of these calculations was the imposition of a colossal tribute on the country. Deductions from trade duties and various taxes went to the khan's treasury. There were fourteen types of tribute in total. The payment of tribute was supervised by special Mongol governors - Baskaks. From the bloodless principalities, carts with furs and silver and lines of slaves reached the steppe. Enormous wealth was spent on gifts to the khan, on bribes to courtiers and bribery of Horde officials. Those who could not pay tribute were taken into slavery. Another means of keeping Rus' in subjection was repeated Mongol raids. According to historians, in the second half of the 13th century, the Mongols invaded Russian borders 14 times.12 The Tatar-Mongols tried not to openly encroach on the spiritual way of life of the Russian people, and above all on the Orthodox faith, although they destroyed churches. To some extent, they were tolerant of any religion and did not interfere with the performance of any religious rites in the Golden Horde. Not without reason, the Horde often considered the Russian clergy their allies. They freed him from tribute and provided church servants with letters of safe conduct for church property.
Gradually, the Mongols became confident in the obedience of Rus' and its princes, and in the 14th century they recalled their representatives, the Baskaks. from now on, the Russians themselves had to collect tribute and bring it to the Horde. It was this right that subsequently became the strongest weapon in the hands of the Moscow prince Ivan Kalita. The Moscow authorities now have the opportunity to accumulate funds to attract supporters and intimidate opponents.
A huge territory, a large population, a strong central government, a large army, skillful use of trade caravan routes, extorting tribute from conquered peoples - all this created the power of the Horde state.
The Russian people who fell under the rule of the conquerors had to learn to live in new conditions, under a new state system. Viewing conquest as a necessary temporary evil, our ancestors learned to benefit from close relations with the Horde. Two and a half centuries of the Horde yoke were not a continuous strip of adversity and deprivation for the Russian people.
The development of military affairs in Rus' was impossible without the development of trade and industry. Judging by this, the Horde dug a hole for itself, since with its constant extortions it forced Rus' to develop crafts and trade. In order to pay the khans, Russian princes also encouraged crafts and trade. That is, the Mongol-Tatar yoke, having initially destroyed the economy of Rus', indirectly began to encourage the revival economic life and her power.
Agriculture is gradually being restored. Peasants are expanding their arable land and increasing the number of livestock. Cities are reborn from the ashes. Crafts are being developed in them. Methods of metal mining and processing are being improved. New trade and craft centers are emerging. The isolation of feudal principalities is being eliminated. Trade ties arise between them. The prerequisites are being created for the unification of Russian lands into a single state.
Similarities and differences
As for the similarities, the following conclusions can be drawn from the above:
1. Both the Arabs and the Tatar-Mongols screwed over the captured peoples with regular tribute.
2. The Arabs and Tatar-Mongols were tolerant of the religion of the captured peoples and did not impose their religious ideas. They did not infringe on the spiritual life of the indigenous population and did not interfere with the performance of religious rites.
3. Both conquerors used some members of the local nobility in the administration of the conquered territories.
4. The Arab army had Christian mercenary troops, just as the Tatar-Mongols recruited combat-ready men from the local population into their army.
The differences were as follows:
1. The tribute collected by the Arabs was less burdensome than the taxes of the Visigothic kings, which suited the people. While the tribute imposed on the population of Rus' by the Tatar-Mongols was practically unaffordable, which increased discontent.
2. Conscription into the Arab army was carried out on a voluntary basis, and into the Tatar-Mongol army forcibly.
3. The Arabs captured the fertile lands of the Iberian Peninsula for the purpose of further settlement. Therefore, they did everything possible to flourish the economy, culture and other spheres of life. The Tatar-Mongols considered Rus' only as a source of enrichment.
4. In the Arab Caliphate, the rights and freedoms of the entire population were respected. And the Tatar-Mongols enslaved the peoples of Rus'.
Chapter I II
Liberation of lands
Reconquista period
The remnants of the defeated Visigothic troops took refuge in the Asturian mountains. Don Pelayo took command into his own hands. He achieved the unity of the Visigoths who survived the battles to fight the invaders, and already in 718 he inflicted a strong defeat on the Arabs at the Battle of Covadonga.
The Vascons, the ancestors of the Basques, did not succumb to the victorious Muslim conquest. The Visigothic counts and Vascon mountaineer shepherds did not allow the Arabs to rest on their laurels, disturbing them with unexpected guerrilla attacks. In 724 they defeat the Muslims near the city of Ainsa.
To unite in the fight against the invaders, a certain banner was needed, a single shrine, which became Saint James - Santiago, whose relics were found in the 9th century in Galicia, in the town of Compostela.
Another banner of the Reconquista was Cid the Warrior, who led the fight against the Arabs in the 11th century and glorified Spanish weapons.
The Reconquista proceeded on its own. The border of the Christian world slowly but steadily moved from north to south. New Christian kingdoms arose on the conquered lands: Aragon, Navarre, Castile, Leon, Catalonia. Kingdoms entered into alliances and formed various kinds of unions on a family or business basis: the union of Navarre and Aragon, Aragon and Catalonia, Castile and Leon.
Alas, sometimes the unity achieved with such difficulty suddenly collapsed due to someone’s political shortsightedness. Thus, King Fernando I, who united Castile and Leon under his rule, dying, unexpectedly divided his possessions between his children. As a result of numerous military vicissitudes between the heirs and each other, the middle son Alfonso became king. It is easy to imagine what advantages such feuds gave to Muslims!
Alfonso VI, ruler of Castile, Leon and Galicia, decisively took up the sword and conquered the glorious city of Toledo from the Muslims. On May 25, 1085, the united troops of the Spaniards triumphantly entered the former capital of the Visigothic kingdom. This was a significant milestone in the centuries-old history of the Reconquista.
Since the 11th century, the Reconquista has moved forward uncontrollably. In view of the obvious Christian threat, the Arabs turned for help to a new political force in the Muslim world - a militant alliance of Saharan Berber tribes calling themselves the Almoravids. They were cruel and fanatical rulers. For the first time, militant Islam reigned in Spain. Even local Muslims preferred to come under the rule of the King of Castile and pay him tribute rather than endure the oppression of the Almoravids.
The Almohads, who replaced the Almoravids, turned out to be even more fanatical. They oppressed Christians, carried out pogroms against Jews, and burned priceless Arab libraries.
Christians resisted the new invasion with varying success - they, as always, were hampered by internecine strife.
Finally, the Pope responds to the Spanish king's calls for help. In the spring of 1212, Pontiff Innocent III proclaimed a crusade against the infidels with absolution for all crusaders. On July 16, at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolos, the largest Christian army utterly defeats the Almohad army. The power of Muslim Spain has been undermined forever. This is the turning point of the Reconquista.
In the last three centuries of the Reconquista, the rulers of Castile and Aragon came to the fore. The Aragonese ruler Jaime I the Conqueror began the reconquest of the Balearic Islands in 1229, completing it in 1235. In 1238, Jaime I entered Valencia. He expelled the Muslims from Murcia.
Fernando III the Saint victoriously entered Cordoba in 1236, and in Seville in 1248.
XIII and XIV centuries - the height of the Reconquista. The Christian population of the Iberian Peninsula increasingly recognizes itself as Spaniards, Catholics and loyal subjects of kings. We can say that during this period the reconquest becomes a conscious, purposeful movement, the task of which is the final displacement of Muslims from Europe.
The marriage of Fernando of Aragon and Isabella of Castile in 1469 united the two largest kingdoms of Christian Spain. From that time on, the Spanish kings finally ceased to be “kings of three religions.” From now on they represented only one faith.
After the capture of Malaga, Spanish troops throughout 1491 were preparing for a campaign against the last stronghold of Islam - Granada. In 1491, a protracted siege began. In January 1492, the last emir of Granada left the Alhambra.
The Catholic kings set a strict condition for Muslims: to leave the country within three months. At the same time, “brilliant poetry, astronomy, and architecture, which had no equal in Europe, were doomed to destruction,” Federico Garcia Lorca would say several centuries later. Ahead of the country lay the Inquisition and an unprecedented scale of mass repressions.**
All classes of the emerging feudal society took part in the reconquista, but the main driving force in this liberation struggle was the peasantry. As they moved south, the peasants of Northern Spain settled the newly conquered lands that had been devastated by constant wars, and thus the reconquista simultaneously acquired the character of a colonization movement. By moving to the border regions, many peasants sought personal liberation from serfdom. Along with the peasantry, the urban population (merchants and artisans) also played a major role in the reconquista. Its participation in the reconquista is largely explained by the fact that it was interested in moving south, since Southern Spain in the 10th-11th centuries. was economically more developed than the North. Petty knighthood also played an active role in the reconquista, although the main beneficiaries of it were mainly large feudal lords (secular and ecclesiastical).
Along with the end of the Reconquista, the formation of the Spanish people and the Castilian language was completed: 1492 was also the year the first Spanish grammar was published. The country was finally united.
Liberation of Russian lands from the Tatar-Mongol yoke Russian lands united around Moscow. The rise of Moscow was facilitated by its geographical location. Fenced off from the Golden Horde by the Ryazan and Nizhny Novgorod principalities, surrounded by dense forests, the Moscow land was a relatively quiet place. Detachments of Tatar horsemen rarely came here. Moscow was at the crossroads of trade routes. Traders stopped in Moscow and exchanged goods. Moscow, becoming an important trading center, grew and became richer. All lands along the Moscow River from the drainage to the mouth became part of the Moscow Principality. Ivan Danilovich became the Prince of Moscow, nicknamed Kalita for his large fortune, which meant “bag, bag, sack.” Ivan Kalita established good relations with the Golden Horde Khan and deftly used his power to his advantage. Khan granted him the title of Grand Duke of All Rus'. Moscow became the political center of the Russian lands. In the second half of the 14th century, the expansion of the Moscow principality continued. Golden Horde, on the contrary, weakened, exhausted by the civil strife of the khans. From 1360 to 1380, 14 rulers of the Horde were replaced. In the Russian lands, popular resistance to the Tatar-Mongol yoke intensified. From time to time, Russian cities rebelled against the power of princes appointed by the Tatars and expelled the Tatars. This was the case in Rostov in 1289 and in Smolensk in 1297. In 1374, an uprising broke out in Nizhny Novgorod. Residents of the city killed the ambassadors of the Horde Khan and their entire detachment. Khan Mamai decided to deal with the rebellious Moscow. In August 1380 he set out on a campaign against Moscow. Prince Dmitry, who then ruled in Moscow, having learned about the movement of the Tatar troops, called on the Russian princes to unite to fight for liberation from the Tatar-Mongol yoke. In response to his call, princely squads and militias of peasants and artisans from Vladimir, Yaroslavl, Rostov, Kostroma, Murom and other principalities came to Moscow. About 150 thousand horse and foot soldiers gathered. On the night of September 8, 1380, Russian troops crossed the Don and settled on a plain called Kulikovo Field. At dawn, hordes of Mamai appeared. The Russians accepted the battle without flinching. Mamai's army fled. The Battle of Kulikovo had great importance. The Russian people realized that with united forces they could achieve victory over foreign conquerors. Moscow's authority as the center of the liberation movement rose even higher. The process of unification of Russian lands around Moscow accelerated. True, two years later Tokhtamysh, the new khan of the Golden Horde, unexpectedly came to Rus'. He approached Moscow, captured and burned the city by deception. Rus' was forced to resume paying tribute to the Horde. However, this could not negate all the results of the Battle of Kulikovo. The unification of Russian lands continued. Later, the Moscow principality turned into a large and strong state. By this time, the Golden Horde had collapsed. In 1478, Ivan III broke the agreement with the Horde. In the summer of 1480, the great “stand on the Ugra” took place, which lasted several months and ended with the flight of the Tatar-Mongol army. The unification of Russian lands into a single centralized state led to the liberation of Rus' from the Tatar-Mongol yoke. The Russian state became independent. Ivan III began to be called the sovereign of all Rus', and the Russian state - Russia. The yoke that weighed on Russia for two and a half centuries has ended. A period of independent development began in the history of the Russian people. “Our great Russian land,” the chronicler wrote, “has freed itself from the yoke and begun renewal, as if it had passed from winter to quiet spring.”Similarities and differences
Analysis of the process of liberation of territories from conquerors showed the absence of significant differences with the exception of historical features. Both in Spain and in Rus' there remained territories free from conquerors. Both during the period of Arab domination and during the Tatar-Mongol yoke, there were frequent cases of people's resistance against the power of the invaders. Both the peoples of the Iberian Peninsula and the peoples of Rus' would not have been able to liberate their territories without uniting forces around charismatic personalities. The church played an important role in this unification. The main driving force of the liberation struggle was the peasantry. Victory in both cases became possible due to the weakening of power within the Arab Caliphate and the Golden Horde. The final liberations of Spain and Rus' occurred at the end of the 15th century. The liberation struggle against the conquerors led to the formation of the Spanish and Russian empires.
Chapter I V
Influence
Arab influence on the Iberian Peninsula
During Arab rule, Spain became one of the richest and most populous countries in Europe. According to the census of that time, there were six large cities in Spain, eighty cities with a significant population; three hundred cities and countless fortresses and villages. The Arabs paved the streets and built a large aqueduct to supply water to the city fountains. Magnificent bridges were thrown across the rivers.
Thanks to the creation of a large class of small landowners, agriculture developed successfully. The Arabs were not skilled farmers; the authors of treatises on agriculture in Spain were the Mozarabs. Having learned their lessons, the Arabs successfully planted vineyards. They also cultivated in Spain many plants that were unknown in that country until that time, such as rice, pomegranates, sugar cane and various oriental fruit trees. Under the Arabs, canals for irrigating gardens were expanded or rebuilt. Water was taken from rivers or from ponds, especially in the areas of Granada, Murcia and Valencia.
Cattle breeding flourished in many areas of Spain. To avoid the harmful effects of seasonal temperature fluctuations, herds were moved from one place to another depending on the time of year.
Mining played a significant role in the country's economy. There were mines in which gold, silver and other metals were mined, as well as ruby mines. The wool and silk fabrics of Cordoba, Malaga and especially Almeria were known far beyond the borders of Spain. Ceramic products were produced in various localities High Quality, and these products were exported to other countries. In Almeria, glass, iron and bronze dishes with drawings and enamel, fabrics woven with gold and silver were also made, in Malaga - brocade with drawings and inscriptions; in Cordoba - ivory crafts, and in Xativa and other places - rag writing paper, this was a new type of craft introduced by the Arabs.
Almeria, Murcia, Seville, Toledo, Granada and, above all, Cordoba were major centers of arms production; Spanish armor and swords with the finest carved hilts and scabbards were especially famous. In Cordoba, leather was also produced for various needs, and in particular its expensive varieties with embossing and gilding. In Murcia they wove brightly colored mats. In the 9th century. a method for making glass was discovered, and mechanisms for measuring time were designed.
The development of crafts, combined with extensive and extensive international connections, led to great development of trade. Seville was one of the main ports, and shipyards are located in Almeria. Saffron, figs (the best in the world), wines, aromatic woods, marble and precious stones, raw silk, sugar, cochineal, pepper, iron in blanks, and antimony were exported from Jaen and Malaga.
A postal service was organized. Gold, silver and copper coins were minted in many cities in Spain. The main mint was located in Cordoba.
In the 11th century The first manufactory producing paper was founded. ******
The Arabs left an indelible mark on Spanish architecture. The massive Romanesque churches were substantially surpassed by Moorish places of worship, which were taller, airier and more colorful. The dome, horseshoe arch and slender columns, often made of jasper, onyx and marble, were all created by the Moors and can best be appreciated after visiting Cordoba's Mezquita (mosque).
Since the Arabs came from the desert, and the Koran requires daily ablutions, they were extremely fond of water. In addition to numerous public baths, they equipped their palaces and villas with fountains and ponds. The best idea of this is given by the Alhambra ("red" in Arabic) - a palace-fortress in Granada - and the neighboring Generalife, which served as the summer residence of the caliphs.
In the Middle Ages, Cordoba became the scientific capital of Europe. The introduction of Arabic numerals in Spain - much less cumbersome than the corresponding Roman ones - stimulated the development of mathematics; The Arabs are credited with the invention of algebra, as well as spherical trigonometry.
Doctors were highly valued for their diagnostic abilities and the art of surgical operations. The Arabs used anesthesia and were also known to perform complex and delicate surgical procedures.
The Arab conquest left an indelible mark on the geographical map of Spain in the form of the prefixes Al-, Al-, El- in the names of cities, most of which are located in the south of the country: Albacete, El Ferrol, Alicante and many others.******* ****
The names of the rivers arose: Guadalquivir (from Arabic "big river"), Guadalajara ("river in the stones"), Guadalupe ("wolf river", here wadi "river" + lobo "wolf").
Arabisms are observed in almost all spheres of life of the Spaniards, from military to agricultural. Most often, they borrowed words that were not in their native language: the names of certain types of animals, new crops, geographical names, scientific terms.
In modern Spanish About 4,000 words of Arabic origin are still in use. Agricultural products introduced by the Moors - azucar (sugar), berenjena (eggplant), naranjas (oranges) and sandias (watermelons) - are the daily food of most Spaniards. Also, many words related to administrative functions, irrigation, mathematics, architecture and medicine go back to Arabic.
Many phrases and customs that are still in use in modern Spain come from Arabic culture, especially expressions of politeness - “Esta es su casa” (this is your home), “Buen provecho” ( Bon appetit) - and references to God in everyday life - “si Dios kiere” (if God wills), hence the word “ohala”, which comes from the Arabic “wa sha” a-l-lah” (God willing!). *** ****
Spanish historians believe that the word “Madrid” is of Arabic origin, and the city was founded by the Arab Emir Mohamed I, who erected a fortress to protect against possible attempts by Christians to return their lost possessions.
Spanish cuisine flourished under the Arabs. Without them, there would be no national Spanish dish, paella, because its main product, rice, was brought here by Muslims. Many cultivated plants arrived with them - lemons, apricots, bananas, eggplants, watermelons. When it comes to wine, the Arabs showed tolerance towards non-believers. Although the Koran prohibits the consumption of alcohol, Christian winemakers in Al-Andalus were able to continue producing wine. The Spaniards also inherited olives and olive oil from the Arab peoples. Now it is the calling card of the country.
Arab influences were felt both in Spanish folklore and in instruments. Vihuela came from Arabic lute, but in development it acquired new features. It was the predecessor of the guitar, which at first had four strings, then a fifth was added to it, in this form it was called Spanish. After the addition of the sixth string, the instrument acquired the form that exists to this day, and has acquired wide - nationwide - distribution.********
It is believed that the audience's cheers and exclamations of “Ole!” during the performance of the famous Spanish flamenco, come from the cries of “Allah!”, which were once given to Arab musicians and dancers.*********²
The Spaniards say: “Where the olive tree does not grow, the border of Arab rule lies.” Olive grows almost throughout the country, as do wonderfully smelling orange groves, peaches, and almonds. Throughout the country, water still gurgles melodiously in acequias - local irrigation ditches. Here, on a hot day, you suddenly realize like never before: this murmuring sound and life itself are one. A trickle of water, the bitterness of an olive, an orange filled with sweetness - this is also the merit of the Arabs, the fruit of their scientific knowledge and painstaking centuries-old work. A merit that the “Christ-loving army”, moving further and further south for decades, chose to happily forget about. **********
The influence of the Tatar-Mongols on Rus' Historians cannot come to a clear opinion on the issue of the influence of the Tatar-Mongol yoke on Rus'. Some believe that the Tatar-Mongols turned the course of development of Rus' for the worse, slowing it down for 200-300 years. Others believe that, on the contrary, it is the most favorable time. Representatives of the first group, who are the majority, are of the opinion that the invasion of the Tatar-Mongols was accompanied by massive destruction of Russian cities. Residents were mercilessly destroyed or taken prisoner - the population decreased, the lives of the townspeople became poorer, and many crafts disappeared. The conquerors inflicted no less heavy damage on the Russian countryside, where the majority of the country's population lived, and on agriculture. Peasants were robbed, draft animals and the peasants themselves were captured and taken captive to the Golden Horde, the entire harvest was raked out of the barns. The Mongol-Tatar conquest led to a significant deterioration in the international position of the principalities. Russia lost its route to the Baltic Sea, and trade fell into decline. The invasion dealt a strong destructive blow to culture. Numerous monuments of icon painting and architecture were destroyed in the fire.Karl Marx called the Tatar-Mongol yoke “a bloody swamp of Mongol slavery, which not only crushed, but also insulted and dried up the very soul of the people who became its victims.”
Representatives of the second group believe that the Tatar-Mongols, on the contrary, had a beneficial influence on the development of Rus' and education Russian state with centralized power, whose apparatus was practically a copy of the Mongol original.
Prince N.S. Trubetskoy believed that the Tatar-Mongol conquest “laid the foundation of all the features and originality of the Russian state” and gave its development characteristic Asian features.
N.M. Karamzin pointed to the Horde as the obvious reason for the rise of the Moscow principality. Following him, V.O. Klyuchevsky also believed that the Horde prevented debilitating, fratricidal internecine wars in Rus'. “The Mongol yoke, in extreme distress for the Russian people, was a harsh school in which Moscow statehood and Russian autocracy were forged: a school in which the Russian nation recognized itself as such and acquired character traits that made it easier for it to subsequently struggle for existence.”
Representatives of the second group also believe that if the Tatar-Mongol rule led to a slight reduction in relations with the West, then, on the other hand, it opened the way to the East for the Russian people and contributed to the start of trade with eastern countries.
The position of the historian L.N. Gumilyov is interesting. He believed that Rus' and the Golden Horde until the 13th century. Not only were they not enemies, but they even had some allied relations in the fight against the Livonian Order. Tatar-Mongol troops defended Russian cities for some payment. The Russian principalities that accepted the alliance with the Horde completely retained their ideological independence and political independence. “This shows that Russia was not a province of the Mongol ulus, but a country allied with the Great Khan, which paid some tax for the maintenance of the troops that it itself needed.” He also believed that this union entailed an improvement in the internal situation of the country, established internal order. The influence of the Tatar-Mongols on the culture, customs, and language of the Russian people is undeniable. A clear example is clothing: from long white shirts and long pants, the Russian people moved to colored trousers, morocco boots and golden caftans. The Tatar-Mongol yoke had a great influence on the position of a woman: prison life and seclusion are a product of the East. Words such as felt boots, pencil, iron, shoe, boar, customs, even glass, came into use in our everyday life precisely after the Tatar-Mongol yoke. There is a whole layer of words that fell into Russian language from Mongolian. The Tatar-Mongols created a postal service, and the word “coachman” appeared in the Russian language; they developed internal trade relations - and the words “bazaar”, “market”, “money”, “profit”, “treasury” come to us ". There is an opinion that we inherited the famous Russian mat from the conquerors. A significant part of the Great Russian folk songs, ancient, ritual and wedding, are composed in the so-called “five-volume”, in a major scale, which is characteristic of the Turkic peoples and, especially, the Mongols. Dancing was also influenced. Like Mongolian dances, Russian dances have the character of a competition of dexterity. flexibility and rhythmic discipline of the body. Dishes such as dumplings and pilaf came to us from Mongolian cuisine. There is an opinion that coffee was first brought to Rus' by the Tatar-Mongols. Similarities and differences As for the similarities, only one thing is indisputable: both the Arabs and the Tatar-Mongols, with their long presence in the occupied territories, influenced the cultural and social life of the conquered peoples. New words and expressions appeared in the language. IN daily life new customs and traditions entered. Unlike the Tatar-Mongols, the Arabs made a great contribution to the development of education, science, architecture, crafts and agriculture. They enriched the cuisine of the Spanish peoples. Conclusion Concluding our study, the following conclusions can undoubtedly be drawn. Firstly, both Spain and Russia, being on the outskirts of Europe, became a kind of shields on the path of the conquerors. These two countries prevented the aggressive campaigns of the Arab Caliphate and the Golden Horde against Europe, “the resulting enlightenment was saved.” Both Spain and Russia, thanks to the heroism of their citizens, served as bridges connecting different continents and civilizations. It was in the struggle against the Arab conquerors that the inhabitants of the Iberian Peninsula realized themselves as Spaniards as a nation. And in the struggle against the Tatar-Mongol yoke, the population of the scattered Slavic principalities united into one Russian people. Despite the many differences between Spain and Russia in historical terms, their considerable similarities are obvious. In this regard, holding events within the framework of the Exchange Years of Russia and Spain is intended to contribute to the study of the historical past, the rapprochement of the cultures of our countries, and their interpenetration.
