Argentina stands out among the countries of Latin America with its relatively high level of agriculture, the diverse structure of agricultural production and its rather small share in the value of GDP (12%). Argentina almost completely satisfies its own food needs, but besides this it is one of its leading exporters. occupy 138 million hectares in the country, but only a fifth of them are cultivated. The remaining areas are occupied by meadows and pastures.

Long-term cultivation of the same crops on the same lands has led to the fact that soil productivity is reduced, the state of pastures is deteriorating and erosion is developing - the most disastrous phenomenon for the soil. In some areas of Argentina, erosion has already developed so much that part of the land is simply taken out of agricultural circulation. Such phenomena lead to a massive outflow of the agricultural population from these places. The main characteristic of the country's agriculture is the specialization in grain and meat. This has developed both under the influence of the external market and in accordance with the natural environment that created all the prerequisites for the development of these industries.

Animal husbandry plays a leading role in the country's agriculture. Its main industry is the breeding and cultivation of mainly meat products. Argentina occupies one of the first places in the world in terms of the number of cattle. For the cultivation of cattle, the main area is Pampa. The natural pastures of the Pampas create an excellent forage base for him here. Due to the mild and humid climate, the grasses on the local pastures are characterized by a high content of the main nutrients. The main crops of fodder grasses are also concentrated in this area, the main of which is alfalfa.

Agricultural productivity in Argentina is low, especially in dairy production. Therefore, dairy farming does not play a big role here. Several areas of dairy farming have developed only around Buenos Aires and in the south of the province of Santa Fe, as good and juicy forages grow here. Agriculture in Argentina also specializes in sheep farming, which is the second major industry. This is one of the leading sheep-breeding countries in terms of the number of sheep, and in terms of wool shearing, Argentina is second only to Australia and New Zealand. Sheep breeding is widespread almost everywhere, but its specialized areas are concentrated in Pampas and Patagonia.

Agriculture in Argentina also plays a significant role in crop production. The main place here is occupied by traditional old crops for export - grain and oilseeds. Of the grain crops, the main place is given to wheat, although in terms of its export, Argentina is significantly inferior to such countries as the USA, Canada, Australia and France. Basically, wheat is cultivated in the same Pampas, and outside it is already less common. Unlike wheat, which was brought to this country by the Spaniards, corn is a local crop and it is grown almost everywhere here.

Agriculture in Argentina grows corn both as a food crop and as fodder corn. The cultivation of other grain crops is also of great importance in the country: oats, barley and rye. Thanks to all this, Argentina is a major exporter of feed grains. After grain crops, oilseeds - sunflower and flax - stand out in second place in terms of production value. Among these crops, oilseeds stand out strongly. In terms of the export of these crops, Argentina occupies the most advanced places in the world.

STATE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

TOGLYATTI SOCIO-ECONOMIC COLLEGE

According to the economic and social geography of the world

On the topic: ”ECONOMIC AND GEOGRAPHICAL CHARACTERISTICS

Argentina is in an advantageous economic position because:

1) It has extensive access to the ocean, so it has the opportunity to develop foreign economic relations with other countries, thanks to maritime transport.

2) The country has extensive land borders with neighboring states, with which it can conduct profitable trade relations.

1.2. Political geographical position.

The political and geographical position of Argentina is, in principle, advantageous, since it has few borders with less developed states, and the country has a water border from the East. Argentina is removed from the hot spots of the world.

2. Natural resources and conditions.

Forests in Argentina occupy 12% of the land fund. The vegetation of Argentina is very diverse: from tropical forests to semi-deserts in Patagonia and Pune. The most valuable are the coniferous forests of Mesopotamia and the humid Andes, as well as the quebracho forests in the Chaco.

In the northern Mesopotamia, subtropical forests grow with a variety of species composition. Here you can find araucaria, cedro, lapacho with valuable wood. To the south, shrub vegetation predominates; swampy areas are covered with reeds, reeds, water lilies, and elevated and dry - meadows with a rich grass cover. There are sparse forests of acacias, mimosas, ostrich trees, along the banks of rivers - palm groves.

Towards the south, there are more open grassy areas, the southern part of the province of Entre Rios is a cereal prairie and already represents a transitional area to the Pampas.

The Dry Pampas are characterized by stunted trees, thorny bushes, and hard grasses. Similar vegetation is common in the arid west, in intermountain basins.

The fauna of Argentina, although not as rich and diverse as in other countries of Latin America, has many rare species. These include the pampas deer, pampas cat, magellanic dog. Almost all of these animals live in the Andes and their foothills, as well as in the sparsely populated region of Patagonia. In Pune there is a relic spectacled bear.

In the open semi-desert spaces of Patagonia and in the Chaco savannahs, a puma is common. There are many rodents and armadillos in open spaces. In the Chaco, Mesopotamia, Patagonia, nutrias and otters are widespread.

According to the structure of the surface, the country can be divided into two halves: flat - northern and eastern, elevated - western and southern.

The mighty Andes stretch along the entire western border of Argentina, raised mainly during the Alpine orogeny. They are distinguished by the complexity and diversity of the geological structure.

In the northwest, between the northern border of the country and 28 o S. sh., at an altitude of 3000-4000 m lies a vast closed volcanic plateau - Pune. The mountains framing Pune from the east rise to 6500 m and end with majestic snowy peaks - nevados. South of 28°, the Andes narrow sharply. They reach their greatest height in the central part (between 32 and 37° S), where alpine pointed landforms predominate. The highest peaks of South America crowned with powerful snow caps rise here: Aconcagua (6960 m), Tupungato, Mercedaryo.

3. Population.

The population of Argentina is about 32.4 million people (1991) - these are Argentines, mainly immigrants from Spain, Italy, Central countries. Europe. But still, the vast majority of the population of Argentina are Hispanic Argentines. According to local laws, persons born in Argentina, regardless of the nationality of the parents, belong to the Argentine nation. On about. Tierra del Fuego preserved small groups (several dozen people) of Fuegians. Near the borders with Bolivia and Chile live mestizos who have preserved the Quechua language. Semi-nomadic tribes of Indians live along the border with Paraguay. language families tupi-guarani, mataco-mataguayo, guaicuru and others. The official language is Spanish. The dominant religion is Catholic.

Population growth for 1970-1996 was 1.5% on average per year. The economically active population is 9.4 million people (1976), including 36% employed in industry, 15% in agriculture, and 9% in transport. Persons of hired labor make up 72% of the economically active population (1971). 39% is concentrated in handicraft production total number employed in industry. In 1997, the unemployed accounted for 5% of the economically active population.

The average population density is over 9 people per 1 km 2 (1976). It is concentrated mainly in the central and northern parts of the country, especially in the basin of the river. Parana, where the average density is about 11 people per 1 km 2. Only 3% of the population lives in the south (0.7 people per 1 km 2). The highest density is in the Buenos Aires region, approximately within a radius of 600 km (over 100 people per 1 km 2).

The level of urbanization is very high (86%), with a third of the country's population living in the capital alone. Buenos Aires is one of the largest agglomerations in the world. Major cities are also Rosario, Cordoba, Mendoza, La Plata. Immigration played a large role in the growth of cities; after its termination, this growth was due to internal migration - the flight of peasants to the cities.

The share of the urban population in 1950 was 64%, in 1960 - 68%, in 1970 - 75%, in 1976 - 83.2%. According to the 1970 census, there were 15 cities with a population of St. 100 thousand people Large cities (thousand / inhabitants, 1975): Buenos Aires (with suburbs, 8435), Rosario (807), Cordoba (790), Mendoza (471), La Plata (479).

European immigration determined the rapid growth of the country's population from the second half of XIX in. It was most numerous at the end of the 19th - the first quarter of the 20th century: during this period, more than 100 thousand people entered Argentina annually. The factor of external migration was decisive in the dynamics of the population, and its growth rate - 3.5% per year - was the highest in the history of the country. With a decrease in immigration, they decreased between the first and second world wars, to 2.1%, and by the mid-60s to 1.4%.

European immigration to Argentina almost stopped after the world economic crisis of 1929-1933. economic difficulties in the country caused restrictions on the entry of migrants.

The age structure of the population of Argentina has always been distinguished by a higher proportion of able-bodied residents, which was determined by the composition of immigrants, among which able-bodied persons predominated. The reduction in the rate of population growth is also reflected in the dynamics of its age structure, which is changing towards a decrease in the proportion of young ages and an increase in older ones. Children under 14 years old made up 30% of the population in 1960, 28% in 1975, and the elderly (over 65 years old) - 5.5 and 8%, respectively. Average life expectancy increased from the mid-1950s to the end of the 1970s for men - from 60 to 65 years, for women - from 65 to 71 years.

Argentines, having absorbed the traditions of many peoples, created their own culture. Gauchos have become a kind of symbol of the country - translated from the language of the Indians "wanderers". Gauchos do not part with the guitar, and the whole country sings their songs. Argentines are generally very musical people. Argentinean music is known all over the world. The country even has a national holiday - tango day.

4. general characteristics economy.

Argentina is one of the most economically developed countries in Latin America with a relatively diverse economic structure, with a significant excess of the value of industrial products over agricultural ones.

Argentina is a typical example of a country economic development which was determined mainly by the needs of the world capitalist economy. In the international division of labor, from the very beginning, she was assigned the role of a producer of agricultural products. The rapid economic development of Argentina since the second half of the XIX century. was determined by such factors as the demand for agricultural products on the world (primarily European) market, the presence of the vast fertile plains of the Pampa and its relatively convenient geographical position in relation to the European market, European immigration, which gave the sparsely populated Argentina workers, without which economic activity would be impossible. development of its territory.

In the economic development of Argentina in the second half of the XIX - early XX century. Two main trends emerged: on the one hand, a rapid rise, which made it one of the most economically developed countries in Latin America, and on the other, increased economic dependence, turning it into a trading and financial semi-colony of British capital. The consequences of this leave their mark on the modern structure of the economy.

The economy of Argentina has acquired a pronounced export character. The main direction of the country's economic development in the last quarter of XIX - early XX century. was the production of agricultural products for the world market. By the end of the XIX century. determined its position in the world market as a supplier of meat, grain, wool. By the beginning of World War I, Argentina ranked first in the world in the export of beef, flaxseed, quebracho extract, and second in the export of wheat, rye, and wool.

The sectoral structure of the economy had a one-sided specialization and was purely agrarian in nature. In industry, mainly branches related to the processing of agricultural raw materials developed: food and flavoring (especially meat-packing, flour-grinding, sugar), leather, and textile. They were also heavily oriented towards the foreign market.

The subordination of the Argentine economy to the external market and foreign capital had a decisive influence on the location of the economy. Pampa became the main area for the production of export agricultural products, and industry was also concentrated here. As a result, the location of the economy in Argentina has acquired specific features: a significant part of the country's economic potential is concentrated within a radius of 600 km around Buenos Aires.

After the Second World War, the public sector received a noticeable development. Its formation took place both through the nationalization of enterprises of foreign capital with the payment of compensation (for example, the railways were nationalized), and through the state building of new enterprises and the creation of state companies. State-owned companies control all railroads and highways, coal and natural gas production, a significant part of oil production and electricity generation. However, a characteristic feature of the development of the public sector in Argentina is the intervention of foreign capital; one of the forms of such interference is the creation of mixed companies, where, along with the state, foreign capital also participates.

The positions of foreign capital in the country changed in different years depending on the political course of the successive governments. The military junta, which came to power in 1976, announced the abolition of previously adopted restrictions on foreign investment and the attraction of foreign capital into the country. The leading positions (more than half of foreign investment) are occupied by North American monopolies, which have pushed aside English capital that dominated here for a long time. Since the mid-1960s, capital from France, the FRG, Italy, and Japan has intensified its penetration into the Argentine economy, and it is channeled mainly into industry. Quite strong local monopoly groups have also formed in the country.

Modern Argentina is characterized by the instability of the economic situation, a long structural and economic crisis, low rates of economic development (one of the lowest rates in Latin America), which leads to an increase in the gap between Argentina and highly developed capitalist countries. However, in Latin America, Argentina stands out for its relatively high level of economic development.

5. Industry.

Modern Argentina has become a major industrial country, one of the most economically developed countries in Latin America. In terms of GDP per inhabitant, degree of urbanization, literacy of the population, skill level of the labor force, nutrition standards, the country is among the leaders among developing countries.

The location of the Argentine industry is characterized by a high territorial concentration, more than half of industrial production is produced in Greater Buenos Aires. The lion's share of heavy industry is concentrated in the lower reaches of the Parana, in the industrial belt between Buenos Aires and Santa Fe.

5.1. Fuel and energy industry.

The electric power industry is one of the fastest growing sectors of the Argentinean industry.

Energy in Argentina is based mainly on oil and gas fuels with an increasing role of hydro and atomic energy. In terms of energy production per capita, Argentina is ahead of other countries in Latin America.

The presence of own oil and gas fields has led to a certain bias in the generation of electricity, mainly at TPPs (3 /4 production). The use of hydropower and nuclear energy is growing. For the development of the latter, Argentina has both a raw material base and a developed R&D system. The country became the first in the region to use nuclear energy from its own uranium (the first nuclear power plant was built in 1974). The share of electricity produced at nuclear power plants is 13% of the total production.

But still, the basis of the Argentine electric power industry is thermal power plants - over 80% of electricity production. They have, as a rule, a small power, concentrated mainly in the Pampas. One of the main difficulties of the Argentine power industry is that fuel and energy resources are concentrated in the south and north of the country, and the main centers of electricity consumption are located in the coastal region. First of all, the most industrialized region of Pampa, and especially Buenos Aires, is experiencing a shortage of electricity.

The leading place in the electric power industry is occupied by two state-owned companies - "Agua and Enerchia Electrica" ​​(AEE) and "Service Elsktricos del Gran Buenos Aires" (SEGBA). The first company serves the interior of the country, the second - mainly Buenos Aires.

5.2. Mining industry.

Oil reserves are estimated at 500 million tons. Most of the oil production is carried out by the state company Yasimientos Petroliferos Fiscales (YAPF). Oil is also produced by foreign companies under a contract with YaPF (American Esso, Anglo-Dutch Shell). In 1980, 25 million tons of oil were produced in the country. The main mining areas are the provinces of Mendoza, Santa Cruz, Chubut, Rio Negro, Neuquen, the island of Tierra del Fuego.

Due to a significant increase in gas production, Argentina is turning from an importer into its exporter. Gas pipelines are being built to transfer gas to Brazil and Uruguay.

Argentina has a fairly developed oil refining industry. The largest oil refineries are located in La Plata and Campana. They are distinguished by a rather complex structure of their products, including a complex of production from crude oil processing to petrochemicals. The total capacity of oil refineries in the early 80s was 34 million tons. oil and natural gas in the Comodoro Rivadavia region of Patagonia.

Coal mining has not received much development in Argentina, given its relatively small reserves and low quality. Coal is mined in the Rio Turbio region (400-600 thousand tons per year). Argentina imports a significant part of the consumed coal. Mineral resource base of Pampa. Developed oil production (in terms of reserves 3rd place in Argentina), natural gas (2nd place), tin (Jujuy province, the main reserves of the country), sulfur (Salta province), lead-zinc ores (El Aguilar deposit in the province Jujuy), iron ore (Sapla deposit, the only one developed in Argentina).

5.3. Metallurgical industry.

Metallurgy is represented by the smelting of ferrous metals (in 1991, 1.4 million tons of cast iron and ferroalloys, 3.1 million tons of steel), lead, zinc, aluminum, and tin were produced.

Ferrous metallurgy mainly uses imported raw materials (only half of the needs are met through domestic production). Steel smelting (3 million tons, 1993) is three times higher than iron smelting.

In recent years, the industry has been modernized, new directions have been created (direct reduction of iron from ore, production of primary aluminum, etc.). Since 1990, production in the metallurgical industry has increased significantly (cast iron - 4 times, steel - more than 5 times), amounting to 0.3 and 1.3 million tons, respectively, in 1997. Argentina ranks third in Latin America, for the smelting of iron and steel. Full cycle metallurgy is represented by three state-owned enterprises: in San Nicolos, Ensenada, and Palpala (Jujuy province). Converting metallurgy plants and rolling mills are located in the lower reaches of the Parana River, where a metallurgical belt has developed between Buenos Aires and Rosario; they are all owned by private companies. The largest centers are Villa Constitución (steel smelting, production of seamless pipes), Rosario, Campana.

The complexity of developing the raw material base limits the potential of metallurgy. A characteristic feature of the industry is the presence of numerous and relatively small enterprises focused on the import of intermediate products (scrap metal, coke, copper). They are concentrated in the coastal region, away from local sources of raw materials.

Non-ferrous metallurgy, despite the fact that the country has considerable reserves of raw materials, is poorly developed. Among its industries, the production of lead (Puerto Vilelas), zinc (Comodoro Rivadavia, Zarate, Rio Tercero) using its own raw materials stands out. Built in 1974 one of the most powerful aluminum smelters in Latin America in Puerto Madryn laid the foundation for a significant aluminum industry. In connection with the discovery of large copper deposits (El Pachon), the development of the copper industry is promising.

5.4. Machine building industry.

Mechanical engineering is one of the young industries. Among the countries of the region, Argentina stands out for its relatively complex structure and rather high level of its production and especially high concentration compared to other industries.

The machine-building complex of Argentina produces a wide variety of products. The production of agricultural machinery, equipment for the light and food industries, and many household goods has reached a significant level of development.

One of the main industries is the automotive industry. Enterprises in this industry were created with the active participation of foreign capital and produce cars (mainly passenger cars) of European and American brands. In terms of the number of cars per 100 inhabitants, the country ranks thirteenth in the world (1 car per 14 inhabitants). Automobile production (1996) -179.4 thousand

3 /4 internal needs. At the same time, new industries, such as electronics, began to develop in Argentina earlier than in other Latin American countries. However, individual modern industries (electronics, machine tool building, production of industrial robots) are underrepresented. The issue of mastering imported technology is one of the most pressing for the engineering industry in Argentina.

The agricultural engineering industry of Argentina produces over 250 types of machines, and in terms of the number of tractors produced (11.3 thousand in 1996), the country is in second place in the region.

Shipbuilding has been developed, including the production of ocean, coastal, river, fishing and sports vessels.

The machine tool industry is developing. Argentina already exports some types of machine tools to neighboring Latin American countries.

The main engineering centers of Argentina: Buenos Aires, San Nicolas, Tucuman, Cordoba, Rio Tercero, etc.

5.5. Chemical industry.

The chemical industry has been developing in Argentina for a relatively long time, the primary role in it was played by household consumption industries: paint and varnish, perfumery, pharmaceuticals; production of technical oils.

Among the promising ones is the chemical and especially the petrochemical industry, since there is a network of pipelines.

Petrochemical centers for the production of basic hydrocarbons have been created. The trend towards self-sufficiency of the country with the most important chemical and petrochemical products and expansion of their export is growing. The foundation is being laid for the intensive development of fine chemistry and biotechnology.

The largest oil refineries are located in La Plata, Campana, Ensenada, Bahia Blanca and Zarate. They are distinguished by a rather complex structure of their products, including a complex of production from crude oil processing to petrochemicals. The total capacity of oil refineries in the early 80s was 34 million tons.

The rubber industry is developing rapidly, which is associated with an increase in demand for its products from the automotive industry. The main place in it is occupied by tire production, and only a small part is the production of rubber for the shoe industry.

Basic chemistry occupies a modest place, it is possible to single out the production of sulfuric acid, as well as mineral fertilizers. Sulfuric acid is produced both from native sulfur and from oil refining and non-ferrous metallurgy waste. Nitrogen fertilizers are obtained from the waste of the oil refining industry. In general, the production of mineral fertilizers is developed insignificantly.

In Argentina, pharmaceuticals are developed (based on the waste of the meat-packing industry), as well as the production of technical oils (tung, castor, linseed), tannins (quebracho tree extract is an excellent leather tanning agent).

Argentina's chemical imports account for 7%.

5.6. Forestry and woodworking industry.

The timber and woodworking industry is gaining more and more importance in Argentina.

total area forests - 70 million hectares (12% of the land fund), of which 60 million hectares are not available for development. In terms of timber reserves, Argentina ranks third in Latin America. The problem of raw materials is also solved by the creation of artificial forest plantations. Hardwood great importance has a quebracho tree used to obtain tannic extract (first place in the world). The most valuable are the coniferous forests of Mesopotamia and the humid Andes, as well as the quebracho forests in the Chaco. Their exploitation is hampered by the fact that they are located in remote areas, therefore, attempts are being made to artificial forest plantations in the most inhabited area - Pampa.

The forest resources of the Chaco are the most developed, but here, as a result of long-term predatory exploitation, the issue of serious protection and restoration is acute.

The pulp and paper industry has been in Argentina for a long time. In addition to forest resources, the raw material for it is reed beds in the Paraná delta, as well as sugar cane bagasse. It is currently one of the fastest growing and promising industries in the country. Argentina is largely self-sufficient in pulp and paper, and partially exports paper. The largest pulp and paper mills are located in Puerto Piraj, Puerto Esperanza, and Sarata. New enterprises are built mainly in Mesopotamia.

5.7. Light and food

The textile industry is one of the oldest and well developed industries. It is almost entirely based on its own raw materials. A large gap is characteristic between the individual stages of production: the primary processing of raw materials gravitates towards its sources, while the final stages of production - weaving, finishing fabrics - are located in the centers of consumption. The most developed industries are woolen, linen, and cotton.

One of the most typical and widespread branches of the Argentinean industry throughout the country is the leather and footwear industry. It is associated with the development of animal husbandry and a rich raw material base, in which the combination of leather raw materials with the production of tannin - kebrach extract is especially valuable. There are many handicraft enterprises in this industry. Argentina is one of the world's leading exporters of raw hides.

The food industry, traditionally the most developed industry, still retains its important role, despite the reduction in its share in the value of industrial products. Closely related to agricultural production, it is based on rich and varied raw materials. A characteristic feature of the Argentine food industry is its great export value. The meat-packing industry occupies a special place among the export industries. In terms of the scale and level of development of this country-specific industry, Argentina stands out in the capitalist world. It is one of the world's largest producers (more than 1 million tons) and exporters (about 600 thousand tons) of meat, mainly beef.

The modern meatpacking industry has grown out of saladeros, i.e. saltene, Argentina's first livestock processing factories that produced meat, leather and fat.

By the end 19th century a new type of enterprise arose - frigorific, which includes the process from slaughtering livestock to the production of various meat products, mainly chilled beef, which becomes the main export item from Argentina. This was facilitated by the appearance of refrigerated steamers.

At a modern large meat-packing enterprise, cattle are slaughtered, butchered, meat and various meat products are produced, as well as by-products. Technological processes are usually mechanized. They produce chilled beef and frozen meat, sausages, canned food, bone meal. Ice cream and chilled meat are intended for export. To obtain chilled meat, breeds of lean cattle grown on improved pastures are used; it has better taste compared to frozen meat, but its shelf life is shorter. Argentine chilled meat is in high demand on the world market. Most of the large highly mechanized slaughterhouses are located in Buenos Aires and near it (in La Plata, Zarata). In the port cities of Patagonia, slaughterhouses produce lamb. In addition to large slaughterhouses, there are many small enterprises operating for the domestic market in the country.

Of the branches of the food industry, flour milling, oil milling, the production of vegetable oils (sunflower, olive) and winemaking are of export importance. Argentina ranks fourth in the capitalist world in terms of wine production.

Mainly for the domestic market are industries: sugar, fruits and vegetables, canning. All of them are oriented towards raw areas.

6. Agriculture.

Among the countries of Latin America, Argentina is distinguished by a relatively high level of agricultural development, its relatively small share in the value of GDP (12%), and a rather diverse structure of agricultural production. It almost completely satisfies its food needs and is one of the leading food exporters to the world market.

The agrarian system is characterized by a complex interweaving of various social forms and types of agriculture. The basis of agrarian relations is the dominance of large landownership - latifundism. This system was transferred here from feudal Spain: the Spanish colonialists divided huge tracts of land among themselves. Landowners received the right of inalienability of their possessions: after the death of the owner, the entire estate passed to his eldest son and, thus, was preserved intact. This system of land tenure prevented the emergence of small independent farmers. The system of large land ownership that developed during the colonial period left its mark on the entire process of the socio-economic development of Argentina. Landowners-latifundists have become the main economic and political force in the country. Latifundism still continues to be the main brake on the growth of agricultural production.

The agrotechnical level of Argentine agriculture is quite low; a manifestation of this is the low productivity of the main agricultural crops, the low productivity of livestock. Animal husbandry is based on natural pastures. Long-term use of the same pastures leads to their depletion, and as a result, to a decrease in livestock productivity. The low rates of development of agricultural production cause the narrowness of the domestic market, which in turn hinders the economic development of the country as a whole.

Agricultural land occupies 138 million hectares in the country, of which 1/5 is cultivated, the rest is meadows and pastures.

The predominant type of specialization in Argentine agriculture is the commodity production of grain and meat. It was formed both under the influence of the external market and in accordance with the natural environment that created the prerequisites for the development of these particular sectors of the economy. This type is most characteristic of the Pampa area.

6.1. Plant growing.

In crop production, the main place is occupied by old, traditional crops of export value - grain and oilseeds. The main grain crop is wheat. In terms of its collection (about 8 million tons in 1980) and export (more than 3 million tons in 1980), Argentina occupies one of the leading places in the world, although it is significantly inferior to the USA, Canada, Australia, and France. Wheat is cultivated in the Pampas and is less common outside. The most common are hard and semi-hard wheat. The second most important grain crop is corn (collection of more than 6 million tons in 1980). Unlike wheat, which was brought here by the Spaniards, corn is a local crop, it is grown almost everywhere, but its main area of ​​\u200b\u200bdistribution is Pampa, with its warm climate and sufficient moisture. Corn is used both as a food and forage crop. Other cereals such as rye, oats and barley are of the same importance. Argentina stands out as a major exporter of feed grains.

In addition to grain fodder crops, crops of forage grasses are of great importance, alfalfa is the most common.

In second place after cereals in terms of the cost of crop production are industrial crops. Among them, oilseeds stand out - flax and sunflower, in the collection and export of which Argentina in some years occupies the first - second place in the world. They are also cultivated in Pampa. Other oilseeds are grown in peanuts - in the province of Cordoba, olive trees - in the provinces of Mendoza and San Juan, tung tree - in Mesopotamia. Of the sugar-bearing ones, sugar cane predominates (in the northwest). Among the fiber crops, cotton is the most common, grown in the north, in the Chaco. In Mesopotamia, tea is cultivated and a special variety of it is Paraguayan tea (yerbamate).

A significant place in crop production in Argentina is occupied by horticulture, vegetable growing, and viticulture.

Vegetable growing is represented by suburban farming, widespread near large cities, and, above all, near Buenos Aires, and specialized farms for growing certain types of vegetables in areas with the most favorable conditions for them.

Production of main agricultural crops (thousand tons)

6.2. Livestock.

Animal husbandry plays a leading role in the country's agriculture, its main branch is the breeding of cattle, mainly for meat. In terms of the number of cattle, Argentina occupies one of the first places in the world.

The main cattle breeding area is Pampa. This is due to the better condition of the forage base here. The natural pastures of the Pampas, due to good moisture and mild climate, are characterized by a higher content of nutrients. The main crops of forage grasses, mainly alfalfa, are also concentrated in Pampa. Dairy farming does not play a big role in Argentina. The main dairy breed is the Dutch-Argentine. Specialized dairy farming zones have developed around Buenos Aires and in the southern part of the province of Santa Fe, in areas with sufficient moisture and good succulent fodder.

Sheep farming is the second major branch of Argentine animal husbandry. Argentina is one of the leading sheep-breeding countries of the capitalist world in terms of the number of sheep (33 million heads in 1980) and wool shearing (about 200 thousand tons), it is inferior to Australia and New Zealand. Sheep breeding in Argentina is almost universal, but its specialized areas are concentrated in the Pampas and Patagonia. Pampa is dominated by meat and wool sheep breeding.

Of the other livestock industries in Argentina, poultry farming is developed, in mountainous areas - breeding of horses and mules.

6.3. Fishing.

Fishing is developed in coastal waters and in the Paraná and Uruguay rivers.

Despite Argentina's long coastline, seafood has never played a significant role in the Argentinean diet. In 1994, the total catch amounted to 939 thousand tons; the main commercial fish species are silver hake and blue whiting.

7. Transport.

Argentina has a fairly dense transport network and has a significant amount of freight and passenger traffic. However, the structure of the transport network reflects the long-term dependence of the country on the external market. Communication routes were built mainly by foreign monopolies during the development of the export economy in the second half of the 19th and early 20th centuries. Their main purpose was to ensure the export of agricultural products, so they were sent from inland agricultural areas to ports, primarily to the main port - Buenos Aires. As a result, Argentina has developed a pronounced radial transport network configuration centered on Buenos Aires, for which it is often referred to as a "fan country".

In external transportation, the leading place is occupied by sea and air transport, in internal - by rail and road. However, the latter is becoming increasingly important due to the relatively extensive network of highways, especially in the interior of the country.

7.1. Land.

The length of railways is 46 thousand km. Argentina ranks first in Latin America in terms of passenger traffic, but in terms of railway freight turnover, it is significantly inferior to Brazil and Mexico. The main disadvantages of the Argentinean railways are the diversity of gauges, low technical condition, sharply uneven distribution across the country. In fact, only the Pampa region has a dense railway network. The entire railway network of Argentina was nationalized after the Second World War and belongs to the state.

Most of the territory of Argentina has a flat terrain and is favorable for the construction of highways. The total length of highways is over 430,000 km, of which 65,000 are paved.

After World War II, pipeline transport developed intensively. Oil pipelines stretched from oil fields to the main centers of oil refining and consumption of oil products - to Buenos Aires, La Plata, San Lorenzo. The main gas pipelines are Campo Duran - Buenos Aires, Pico Truncado - Buenos Aires.

7.2. Water.

Inland water transport does not play a big role; navigation is developed mainly along the rivers Parana and Uruguay. In the lower reaches of the Parana there are leading river ports, which also serve as seaports of Rosario, San Nicolás, Santa Fe, Villa Constitución.

Maritime transport plays a dominant role in the external transportation of goods, it is also of considerable importance for internal communications between the coastal regions of the country, given the large length of its coastline. In terms of the size of the merchant and tanker fleet, Arginina is second only to Brazil in the region. A high concentration of port activity in Buenos Aires is typical, through which most of the country's foreign trade operations are carried out. The main seaports of the country: Buenos Aires, La Plata, Banya Blanca.

7.3. Air.

AT recent times aviation plays an important role. Argentina has regular air links with almost all countries in the Americas and with many countries in Europe. The civil air fleet has not only propeller-driven aircraft, but also jet aircraft. Air routes are served by national (mainly domestic airlines) and foreign companies. The largest airport on a global scale is Eseina (near Buenos Aires).

8. International economic relations.

In the international division of labor, Argentina acts primarily as an agrarian country, being one of the major suppliers of its agricultural products to the world market. It is one of the world's leading exporters of beef, grain, vegetable oils (especially linseed), wool, and raw hides. Since the mid-1960s, exports of manufactured goods have increased. Argentina's imports are dominated by industrial equipment and raw materials.

Argentina's main trading partner has long been the United Kingdom; in recent decades, its share in the country's trade turnover has declined sharply. Now the leading role in Argentina's exports belongs to Italy - 17%, followed by England -10%, the Netherlands -13%; in imports - USA (23%), Brazil (11%), Germany (10%), Italy (10%). The share of Russian countries in Argentina's trade turnover is small. An increasing place in Argentina's foreign trade is occupied by the countries of Latin America, which serve as the main buyers of its manufactured goods. Argentina is a member of the Latin American Free Trade Association (LAST), which accounts for ¼ of the country's foreign trade turnover. Argentina's economic ties with Latin American countries are multifaceted: joint projects are being carried out in hydrotechnical construction, scientific and technical research, the development of minerals, and so on.

In 1997, the value of exports amounted to 1464 million dollars, imports - 1096 million dollars. Export has a pronounced agrarian character, its main articles are meat, leather and hides, wool, wheat, corn, quebrach extract. Argentina imports machinery, industrial equipment and means of transport (45%), metals and hardware (12%), fuel and lubricating oils (7.5%), chemical products (7%), etc.

9. Economic and geographical differences.

Pampa (Eastern Pampa and Western Pampa; provinces of Buenos Aires, Cordoba, Entre Rios, La Pampa and most of the province of Santa Fe) - the leading agro-industrial region (80% of industrial production, 70% of the value of livestock and agricultural products, 87% number of cattle; 70% of the length of railways, 99% of the cargo turnover of ports). Stand out:

Greater Buenos Aires, where half of the country's industrial enterprises are concentrated (large slaughterhouses, chemical, machine-building, leather factories, textile and food enterprises, thermal power plants); area of ​​intensive horticulture, the main supply base for dairy products, vegetables and fruits; wheat-alfalfa region - a wide semicircle around the Western Pampa; corn district - between Buenos Aires and Santa Fe. In the zone adjacent to Rosario, the highest yields of corn are obtained. Oilseed flax is cultivated. Pasture animal husbandry is developed in the eastern part of the province of Buenos Aires.

The western region (the provinces of Mendoza, San Juan, San Luis) occupies the Central Andes, the southern part of the Pampina Sierra and Precordillera region, a relatively economically developed region of Argentina. The main branches of the economy are viticulture, winemaking, as well as the mining industry. The area is rich in minerals (lead, zinc, tungsten, beryllium, uranium are mined), has versatile energy resources (oil is the 2nd largest in Argentina after Patagonia; hydro resources). In semi-desert conditions, viticulture and vegetable growing are carried out with the help of artificial irrigation (water from the San Juan, Mendoza, Atuel, Diamante rivers). In addition, there is transhumant animal husbandry. The manufacturing industry is based mainly on the processing of agricultural raw materials (canning). Heavy industry is represented by oil refining, the chemical industry, and the production of building materials.

The northwestern region (the provinces of Jujuy, Salta, Catamarca, La Rioja, Tucuman) occupies the northern part of the Pampina Sierras and Precordillera. The main supplier of sugar in the Argentinean market. The main branch of the economy is the cultivation of sugar cane (province of Tucuman), as well as tobacco, rice and subtropical fruit crops. Mineral resource base of Pampa. Developed oil production (in terms of reserves 3rd place in Argentina), natural gas (2nd place), tin (Jujuy province, the main reserves of the country), sulfur (Salta province), lead-zinc ores (El Aguilar deposit in the province Jujuy), iron ore (Sapla deposit, the only one developed in Argentina). Processing of agricultural raw materials (sugar, tobacco, fruits, vegetables) predominates in the manufacturing industry.

Chaco (provinces of Formosa, Chaco, Santiago del Estero and the northern part of Santa Fe) occupies the Gran Chaco plains, one of the most backward regions of the country. Forestry is developed (the development of the quebracho tree, mainly for export). The main branch of the farm is cotton growing (over 90% of cotton crops in the country). The cotton-cleaning industry is developed (the town of Resistencia).

Mesopotamia (provinces of Misiones and Corrientes) is an agricultural district leading in the country in the cultivation of subtropical crops and the only one in the production of yerba mate and tung oil, which are of great export importance. The northern part is one of the main regions of logging and timber industry in Argentina. Agriculture and the industry for processing agricultural raw materials are developed in the South.

Patagonia (the provinces of Neuquen, Rio Negro, Santa Cruz, Chubut, the territory of the island of Tierra del Fuego) is a vast, sparsely populated territory south of the Rio Colorado; takes almost 1 /3 territory of Argentina. The main branch of the kh-va is meat and wool sheep breeding. The meat industry (mutton production) and the primary processing of wool are developed. Export of wool (Puerto Deseado, Puerto Ma-drin, Santa Cruz). Agriculture is poorly developed. In the North - fruit growing of export value. There are developments of oil (2/3 of Argentina's production), coal, iron ore, and about half of the water resources are concentrated. The natural resources of the region have not yet been studied enough. In the past, the area was a raw material appendage of the Pampas. In connection with the decentralization of the economy, economic development programs assign a large role to the economic development of the region (development of hydropower, oil refining, chemical and petrochemical industries, and metallurgy).

10. Environmental problems and ways to solve them.

The high concentration of industry in industrial centers exacerbates environmental problems. Buenos Aires, along with Sao Paulo and Mexico City, is one of the most polluted cities in Latin America. Pollution is growing here, both in the air and in the rivers - the tributaries of La Plata, on which the industrial enterprises of the city are located. Due to the fact that the owners of industrial enterprises seek to avoid the cost of treatment facilities, waterways are catastrophically polluted, and this is all the more dangerous, because. they supply the city with drinking water. Some attempts are being made by the city authorities to solve environmental problems. Thus, in the early 1980s, the so-called ecological belt of Buenos Aires, 23 km long, was created. It represents a part of the projected large ecological belt with a length of 180 km, which leads to recreation parks, forest areas around Buenos Aires.

11. Recreational resources.

Despite the severity of the climatic conditions of the region, Patagonia is one of the areas of lively tourism. The picturesque foothills of the Andes with deep canyons and dense forests that have retained their original appearance, blue mountain lakes with ice domes sparkling in the sun are distinguished by their peculiar color and unique charm. In guidebooks, this region is usually called the Argentinean Switzerland. In one of these beautiful places, on the shores of Lake Nahuel Huapi, the famous Argentine resort of San Carlos de Beriloche is sheltered - a center of mountaineering and skiing.

Even in Argentina, culture is seriously developed. The largest museums in Argentina include the National Museum of Fine Arts (founded in 1895), the National Historical Museum (founded in 1889), the Mitre Museum (founded in 1907), the Argentine Museum of Natural Sciences "Bernardino Rivadavia" (founded in 1823), the Museum of Spanish American Art "Isaac Fernando Blanco" and the National Museum of Decorative Arts; they are all located in the capital. Mention should also be made of the Museum of Natural History of La Plata, the wonderful Municipal Museum of Fine Arts in Rosario. In Buenos Aires, there are the largest libraries in the country - the National Library (founded in 1810), which has approx. 700,000 books and manuscripts, and the Central Library "Juan José Montes de Oca" (founded 1863).

12. List of used literature

1. ” Argentina ” , "International Economic Relations", Moscow, 1993

2 . Semenitsky S.A., encyclopedia “Countries of the world”, Smolensk, 2001

3. “Economic Geography of Capitalist and Developing Countries”, Moscow University Publishing House, 1986.

4. V.P. Maksakovsky, textbook “ Economic and social geography of the world ”, edited by V.V. Volsky, Moscow, Education, 1990.

5. “Geographical atlas of economic and social geography of the world Grade 10 ” , “ Bustard ” & ” DIK publishing house ”, 2001

6. "Big Encyclopedic Dictionary of a Schoolchild", scientific publishing house "Great Russian Encyclopedia", 1999.

7. R.A. Pimonov "Argentina", publishing house "Thought", 1987 G.

8. World Wide Web Internet.

Economic and geographical position. one

Tab. 1.-Administrative division. one

Nature and her character traits. 1

Geological structure. 2

Inland waters. four

Soils and vegetation. 5

Animal world. 6

Minerals . 6

natural areas. 7

Historical Essay. 7

Population. 9

Economic and geographical resources of Argentina. eleven

Economy of Argentina. 12

Agriculture. 12

Industry. fourteen

Mining industry. fourteen

Manufacturing industry. fifteen

Power industry. 17

Transport. eighteen

Foreign economic relations. 19

Economic-geographic regions. twenty

Culture and art.. 21

Literature. 22

Architecture and fine arts. 24

Art. 25

Music. 26

Theatre of Drama. 29

State structure.. 29

PERSPECTIVE... 34

Bibliography.. 36

Economic and geographical position.

Argentina ­­­­ occupies the southeastern part of South America, the eastern part of the island of Tierra del Fuego and nearby islands (for example, Estados). In the east it borders with Chile, and in the west it is washed by the waters of the Atlantic Ocean. Total area - 2,780,400 sq. km (1,073,518 sq mi). The capital and largest city is Buenos Aires. In the west it borders with Chile, in the north and northeast with Bolivia, Paraguay, Brazil, Uruguay. It is washed in the east by the waters of the Atlantic Ocean. Administratively, it is divided into 22 provinces (Jujuy, Catamarca, Cordoba, La Pampa, Corrientes, San Juan, San Luis, Misiones, Tucuman, Chaco, Entre Rios, Formosa, Chubut, Santiago del Estero, Santa Fe, Santa Cruz, San Luis, Salta, Rio Negro, Neuquen, La Rioja, Buenos Aires), Territory National (Tierra del Fuego and South Atlantic Islands) and Buenos Aires, Federal (Capital) District.

Tab. 1.-Administrative division

Administrative divisions	Area thousand km2	Population, thousand people (1990, census)	Administrative center
Buenos Aires, Federal (Capital) District (Buenos Aires, Capital Federal)			Buenos Aires
Provinces: Buenos Aires Juiuy Catamarca Cordoba Corrientes (Corrientes) La Pampa La Rioja Mendoza (Mendoza) Misiones (Misiones) Neuquen Rio Negro Salta San Luis Santa Cruz Santa Fe Santiago del Estero San Juan Tucuman Formosa Chaco Chubut Entre Rios	53,2 99,8 168,8 88,2 143,4 92,3 150,8 29,8 94,1 203,0 154,8 76,7 243,9 133,0 135,3 86,1 22,5 72,1 99,6 224,7 76,2		La Plata Jujuy Catamarca Cordoba Corrientes (Comentes) Santa Rosa La Rioja Mendoza (Mendoza) Posadas Neuquen Viedma (Viedma) Salta San Luis Rio Gallegos Santa Fe Santiago del Ester San Juan Tucuman Formosa Resistencia Rawson Parana
national territory Tierra del Fuego e islas del Atlántico Sur			Ushuaia

Nature and its characteristic features.

Shores.

In the North from the bay - the estuary of La Plata to the bay of El Rincon, the coasts are low and leveled; to the south - abrasion, with open bays of San Matias and Golfo Nuevo (which almost cut off the Valdes Peninsula), San Jorge and Bahia Grande, with narrow beaches, above which rise a series of terraces. In the extreme Southeast, Argentina includes the eastern part of Tierra del Fuego and the Estados Islands.

Geological structure.

The western part of Argentina is located within Hellish (Cordillera) geosynclinal folded belt, eastern - in the south South American platform. As part of the latter in Argentina, the marginal massif of the Pampina Sierras, the Chaco-Pampa depression and the Patagonian plate stand out. The Pampina Sierra massif is complex metamorphic. rocks of the Upper Precambrian and Lower Paleozoic, as well as granitoid intrusions of the Precambrian and Paleozoic age, which come out in horsts.

The graben-like depressions between them are filled with continental and clastic deposits of the Late Paleozoic and Mesozoic. In places, the crystalline rocks of the massif are overlain by the Cenozoic sedimentary cover. The Chaco-Pampa depression is filled with Devonian marine deposits, Permian glacial deposits, Triassic red and volcanic deposits, as well as Cenozoic clastic strata with a total thickness of St. 5000 m. To the south of the depression, an uplifted platform basement block (Northern Sierra of Buenos Aires) is known, in which metamorphic formations of the Lower and Middle Proterozoic emerge. Further south, there is a peculiar aulacogene-type structure (an intraplatform mobile zone - the Southern Sierra of Buenos Aires), composed of dislocated deposits of the Silurian, Lower Devonian, Carboniferous and Permian with a total thickness of up to 7000 m. The North Patagonian and South Patagonian massifs are distinguished in the composition of the Patagonian Plate ( Deseado), the base of which is composed of a metamorphic complex of the late Precambrian - early Paleozoic, for the most part overlain by Middle Upper Paleozoic detrital, Mesozoic and Cenozoic volcanogenic-sedimentary rocks, Neogene and Quaternary plateau basalts. To the north and south of the massifs are the Rio Colorado and Santa Cruz depressions, respectively, and the Chubut-San Jorge depression separates the massifs. All of them are filled with gently dipping Mesozoic and Cenozoic marine and continental deposits. The Andean folded belt within Argentina is represented by a Paleozoic folded structure, morphologically expressed by the Eastern Cordillera, Precordillera and Frontal Cordillera (marine deposits of the Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian and Devonian, Carboniferous-Permian molasses and intrusions of the middle and upper Paleozoic) and the Andean Mesozoic-Cenozoic folded complexes proper that make up the Main and Patagonian Cordillera. The first group contains Late Triassic volcanics, Jurassic and Cretaceous marine and lagoonal carbonate-terrigenous deposits, and weakly dislocated Cenozoic volcanic rocks on a Paleozoic basement. The second is composed of late Jurassic felsic volcanics, Cretaceous flysch sequences, and granitoids of the Jurassic-Cretaceous batholith. Folded structures were created in the middle Cretaceous and early Paleogene.

Relief.

The relief of Argentina clearly stands out: plains and lowlands in the Northeast, the Patagonian Plateau in the south, the Andes mountain ranges in the west. and hollow-separated arrays pampina sierras and Precordillera in the center, east of the Andes. The extreme northeast of Argentina is occupied by plains Gran Chaco- low-lying (height 25-60 meters) and swampy in the East and gently rising to 400-500 meters to the foothills of the Andes in the west. Southeast of the Chaco lies Mesopotamia(Rivers Parana-Uruguay). In the Northeast, the edge of the Brazilian Plateau (up to 468 m high) penetrates into it, deeply dissected by valleys of small streams. Further to the south-west there is a flat lowland with an abundance of permanent or temporary swamps and lakes, the southern part is occupied by a hilly loess plain.

On the right bank of the Parana stretches Pampas. In the East, it is low-lying (Low Pampa, height from 16-20 to 250 m); only in the South do the Sierras of Buenos Aires stand out sharply - Sierra del Tandil(height up to 500 m) and Sierra de la Ventana(up to 1243 m). The western, High Pampas (altitude 250-600 m) are covered in places with dunes and dunes, and in the South-West - with ancient water-glacial deposits. The plains of the Pampa are wedged in the North between the elongated, mainly meridional, flat-topped ridges of the Pampina Sierras and Precordillera, from 2 to 6 thousand meters high (the city of Belgrano in the Sierra de Famatina, 6250 m). They are separated by deep, extensive basins (bolsons) or longitudinal depressions (valles).

The entire south is occupied by the Patagonian plateau, represented by flat table surfaces - mesets, the height in the 3west is up to 2000 m, descending in ledges in the East, to the coast of the Atlantic Ocean. In the south, near the Strait of Magellan, and in the East of Tierra del Fuego, the plateau passes into a low accumulative plain. In the west of the country rise the Andes. In the extreme Northwest, it includes the southeastern part Central Andean Highlands, consisting of a high (about 4000 m) plateau of Pune with extensive saline depressions and ridges of ridges up to 5-6 thousand meters high. From the west, Pune is framed by cones of active (Llulyay-llaco, 6723 m, Antofalya, 6100 m, etc.) and extinct volcanoes of the Western Cordillera and its spurs, from the East - by the Forward Cordillera of the Andes up to 6720 m high (the city of El Libertador). From the east, the highlands are adjoined by medium-altitude (up to 2500 m) Subandian chains deeply dissected by river valleys. South of 27-28°S sh. the highlands wedge out, and the Andes continue with the Frontal Cordillera, to which from 31 ° S. sh. from the west, the Main (watershed) Cordillera joins. Up to 35°S sh. it is on this segment of the Andes that they reach their greatest height, many peaks exceed 6 thousand m (the highest point of the Western Hemisphere is Aconcagua, 6960 m), and the passes are 3500 m (La Cumbre, 3832 m). South of 35°S sh. only the Main Cordillera and separate massifs in the east remain. Again, low (up to 1000 m) chains of the Andes appear only in the south of about. Fire Earth.

Climate.

The territory of Argentina is located in three climatic zones of the Southern Hemisphere: tropical, subtropical and temperate. The climate of Argentina is determined by the position of the country in three geographical zones, the presence of the Andes mountain barrier in the West, and the Atlantic Ocean in the East. In the tropical and subtropical zones, moisture comes mainly from the Atlantic Ocean, and therefore, the amount of precipitation in the North and in the center of Argentina decreases from East to West. In the tropical zone, in the extreme Northeast, there is a constantly humid and hot climate, in the Gran Chaco - hot summer-humid, in Pune - continental high-desert. In the subtropics, in the Eastern Pampas and Mesopotamia - a uniformly humid warm climate, in the Western Pampa and the Pampina Sierras and Precordillera - arid, with hot summers and cool winters. Patagonia, lying in the "barrier shadow" of the mountains, has a cool semi-desert climate, and only on Tierra del Fuego does the climate become temperate oceanic. Average January temperatures on the plains of Argentina range from 28°C (maximum 46°C) in the Gran Chaco (the "heat pole" of South America), 20°C, 24°C in the Pampa to 10°C in Tierra del Fuego; July, respectively, from 18 ° С, 8 ° С, 12 ° С (the isotherm of July 10 ° С passes through Buenos Aires) to 1 ° С, but frosts up to -33 ° С are possible on the Patagonian mesetas, and the southern pampero winds cause frosts even in the north of Argentina (absolute minimum in the Gran Chaco - 10 ° C, in Pampa - 13 ° C). The annual amount of precipitation in the Northeast of the country is up to 1600 mm, in the Gran Chaco it decreases from 1400 to 400 mm (from the Northeast to the Southwest), in the East of the Pampa about 1000 mm, in the West 400-600 mm, in Patagonia 100 -300 mm. Pune less than 100mm; on the eastern slopes of the South Andes over 2000 mm (maximum in Argentina - about 5000 mm). Snow cover is stable only in the Andes, but snowfalls are observed up to 30 ° S. sh. In accordance with the climate, the snow line in Pune rises to 6000 m, to 33-34 ° S. sh. it descends to 4200 m, to 41 ° S. sh. - up to 2700 m, south of 32 ° S. sh. - reticulated glaciation.

Inland waters.

Almost all the country's rivers belong to the Atlantic Ocean basin or areas of internal flow; only in the Patagonian Andes between 41°30" and 44°S and from 46°S to 49°S the flow of Andean rivers and lakes is directed to Pacific Ocean. The river network is most developed in the humid and low-lying Northeast, where the main full-flowing and navigable rivers of Argentina - the Parana, the lower reaches of the Paraguay and Uruguay rivers - flow. West of 61°W The more arid plains and basins of the North-West of the country are deprived of flow into the ocean, with the exception of the transit rivers of the Gran Chaco - Pilcomayo, Rio Bermejo and Rio Salado and the small rivers of the Low Pampa. Also "transit" starting in the Andes rivers of Patagonia (Rio Colorado, Rio Negro, Chubut, Rio Deseado, etc.); In the interfluves, surface runoff is practically absent. Pune is also an area of ​​poor internal flow. The main river of the country - Parana, descending from the Brazilian plateau in a deep gorge, near the city of Posadas goes to the lowland, flows further in a wide (20-50 km) marshy valley and becomes navigable right up to the mouth. At the city of Corrientes, Parana receives its main tributary - the river. Paraguay, into which Pilcomayo, Rio Bermejo and other smaller rivers flow higher. At Mr. Santa Fe flows into Parana Rio Salado, into the bay - the estuary of Parana - La Plata - r. Uruguay. All these rivers (with the exception of Paraguay, where the flood is delayed by the swamps of the Pantanal until June) have a sharply pronounced summer rise in the level. Parana itself in Argentina is full of water throughout the year, but the maximum flow (in February-March) exceeds the minimum (in August-September) by 7.5 times.

The largest river system in the inland flow area is the Rio Bermejo - De Saguadero - Rio Salado - Chadileuvu - Curaco system, which collects runoff from the eastern slopes of the Andes and Precordillera and irrigates the Western Pampa. The regime of most of the rivers of Patagonia is regulated by large Predian lakes. In the upper reaches of the river, they have significant reserves of hydropower (the largest is the Rio Negro River). In the Andes south of 39° S. sh. many glacial lakes; the largest are Nahuel Huapi, Buenos Aires, San Martin, Viedma, Lago Argentino, Fagnano (in Tierra del Fuego). Usually, in shallow basins, there are lakes in the Mesetas of Patagonia (Musters, Colue Huapi, etc.), in the Pampa (the largest is Mar Chiquita) and in the region of the Pampina Sierras (mostly salty). In the semi-desert and desert regions of Patagonia, in the west of the Pampas and the Gran Chaco, in the Pampina Sierras, and especially in Pune, solonchaks are numerous (Salinas Grandes, Arizaro, etc.). The main groundwater basins are located in the area of ​​the Pampina sierras and precordillera (there are also outlets of mineral and thermal springs), in the Pampas and other troughs.

Soils and vegetation.

Argentina is very diverse: from evergreen tropical and subtropical forests on lateritic soils to semi-deserts and cold deserts. The tropical zone is dominated by forest formations. In the extreme northeast and on the eastern slopes of the Andes, moist dense forests are common, mainly on red soils. In the province of Misiones, they contain up to 150 species of trees per 1 ha and consist of Brazilian araucaria, mate (Paraguayan tea), cedro, and other valuable species. This is an important logging area in Argentina. In the form of gallery forests, they stretch along the rivers of the province of Corrientes, where they have a park character in the interfluves. Dry woodlands of the Gran Chaco on brown-red soils are one of the important natural resources of Argentina due to the dominance of quebracho trees in them. The windward slopes of the Andes and the Pampina Sierras are covered with moist mountain evergreen ("Tucuman") forests, which are replaced on the leeward slopes and to the south, in the subtropics, by xerophytic light forests that shed their leaves during the winter drought. The leeward alpine Pune is represented by shrubby semi-deserts and deserts (the upper limit of vegetation is up to 4500-5000 m).

In the subtropical belt of Argentina, mainly herbaceous and savannah formations are common. In the most humid south of Mesopotamia, heavily altered subtropical savannahs predominate - the “Mesopotamian Park”, in which groups of various palms and small trees (species of prosopis, acacia, etc.) are scattered among grassy vegetation. In the Low Pampas, the formerly forb-grass cover of the prairie type on reddish-black and meadow soils has now been completely destroyed. In the west, it is framed by a belt of xerophytic sparse woodlands with a predominance of Caldenum, and even to the west, where precipitation is less than 300 mm , the steppe dominates with xerophytic shrubs on gray-brown soils - dry Pampas. Further in the west, it passes into subtropical semi-deserts and deserts, extending as far as the Andes and Patagonia. The sands in them are usually fixed by xerophytic and succulent trees and shrubs (acacia, mimosa, chanyar, prosopis species) and feather grasses. The eastern slopes of the Andes in the subtropics up to 36 ° S. sh. and up to a height of 3000 m, they bear only individual specimens of xerophytic trees and pillows of cereals. Up to a height of 3500 m stretches a belt of tree-like cacti - cereus, above - a dry shrub steppe. The slopes of the Andes between 37-41 ° S. sh. from the foot to a height of 1600-1800 m are covered with dense evergreen coniferous-broad-leaved forests (so-called. hemigilea, or Valdivian forest) from araucaria, or cedrus, southern beeches - notophagus, alerse, etc .; these forests are not only of great industrial but also recreational importance. To the south, they pass into temperate mixed forests with an admixture of deciduous (in winter) species. As a result of the predatory exploitation of forests, the area under them is steadily declining (especially in the provinces of Chaco and Tucumán). Afforestation works are carried out on a small scale: forest plantations occupy 260 thousand hectares. In the east of the temperate zone, semi-desert dominates with brown soils and squat shrubs with tough grasses. To the west, in the Predian depressions, and in the north of Tierra del Fuego, they are replaced by grass-shrub steppes on chernozem and chestnut soils, and in the center of the island - cryophytic subantarctic meadows and peat bogs.

Animal world.

The animal world belongs almost entirely to Chilean-Patagoniansubdomains Neotropical region. Only the extreme northeast belongs to the Guiano-Brazilian subregion. Only there, in Argentina, there are some monkeys and cats, vampires, martens, tapirs, peccaries, anteaters, corzuela deer - mazam, capybara, toucans. There are especially many snakes in the Chaco. For most of Argentina (the fauna of the Pampas is the most exterminated), numerous bats, guanaco, viscacha, mara and tuku-tuco, pampas deer, Azar fox, skunks, coypu, rhea are characteristic; only in Pune live the vicuña and the almost exterminated chinchilla (chinchilla), and in the forests on the border with Chile - deer uemul and pudu, otter huelin. The cougar is found throughout the country, along the Paraná there is a jaguar and various armadillos. A lot of birds. The waters are rich in fish, and in the ocean and sea animals.

There are 13 national parks in Argentina, which preserve mainly mountain-glacial and volcanic landscapes, lakes, waterfalls, dense mixed and araucaria forests. The largest and most famous national parks: Iguazu, Lanin, Los Alerces, Los Glaciares, Nahuel Huapi, Perito Francisco Moreno, Tierra del Fuego, Finca el Rey.

Minerals .

The mineral resources of Argentina are poorly identified. Deposits of oil and gas, coal, ores of copper, lead, zinc, uranium, beryllium, etc. are known. Oil and gas deposits are located within the Chubut-San Jorge depressions (basin Comodoro Rivadavia), Mendoza and Neuquen. Proven oil reserves 320 million tons (1977), natural gas 192 billion m3. The deposit of bituminous bituminous coals (Rio Turbio basin, Santa Cruz Province) is associated with Paleogene deposits. Coal reserves 695 million tons (1977). Among copper deposits, the most interesting is the porphyry copper type, associated either with the Cretaceous-Paleogene volcano-plutonic melliferous belt of Chile, or with young subvolcanoes. (Panon), total copper reserves of 6 million tons. Lead-zinc deposits are genetically related to the Early Paleozoic intrusions (El Aguilar) or with Late Paleozoic and Early Paleogene volcanics; total reserves of lead 900 thousand tons, zinc 1 million tons. In terms of uranium reserves (24 thousand tons, 1977), Argentina ranks first in Latin America; significant deposits of uranium of the infiltration type in sedimentary rocks (Don Otto, Malargue, Sierra Piitada) and hydrothermal (La Nickelina, San Sebastian). In terms of beryllium reserves, Argentina ranks second in Latin America. Beryllium deposits are confined to pegmatites in the Precambrian rocks of the Pampina Sierra massif (Las Tapyas, La Victoria, Las Palomas, etc. deposits). Small deposits of ores of iron, tin, tungsten, antimony, vanadium, as well as sulfur, borates, fluorite, barite are known.

natural areas.

Mesopotamia - humid, with elevated forested North, marshy lowlands of the Center and savannah plains of the South; plains Gran Chaco with a semi-continental tropical climate, transit rivers and xerophytic light forests; Eastern Pampa - wet and low-lying, once covered with subtropical prairie; Western Pampa - dry and sublime, almost devoid of external. runoff, with dry shrub steppe and semi-deserts and deserts; Patagonia - semi-desert plateau, deeply dissected by transit rivers; pampinskie sierras - transitional area between the plains and the Andes; tropical humid forested eastern ranges of the Central Andes (and north of the Pampina Sierras) with dense and deep erosional dissection; alpine tropical desert pune plateau ; arid slopes of the Andes and Precordillera between 27 - 35°S sh.; wet Subtropical Andes with, therefore, glaciation, terminal lakes and evergreen mixed forests; medium-altitude, heavily dissected slopes of the Patagonian Andes, covered with mixed forests.

Historical Essay.

Before the arrival of the Spaniards, the territory of modern Argentina was inhabited by Indian tribes. In 1536, the Spanish conquistador Pedro de Mendoza founded the settlement of Buenos Aires. However, besieged by the Indians, after 5 years it was destroyed and abandoned by its inhabitants. In 1580, the city was founded a second time (by Juan de Garay) and the Spaniards were established in the La Plata area. In 1617, on the basis of Buenos Aires, the governorship of La Plata was established, which included the territories of modern Argentina and Uruguay. In 1776, the city became the capital of the Laplat Viceroyalty, which included the territories of present-day Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay and Bolivia.

The history of Argentina as an independent state begins with the May Revolution of 1810. On May 25, the Spanish Viceroy was deposed in Buenos Aires and power passed into the hands of the local government junta. The break with the mother country did not occur immediately, but after a tense struggle of patriotic forces against the colonial nobility and conservative elements in the Creole party itself. An outstanding role in this struggle was played by a number of representatives of the patriotic trend in the country, including national hero War of Independence, General José de San Martin. On July 9, 1816, independence was proclaimed by the congress in Tucuman. United Provinces of La Plata from the Spanish metropolis. Since then, May 25 and July 9 are the national holidays of the Argentine people.

In 1817-1818. General San Martin's army made the famous crossing of the Andes and liberated Chile. Two years later, the expeditionary army of San Martin landed in Peru and on July 9, 1820 triumphantly entered its capital, Lima. The victory of San Martin in Chile and Peru, along with the victories of the liberation armies of Bolívar in the north of the continent, practically ensured the expulsion of the Spaniards from all their South American colonies.

With the end of the war for independence, a tense struggle unfolds within the country. The big landowners and clerics rebel against the dominant role of Buenos Aires, an outpost of forces that reflected the interests of liberal merchant capital and the emerging urban bourgeoisie. The inspirer of the latter was the outstanding progressive figure B. Rivadavia, who passed, in particular, the law on the inalienability of state lands and the provision of plots for the use of colonies on the basis of long-term lease. This reform met with fierce opposition from the reactionaries. In 1835, reactionary circles seize power and establish the dictatorship of Rosas. A dark and long period begins in the history of Argentina, which ends in 1852 with the victory of the united forces over tyranny and the adoption in 1853 in the city of Santa Fe of the constitution, which later became the fundamental law of the country.

Domingo Faustino Sarmiento was an outstanding statesman of the period of the struggle against the dictatorship of Rosas, for the formation of the Argentine state, an educator and publicist. As President of Argentina (1868-1874), Sarmiento carried out a number of activities that contributed to the economic, political and cultural growth of the state.

However, the preservation and strengthening of large landed estates (latifundia) and the remnants of the colonial era hinders the development of the country's productive forces. As a result, before late XIX in. Argentina becomes an object of exploitation by international monopoly capital, mainly English. English trusts are gaining ground in the country's economy as owners of rail transport and the meat-packing industry. After the First World War, the capital of Germany, France, the Netherlands, and also the United States, which, after the end of the Second World War, occupies a dominant position in the economy of Argentina, actively competes with British capital.

The appearance of the Argentine proletariat as a class dates back to the time when foreign monopoly capital entered the country. Since then, the most progressive trends in the Argentinean public life associated with the activities and struggles of the working class. The victory of the October Revolution in Russia and the creation in 1918 of the Communist Party Argentina marks a new stage in the development of the revolutionary and liberation movement in the country.

After the First World War, the crisis of the socio-economic system in the country worsened. This process was especially intensified under the influence of the world economic crisis of 1929-1933. In 1930, the military coup that overthrew the bourgeois-liberal government of Yrigoyen opens the era of military coups and the dominance of the military in the political life of the state

Having profited from the supply of food to the warring countries during the Second World War, the ruling classes of Argentina sought to strengthen their internal position and secure a more independent and advantageous position in the capitalist world. The government of General Perón, which came to power in 1946, along with the proclamation of nationalist and "anti-imperialist" slogans, also gave great attention to social demagogy, to attract the masses to the side of the idea of ​​"harmony of labor and capital" and "class cooperation". The maintenance of social demagogy required the satisfaction of some urgent needs of the people. Under conditions of continued favorable economic conditions, the exploiting classes went for it. But by the beginning of the 50s, when the economic boom ended, the socio-economic program of Peronism ceased to meet the interests of the ruling circles, and Peron was overthrown by another military coup.

The interests of the representatives of the oligarchy and capital who came to power in 1955 are intertwined with the interests of the American and British monopolies. The constitutional government of Frondisi, which came to power in 1958, and the government of radicals led by Ilia, formed as a result of the presidential elections in 1963, are displaced by military coups (the first in 1962, the second in 1966). The new military government prohibits the activities of all political parties in the country and dissolves the parliament. Not only the executive, but also the legislative power passes into the hands of the president appointed by the military junta.

The plan soon announced by the government to "save the republic" and "modernize the country" is based on the policy of "open doors" for foreign capital - the denationalization of a significant part of state-owned enterprises and their transfer to private firms, on the every possible encouragement of "competitive entrepreneurship", i.e., the activities of large and monopolistic capital. The new lease law, which gives landowners the right to set their own terms of lease or, otherwise, expel tenants from the land they occupy, threatens to evict more than 150,000 peasant families. Measures are being taken to freeze wages, the peso is being devalued on the terms of the International Monetary Fund, and indirect and direct taxes are being raised. To increase exports in order to balance external debt, a course is taken to reduce domestic consumption; in order to balance the state budget, workers and other personnel employed at state enterprises are being laid off (the number of unemployed reached 750,000 by the beginning of 1968). At the same time, the so-called Law on the Civil Defense Service to introduce, at the discretion of the government, permanent martial law in peacetime. In 1967, the government passes the "Protection of Democracy" law, which provides for repressive measures (including long prison terms) against those guilty of "communist or other extremist activities."

Population.

Demography. In 1997, the population of Argentina was estimated at 35 million people. According to the 1991 census, a person lived in the country; If we compare this figure with the data of the previous 1980 census - people, then the average population growth for this period was 1.1% per year. The birth rate in 1995 was 19.5 per 1,000 people, and the death rate was 8.6 per 1,000 people. Infant mortality was 28.8 per 1,000 births. Life expectancy is 68.2 years for men and 75 years for women.

Ethnic composition. Unlike some other countries in South America, the population of Argentina is dominated by a Caucasoid element - the descendants of Spanish colonists and emigrants from European countries, mainly from Italy. The indigenous people of Argentina and other areas of the east coast did not create a developed civilization like the Inca, they maintained communal-tribal relations and led a nomadic lifestyle. The first Spanish settlers entered this territory in three ways: by sea through Buenos Aires and by land - from Chile, overcoming the Andes, and from Peru, through the territory of modern Bolivia.

The ruling classes and the educated part of society preserved the Spanish traditions and way of life; owning huge estates and mines, they were distinguished by a high level of culture and refinement. From the unions of the Spaniards with Indian women, mestizos were born, which constituted a significant part of the population. Such a mixed - Spanish-Indian - origin was the famous gauchos - riders and cattle breeders who lived in the Pampa and played in the history of Argentina about the same role as cowboys in the United States.

The transformation of Argentina from a country of mestizos into a country with a predominantly white population occurred in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The beginning of this process is associated with the names of positivist thinkers Domingo Faustino Sarmiento, Juan Bautista Alberdi and Bartolome Mitre. The concept of the country's development developed by them provided for an increase in the proportion of the population with European roots (through increased immigration from Europe) and the gradual assimilation of mestizo gauchos. The Argentine sociologist Jose Ingeneros cites the following data: in 1852, the population of Argentina was approximately 800 thousand people, including 552 thousand mestizos, 100 thousand Indians, 15 thousand blacks, 110 thousand mulattos and 22 thousand whites. By 1914 the total number had risen to 7, including 4 million whites, 3 million mestizos, 300,000 mulattoes, and 40,000 Indians. In 1932, the population of Argentina was estimated in people, of which only approx. 1 million were not white. In 1947, when the country's population was close to 16 million people, approx. 89% were whites of European origin, 9% were mixed group - mestizos and 2% were Indians.

The most powerful wave of immigration into the country falls on the years of the tenure of President Julio Rochi (1880-1886 and 1898-1904). In the very first year of his presidency, 27 thousand immigrants arrived in Argentina; their influx peaked at 1,000. human). While not yet president, General Roca led military expeditions against the Indians, during which their numbers were greatly reduced; Indian tribes survived mainly in the north of the country. The seizure of lands belonging to the Indians marked the beginning of the prosperity of Argentina. The government received at its disposal vast areas suitable for both agriculture and grazing; a significant part of these lands was transferred to the property of the soldiers who participated in the campaigns against the Indians, and politicians who advocated the organization of these campaigns. The value of land rose rapidly. The influx of foreign investment increased, and the development of steamship communication made closer ties with Europe. Grain exports soared, and Argentina soon gained a reputation as one of the richest countries in the world. Despite financial crises and political unrest, the flow of immigrants from Europe, attracted by reports of the prosperity of this country, increased until the very beginning of the First World War. From 1900 to 1914, almost 4 million people arrived in the country, of which approx. 4/5 were Italians and Spaniards. The share of Italians alone accounted for up to 45% of the total number of immigrants, although many of them later returned to their homeland. Repeated crossings of the Italians across the Atlantic earned them the nickname "migratory birds" or "swallows" (Spanish: golondrina) in Argentina.

Economic and geographical resources of Argentina.

Argentina is an agro-industrial country, one of the most economically developed countries in Latin America. In terms of the production of national income per capita ($624 in 1995), it occupies a prominent place among Latin American countries. Although the share of industry in the gross national product significantly exceeds the share of agriculture (in 1995, 38.4% against 14.2%), the state of agriculture still determines the country's economic situation. Agricultural products provide over 90% of export earnings

In terms of industrial development, Argentina is now much closer to industrialized countries. Argentina's share in industrial production Latin America is about 14%. Industry employs 25.8% of the active population

In the decisive sectors of the Argentine economy, foreign capital plays a significant role. The total amount of foreign investment (at the end of 1995) was $2.5 billion, including $992 million. The US monopolies play a leading role in the meat-packing, food, machine-building, electrical, cement, and other industries. English capital maintains positions in the meat-packing industry, forestry, and trade. In recent years, the influence of the West German monopolies has increased.

The public sector has received great development in Argentina. The state monopolized the extraction of natural gas, coal, iron smelting, more than 60% of steel smelting, over 70% of electricity production, 2/3 of wool production.

The economic policy of the Ongania government is aimed at the development of the private capitalist sector in the economy, at the widespread attraction of foreign capital, especially in the heavy industry, at the partial curtailment of the public sector in the economy. In June 1967, the government passed a law granting foreign companies the right to develop oil and gas fields. The National Council for Economic Development of Argentina (CONADE) has developed a program for the development of the economy for 1995-1999, providing for an average annual growth rate of gross national product of 5.7% (on a per capita basis - 4%) with capital investments constituting 20% ​​of the gross national product. However, in 1996 the gross national product decreased by 1.2% compared to 1995, and in terms of per capita - by 2.9%.

Economy of Argentina.

Agriculture.

Among the countries of Latin America, Argentina is distinguished by a relatively high level of agricultural development, its relatively small share in the value of GDP (12%), and a rather diverse structure of agricultural production. It almost completely satisfies its food needs and is one of the leading food exporters to the world market.

The agrarian system is characterized by a complex interweaving of various social forms and types of agriculture. The basis of agrarian relations is the dominance of large landownership - latifundism. This system was brought here from feudal Spain: the Spanish colonialists divided huge tracts of land among themselves. Landowners received the right of inalienability of their possessions: after the death of the owner, the entire estate passed to his eldest son and, thus, was preserved intact. This system of land tenure prevented the emergence of small independent farmers. The system of large land ownership that developed during the colonial period left its mark on the entire process of the socio-economic development of Argentina. Landowners-latifundists have become the main economic and political force in the country. Latifundism still continues to be the main brake on the growth of agricultural production.

The agrotechnical level of Argentine agriculture is quite low; a manifestation of this is the low productivity of the main agricultural crops, the low productivity of livestock. Animal husbandry is based on natural pastures. Long-term use of the same pastures leads to their depletion, and as a result, to a decrease in livestock productivity. The low rates of development of agricultural production cause the narrowness of the domestic market, which in turn hinders the economic development of the country as a whole.

Agrarian reform is one of the most acute problems of the Argentine economy.

Agricultural land occupies 138 million hectares in the country, of which 1/5 is cultivated, the rest is meadows and pastures. Long-term monospecialization on the same lands has led to a decrease in soil productivity, a deterioration in the state of pastures, and the widespread development of one of the most disastrous phenomena - erosion. In some areas (for example, in the province of La Pampa), the degree of soil destruction by erosion is so strong that part of the land here is practically unsuitable for agricultural use. This is one of the reasons for the massive outflow of the rural population from here.

The predominant type of specialization in Argentine agriculture is the commodity production of grain and meat. It was formed both under the influence of the external market and in accordance with the natural environment that created the prerequisites for the development of these particular sectors of the economy. This type is most characteristic of the Pampa area.

Animal husbandry plays a leading role in the country's agriculture, its main branch is the breeding of cattle, mainly for meat. In terms of the number of cattle, Argentina occupies one of the first places in the world.

The main cattle breeding area is Pampa. This is due to the better condition of the forage base here. The natural pastures of the Pampas, due to good moisture and mild climate, are characterized by a higher content of nutrients. The main crops of forage grasses, mainly alfalfa, are also concentrated in Pampa. Dairy farming does not play a big role in Argentina. The main dairy breed is the Dutch-Argentine. Specialized dairy farming zones have developed around Buenos Aires and in the southern part of the province of Santa Fe, in areas with sufficient moisture and good succulent fodder.

Sheep farming is the second major branch of Argentine animal husbandry. Argentina is one of the leading sheep-breeding countries of the capitalist world in terms of the number of sheep (33 million heads in 1980) and wool shearing (about 200 thousand tons), it is inferior to Australia and New Zealand. Sheep breeding in Argentina is almost universal, but its specialized areas are concentrated in the Pampas and Patagonia. Pampa is dominated by meat and wool sheep breeding.

Of the other livestock industries in Argentina, poultry farming is developed, in mountainous areas - breeding of horses and mules.

In crop production, the main place is occupied by old, traditional crops of export value - grain and oilseeds. The main grain crop is wheat. In terms of its collection (about 8 million tons in 1980) and export (more than 3 million tons in 1980), Argentina occupies one of the leading places in the world, although it is significantly inferior to the USA, Canada, Australia, and France. Wheat is cultivated in the Pampas and is less common outside. The most common are hard and semi-hard wheat. The second most important grain crop is corn (collection of more than 6 million tons in 1980). Unlike wheat, which was brought here by the Spaniards, corn is a local crop, it is grown almost everywhere, but its main area of ​​\u200b\u200bdistribution is Pampa, with its warm climate and sufficient moisture. Corn is used both as a food and forage crop. Other cereals such as rye, oats and barley are of the same importance. Argentina stands out as a major exporter of feed grains.

In addition to grain fodder crops, crops of forage grasses are of great importance, alfalfa is the most common.

In second place after cereals in terms of the cost of crop production are industrial crops. Among them, oilseeds stand out - flax and sunflower, in the collection and export of which Argentina in some years occupies the first - second place in the world. They are also cultivated in Pampa. Other oilseeds are grown in peanuts - in the province of Cordoba, olive trees - in the provinces of Mendoza and San Juan, tung tree - in Mesopotamia. Of the sugar-bearing ones, sugar cane predominates (in the northwest). Among the fiber crops, cotton is the most common, grown in the north, in the Chaco. In Mesopotamia, tea is cultivated and a special variety of it is Paraguayan tea (yerbamate).

A significant place in the crop production of Argentina is occupied by horticulture, vegetable growing, and viticulture.

Vegetable growing is represented by suburban farming, widespread near large cities, and, above all, near Buenos Aires, and specialized farms for growing certain types of vegetables in areas with the most favorable conditions for them.

Production of main agricultural crops (thousand tons)

Industry.

Mining industry.

Argentina has a fairly diverse mineral resource base. The country is noticeably distinguished by its reserves of strategic raw materials - uranium ores, beryllium, and tungsten. However, the main mineral deposits are located in sparsely populated and poorly developed areas, far from the main economic centers, which greatly complicates their development.

Of the fuel and energy resources, oil (18.3 million cubic meters in 1997), uranium raw materials and gas (3.7 billion cubic meters) are of the greatest importance. The main oil and gas production sites are confined to the Mesozoic sedimentary rocks of the Patagonian platform troughs (Sara, Caleta-Olivia, Comodoro Rivadavia, Cerro Dragon), as well as to the Andes and Precordelier intermountain troughs (Loma de la Plata, Varrancas, Tupungato, Campo Duran).

The country is not rich in coal, and it is of low quality. It is mined in the provinces of Santa Cruz (Rio Turbio) and Rio Negro (Pico Quemado).

Uranium ores are mined in the provinces of Mendoza (Sierra Pintada, Malargue), Chubut (Los Adobes), Salta (Don Otto), beryllium and tungsten - in the province of San Luis (Las Tapyas, Los Condores).

A significant part of the iron ore is mined in the provinces of Jujuy (Sapla) and Rio Negro (Sierra Grande). Argentina is fairly well supplied with alloying metals, especially manganese (Faralion Negro, Agua de Dionisio, Dean Funes). Significant reserves of non-ferrous metal ores: copper (Famatina, El Pachon, Capillitas), lead and zinc (El Aguilar, Castaño Vieja), titanium (in the south of the province of Buenos Aires), tin and silver (in the northwestern Andes) , gold (Neuquen, Tierra del Fuego). Argentina has significant reserves of sulfur (Tusgle, Julia, El Sosneado), borates (Puna de Atacama, Blankita, Porvenir), barytes (Diamante), fluorites (Ilda, Nolasco), salt, building materials: gypsum, asbestos ( La Rioja), clay, marble and granite (in the Pampina Sierras), feldspar, etc.

Manufacturing industry.

The manufacturing industry of Argentina is distinguished by a relatively large share of heavy industry in it. However, the traditional industries, light and food, continue to be important.

The structure of the manufacturing industry (in % of the value of manufactured products in 1990):

Food and tobacco - 19.5
textile, clothing, leather and footwear - 9.8
woodworking and pulp and paper - 6.6
chemical - 14.9 oil refining - 19.2
production of building materials - 4.5
ferrous metallurgy - 5.5
non-ferrous metallurgy - 1.0
mechanical engineering-18.7
others - 0.3

The manufacturing industry is characterized by its high concentration in port cities and, above all, in Buenos Aires.

Ferrous metallurgy is developed in the country. Full cycle plants are located in San Nicolás, Ensenada and Palpal. The first two focus on imported raw materials and partially use iron ore from the Sierra Grande deposit and Rio Turbio coal. The smelter in Palpala uses local iron ore (Sapla deposit) and charcoal.

Converting metallurgy plants are located in the lower reaches of the Parna, where a whole metallurgical belt has developed from Buenos Aires to Rosario.

Non-ferrous metallurgy is poorly developed, although Argentina has considerable reserves of raw materials. Produced: aluminum (Puerto Madryn), lead (Puerto Vilelas, Mercedes), zinc (Comodoro Rivadavia, Zarate, Rio Tercero), copper (El Pachon), tin (Comodoro Rivadavia, Zarate, Mercedes).

Mechanical engineering belongs to the younger branches of the Argentinean industry. Compared with other industries, it is characterized by a relatively complex structure and a high level of production.

The most developed are transport engineering, including automotive, agricultural engineering and electrical engineering. In transport engineering, the main place belongs to the automotive industry. Branches of the largest foreign corporations operate in the country - the North American Ford, the French Renault and Peugeot, the Italian Fiat, and the German Volkswagen. Automotive factories are concentrated in Buenos Aires and Cordoba.

Argentina has its own shipbuilding industry (production of river and sea vessels and tankers). The main centers are Buenos Aires, Ensenada, Tigre, San Fernando. The aircraft factory is located in Cordoba.

Agricultural engineering is an old industry, the main place in it is occupied by tractor building (Buenos Aires, Cordoba). Railway engineering is developed (San Cristobal, Tafi Viejo, Cruz del Eje, Junin).

In the electrical industry, an important place belongs to the production of household electrical appliances, television sets, and electrical equipment (Buenos Aires).

The country has a developed oil refining industry. The largest plants with integrated production from oil refining to petrochemicals are located in Buenos Aires, La Plata, Campana, Banya Blanca. Smaller refineries with a predominance of primary processing are located in the production areas: San Lorenzo, Campo Duran, Plaza Uincul, Rio Grande, Lujan de Cuyo.

The chemical industry is represented mainly by the chemistry of organic synthesis. Petrochemical enterprises form a single complex with oil refineries and gravitate towards oil refining centers and consumption areas. They produce hydrocarbon raw materials (ethylene, propylene, benzene), organic semi-finished products (acetone, ethyl alcohol), as well as end products (synthetic resins, synthetic rubber). The largest petrochemical plants are located in Campana, Zarat, La Pata, Banya Blanca, San Lorenzo, a suburb of Buenos Aires. The production of plastics and synthetic fibers has been developed on the basis of petrochemical raw materials. In basic chemistry, the production of sulfuric acid and mineral fertilizers (Campana, Banya Blanca, Buenos Aires) stands out.
The rubber industry is developing rapidly: tire production (Buenos Aires), rubber production for the shoe industry.
Domestic consumption industries are based on their own raw materials: paint and varnish, perfumery, pharmaceutical, production of technical oils (tung, linseed, castor).

Argentina has a relatively developed timber industry. The problem of raw materials is solved by creating artificial afforestation, as own forest resources are located in remote areas and are being developed slowly. Logging is concentrated mainly in the north and northwest of the country.
The most developed pulp and paper industry. The raw materials for it, in addition to forest resources, are reed beds in the Paraná delta and sugar cane waste. Leading pulp and paper mills are located in Puerto Piraj, Puerto Esperanza, Sarata. A special place in the forest industry is occupied by the production of quebracho extract, based on forest resources quebracho in the Chaco. Argentina is one of its largest producers and exporters.

Argentina's main trading partner has long been the United Kingdom; in recent decades, its share in the country's trade turnover has declined sharply. Now Argentina's main trading partners are the United States. Germany, Brazil, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands. In imports, the dominant position is occupied by the United States (23%), in exports, European countries traditionally stand out - the Netherlands (13%), Italy (17%). An increasing place in Argentina's foreign trade is occupied by the countries of Latin America, which serve as the main buyers of its manufactured goods. Argentina is a member of the Latin American Free Trade Association (LAST), which accounts for ¼ of the country's foreign trade turnover.

Argentina's economic ties with Latin American countries are multifaceted: joint projects are being carried out in hydrotechnical construction, scientific and technical research, the development of minerals, etc.

In 1997, the value of exports amounted to 1464 million dollars, imports - 1096 million dollars. Export has a pronounced agrarian character, its main articles are meat, leather and hides, wool, wheat, corn, quebrach extract. Argentina imports machinery, industrial equipment and means of transport (45%), metals and hardware (12%), fuel and lubricating oils (7.5%), chemical products (7%), etc.

Economic-geographic regions.

Pampa (Eastern Pampa and Western Pampa; provinces of Buenos Aires, Cordoba, Entre Rios, La Pampa and most of the province of Santa Fe) - the leading agro-industrial region (80% of industrial production, 70% of the value of livestock and agricultural products, 87% number of cattle; 70% of the length of railways, 99% of the cargo turnover of ports). Stand out:

Greater Buenos Aires, where half of the country's industrial enterprises are concentrated (large slaughterhouses, chemical, machine-building, leather factories, textile and food enterprises, thermal power plants); area of ​​intensive horticulture, the main supply base for dairy products, vegetables and fruits; wheat-alfalfa region - a wide semicircle around the Western Pampa; corn district - between Buenos Aires and Santa Fe. In the zone adjacent to Rosario, the highest yields of corn are obtained. Oilseed flax is cultivated. Pasture animal husbandry is developed in the eastern part of the province of Buenos Aires.

The western region (the provinces of Mendoza, San Juan, San Luis) occupies the Central Andes, the southern part of the Pampina Sierra and Precordillera region, a relatively economically developed region of Argentina. The main branches of the economy are viticulture, winemaking, as well as the mining industry. The area is rich in minerals (lead, zinc, tungsten, beryllium, uranium are mined), has versatile energy resources (oil is the 2nd largest in Argentina after Patagonia; hydro resources). In semi-desert conditions, viticulture and vegetable growing are carried out with the help of artificial irrigation (water from the San Juan, Mendoza, Atuel, Diamante rivers). In addition, there is transhumant animal husbandry. The manufacturing industry is based mainly on the processing of agricultural raw materials (canning). Heavy industry is represented by oil refining, the chemical industry, and the production of building materials.

The northwestern region (the provinces of Jujuy, Salta, Catamarca, La Rioja, Tucuman) occupies the northern part of the Pampina Sierras and Precordillera. The main supplier of sugar in the Argentinean market. The main branch of the economy is the cultivation of sugar cane (province of Tucuman), as well as tobacco, rice and subtropical fruit crops. Mineral resource base of Pampa. Developed oil production (in terms of reserves 3rd place in Argentina), natural gas (2nd place), tin (Jujuy province, the main reserves of the country), sulfur (Salta province), lead-zinc ores (El Aguilar deposit in the province Jujuy), iron ore (Sapla deposit, the only one developed in Argentina). Processing of agricultural raw materials (sugar, tobacco, fruits, vegetables) predominates in the manufacturing industry.

Chaco (provinces of Formosa, Chaco, Santiago del Estero and the northern part of Santa Fe) occupies the Gran Chaco plains, one of the most backward regions of the country. Forestry is developed (the development of the quebracho tree, mainly for export). The main branch of the farm is cotton growing (over 90% of cotton crops in the country). The cotton-cleaning industry is developed (the town of Resistencia).

Mesopotamia (provinces of Misiones and Corrientes) is an agricultural district leading in the country in the cultivation of subtropical crops and the only one in the production of yerba mate and tung oil, which are of great export importance. The northern part is one of the main regions of logging and timber industry in Argentina. Agriculture and the industry for processing agricultural raw materials are developed in the South.

Patagonia (the provinces of Neuquen, Rio Negro, Santa Cruz, Chubut, the territory of the island of Tierra del Fuego) is a vast, sparsely populated territory south of the Rio Colorado; occupies almost 1/3 of the territory of Argentina. The main branch of the kh-va is meat and wool sheep breeding. The meat industry (mutton production) and the primary processing of wool are developed. Export of wool (Puerto Deseado, Puerto Ma-drin, Santa Cruz). Agriculture is poorly developed. In the North - fruit growing of export value. There are developments of oil (2/3 of Argentina's production), coal, iron ore, and about half of the water resources are concentrated. The natural resources of the region have not yet been studied enough. In the past, the area was a raw material appendage of the Pampas. In connection with the decentralization of the economy, economic development programs play a large role in the economic development of the region (development of hydropower, oil refining, chemical and petrochemical industries, metallurgy).

Culture and art

Argentina is the highest in Latin Ama rica Literacy Rate. Specific gravity illiterate over 14 years old is 8.6%. Education has been formally established for all children between the ages of 5 and 14.

In 1995, there were 19.5 thousand primary schools (more than 3 million students and about 156 thousand teachers), 5.6 thousand secondary schools (over 1 million students and more than 100 thousand teachers), 225 higher educational institutions(39 thousand students, about 9 thousand teachers). There are 9 national. 2 provincial and 16 private universities.

A number of scientific institutions and societies are located in Buenos Aires, including the Academy of Literature, the National Academy of Economic Sciences. National Academy of Social Sciences. Major research institutes: National Atomic Energy Commission, National Institute of Agricultural Mechanization, National Institute of Industrial Technology.

The largest libraries are located in the capital. The largest library is in the metropolitan university (it has 1.5 million volumes). There are more than 70 museums in Argentina, including the National Museum, the Museum of Modern Art, etc. There are more than 80 theaters and St. 150 thousand cinemas.

Out comes St. 230 daily newspapers, of which 75% are in Buenos Aires. Nation is one of the main bourgeois newspapers (circulation 200 thousand copies), Clarin is an influential bourgeois newspaper (400 thousand copies), Prensa reflects the views of the Argentine bourgeoisie and latifundists associated with American monopolies (300 thousand copies ). Rason is the largest bourgeois newspaper (400,000 copies), Correo de la Tarde (evening) is one of the most right-wing pro-American newspapers (120,000 copies), Notisias graphicos is a liberal bourgeois newspaper (St. 100 thousand copies), "Pueblo" - the organ of the Catholic Church (15 thousand copies), "Vanguardia" - the newspaper of the socialist party.

AT1997. there were 108 radio stations and 28 television stations (there were 5.9 million receivers and 1.7 million television sets).

Literature.

The literature of Argentina is developing in Spanish. Folklore and literature monuments of the Indian tribes that inhabited Argentina have not been preserved. The literature of the colonial period (early 16th - early 19th centuries) is represented by the poem "The Pilgrim in Babylon" by L. de Tejeda (1604-1680), the poetic chronicle "Argentina and the Conquest of the Rio de La Plata" (1602) by M. del Barco Centenera, the historical chronicle “Handwritten Argentina” (1612) by R. Diaz de Guzman, and others. . 1785-1825), poems by V. Lopez-i-Plans (1785-1856), E. de Luca (1786-1824), X. Cruz Varela (1794-1839).

In the development of the national literature, an important role belongs to oral folk art, which arose on the basis of the genres of Spanish folk poetry. After gaining independence in the early 19th century improvisation songs (vidala, three hundred, etc.) of gauchos (cattle breeders) were popular, which formed the basis of the Argentinean phenomenon itself - liters of gauchos. Its initiator is the first national poet B. Hidalgo (1788-1822), who also left a noticeable mark in Uruguayan literature. In his Patriotic Dialogues (1821-22) and couplets (the so-called cielito), he turned to folk themes. The poet I. Askasuoi (1807-75) also wrote about the life of the inhabitants of the pampas. In the 30s. development of national literature accelerated significantly. (1811-88), using the tradition of an anonymous story, recreated the life of the Argentine pampa in the artistic and philosophical essay "Facundo" (full title "Facundo, or Civilization and Barbarism in the Argentine Pampa", 1850) - one of the main works that prepared the tradition of the original national novel. Writer and philosopher E. Echeverria (1805-1851) - the founder of the romantic. direction, the ideological basis of which were pronounced anti-Spanish sentiments, the ideas of the Great French Revolution. Echeverria's poem "The Captive" (1837) was the first work of romantic poetry that touched upon national themes. The beginning of artistic romantic prose in Argentina was laid by the novel "Amalia" (1855) by X. Marmol (1817-1871), and the foundations of realistic traditions were laid in the short story "Slaughterhouse" by Echeverria.

Last quarter of the 19th century marked by the flourishing of prose and poetry. In the prose of the late 19th century. a social novel about the city stands out, marked by features of naturalism: “Potpourri”, “Without a rudder”, etc. E. Cambaceres (1843-88), “Big Village” (1848-94), “Exchange” (1890) X. Martel ( real name - X. Miro, 1868-96). costumbrism, associated mainly with rural themes, found expression in the poetry of E. del Campo (1834-80; the poem "Faust", 1866), R. Obligado (1851-1920; the poem "Santos Vega", 1885). The pinnacle of Gaucho literature and all realistic literature of Argentina in the 19th century. was the epic poem by X. R. Hernandez (1834-86) "Martin Fierro" (parts 1-2, 1872-79) - the story of a freedom-loving gaucho, who became in the conditions of developing capitalistic. relationship as a victim of social injustice.

Early 20th century characterized by the strengthening of the positions of realism. At the same time, a significant role begins to play modernism: the historical novel The Glory of Don Ramiro (1908) by E. Larreta (1875-1961), the poetry of L. Lugones (1874-1938) and R. Guiraldes (1886-1927). To con. 20s the influence of modernism has become less tangible. Among the realist writers 20th century, reflecting the specifics of national life - R. X. Piro (1867-1928), author of the novel "The Funny Adventures of the Grandson of Juan Moreira", 1910), B. Lynch (1885-1951; novels "Florida Vultures" ", 1916, "The Englishman is a bone seeker", 1924, in Russian translation - "Mr. James is looking for skulls", 1969), M. Galvez (1882-1962). Guiraldes "Don Segundo Sombra" (1926), along with costumbrist tendencies, reveals features of romanticism. The so-called postmodern poets include E. Carriego (1883-1912), B. Fernandez Moreno (1886-1950), E. Bunchs (b. 1888), poetess A. Storni (1892-1938). Becoming realistic. The dramaturgy of this period was played by F. Sanchez, G. de Laferrere, and others.

All R. 20s in the context of the rise of the democratic movements arose the aesthetic-formalist group "Florida" (V. Ocampo, 1891-1978; X. L. Borges "b. 1899; L. Marechal, 1900-70, E. Mallea, b. 1903) and the critical-realist group" Boedo”, which rallied writers who devoted their work to the social problems of national reality: A. Junke (born 1890), E. Castelnuovo (b. 1893), L. Gudinho Cramer (b. 1900), R. Arlt (1900-42), L. Barletta (1902-75), R. Gonsa-les Tunon (1905-74), who had a notable influence on the further literary life of Argentina. For lyrics of the 40s. characterized by the existence of modernist and realistic tendencies, mixing them, often in the work of the same writer (E. Wernicke, 1915-68). In line with the critical realism created the works of E. Castro (b. 1902; novel "The Islanders", 1944), B. Verbitsky (b. 1907), (1901-74), R. Larra (b. 1913), (b. 1920), X Murillo and others In A. Varela's novel (born 1914) The Dark River (1943), tendencies of socialist realism are noticeable. The aesthetic concepts of "Florida" are followed by M. Mujica Lines (born 1910), A. Bioy Casares (born 1914), S. Bulrich (born 1915).

In the work of many writers, there are attempts to synthesize realistic analysis and symbolic generalizations, the desire to combine national concreteness with a universal approach to social phenomena of reality. These tendencies found their deepest expression in the prose of X. Cortazar (b. 1914; novels Prizes, 1960, The Game of Classes, 1963, short stories). The vices of the bourgeois world are denounced in the novels Those on Horseback (1967) by D. Viñas (b. 1920), The Tunnel (1948) and About Heroes and Graves (1961) by E. Sabato (b. 1911), in the journalism of Maria Rosa Oliver (1898-1977).

Literary criticism is developing: works (1898-1938), (born 1911), as well as Op. A - L. Palaciosa (1876-1965), R. Rojas (1882-1957), E. Martinez Estrada (1895-1964), E. Andersen Imbert (born 1910). The Argentine Society of Writers (founded in 1928) occupies liberal-bourgeois positions.

Architecture and fine arts

The primitive ancient structures of the aborigines have not been preserved. The modern look of the cities of Argentina evolved over four centuries. Most of the cities (Buenos Aires, Cordoba, Santa Fe, etc.) were founded during the period of Spanish colonization. Their plan was divided into a rectangular grid, on the main square (Plaza de Armas) a cathedral, a town hall (cabildo), a governor's palace, and an arsenal were erected. Columnar architecture in the early period (17th century) was characterized by simplicity, monumentality, and the absence of decorative sculpture. Characteristic of this period are: the cabildo building in Buenos Aires (founded in 1608, rebuilt in 1725-65, architect A. Blanca, 1677-1740, X. B. Primoli), the mission and the church of La Compagnia in Cordoba (1646-90, carved vaults of cedar wood were erected in the 2nd half of the 17th century by an engineer, 1608-71), the cathedral in Cordoba (founded in 1574, built in 1680-1758, architect X. Gonzalez Mergelte, A. Blanqui) and others. Argentine architecture was influenced by the Baroque (the Church of El Pilar in Buenos Aires, 1716-32, architect X. B. Primoli and A. Blanca; the Church of Santa Catalina in Buenos Aires, 1737-45). The heyday of the Argentine baroque, characterized by a great wealth of decorative elements, the dynamics of forms, belongs to the 2nd floor. 18th century (dome and towers of the cathedral in Cordoba, 1758, architect V. Munoz, 1699-1784). After the liberation from colonial dependence, the influence of archit. currents of France, Italy, Great Britain. From the beginning 19th century classicism dominated in Argentina (the facade of the cathedral in Buenos Aires, 1822-63, architect P. Catelin). Urban planning work primarily affected the capital of Argentina. Modern the view of Buenos Aires with its layout of streets, the configuration of squares and parks has developed into con. 19 - beg. 20th century: Plaza del Congress, Avenida de Mayo (1889-94), Diagonal Norte (1887), Avenida 9 de Julio (1930s), Retiro parks, Palermo. During this period, multi-storey buildings, banks, state institutions were built. institutions. Eclecticism and stylization dominated in architecture: San Martin Palace and the Trade Exchange (1887, architect A. Christophersen, 1866-1946), Nat. Museum of Decorative Arts (1912, architect R. Serkhent), Congress Building (early 20th century, architect V. Maeno, 1860-1904), Colon Theater (1905-08, architect V. Maeno, X. Dormal, 1846-1924) and others. In 1901, the School of Architecture was established in Buenos Aires.

In the late 1920s Rationalist tendencies are emerging in the architecture of Argentina. The development of this trend is associated with the work of the architect A. Virasoro (b. 1892; Theater House in Buenos Aires, 1927), A. Prebisch (Grand Rex Cinema in Buenos Aires, 1937, residential buildings). Arch. A. Vilar created a series of stations of the Automobile Club, the first high-rise buildings appeared (El Cavanag in Buenos Aires, 1935, architect Sanchez, Lagos, de la Torre). Research arch. V. Acosta's "Housing and the City" (1936), as well as the residential buildings he built in Buenos Aires, posed the problem of the functions and form of housing in specific climatic conditions. Multi-storey residential buildings were being built (“Arroyo” in Buenos Aires, 1935, architect X. Kalnay). Of the urban development works, the bypass highway - Avenida General Paz in Buenos Aires with bridges and interchanges in different levels(1937-41, engineer P. Palaso). In the 40-50s. leading architects united around the Austral group, which opposed external modernism, for the purity of style. The most significant buildings of this time: a residential building on the street. Virrey del Pino in Buenos Aires (1941-43, architect X. Ferrari Ardoy and X. Kurchan), the ESSO building in Buenos Aires (1945-51, architect L. and A. Morea), villas in the suburbs cities (architect A. Vilar, A. William). The following years are characterized by a departure from dry rationalism. Architects turn to the principles of organic. architecture (single-family houses in Tu-cuman, Rosario, Santa Fe, 1950, Italian architect E. Tedeschi; villas in Martinez, architect X. Vivanco, V. Peluf-fo, A. Bonet), as well as to developed spaces and structural compositions (secondary school in the province of Misiones, 1962, architects M. Soto and R. Rivarola; children's hospital in Tucuman, 1960, architect E. Sacriste; municipality in Cordoba, 1953-62, arch. S. Sanchez Elia, F. Peralta Ramos, A. Agostini). The municipal theater "San Martin" in Buenos Aires (1953-60, architect vares i) includes, in addition to two theater halls, a library, a cinema hall, a school of artistic arts, museum and exhibition halls. The building of the Bank of London and South America in Buenos Aires (1960-66, architect C. Testa, b. 1923, S. Sanchez Elia, F. Peralta Ramos, A. Agostini) is interesting for its bold use of new structures and materials. Significant works of arch. X. Solsons in Buenos Aires (PATE building, 1966; Municipal Bank, 1968), as well as arch. K. Testy, F. Rossi, A. Gaido and B. Dabinovich: Citizenship. center - provincial building. management in Santa Rosa (1957-63), Nat. library in Buenos Aires (architects F. Bulrich, K. Testa).

Art.

Ancient Indian art of Argentina - painted and figured ceramics, petroglyphs, fabrics with geometric patterns, feather decorations, cult sculpture made of stone, wood and clay. During the colonial period, the art of Argentina was predominantly religious in nature, carved wooden sculpture (retablo, lecterns) predominated; secular genres also appeared in painting (main arr. portrait). After the declaration of independence (1816), arts and education began to take shape. In 1821, the Drawing School was opened at the University of Buenos Aires. In the 1st floor. 19th century worked in Argentina Ch. arr. European masters: painters and graphic artists C. Pellegrini (1800-75), S. Buckle (1794-1838), R. Monvoisin, THEM. Rugendas, sculptors X. (1750-1821), C. Romeirone and others. One of the first Argentine artists was the costumbrist C. Morel (1813-94). All R. 19th century the work of P.P. Puerredona - founder of the national schools of portraiture, landscape, everyday genre. In the 2nd floor. 19th century fight for the creation of a national arts, schools. It was headed by realist artists E. Sivo-rsch E. Schiaffino (1858-1935), E. de la Carkova (1867-1927). With their participation, the Society for the Encouragement of Arts was created (1878) from the arts. school and National Museum Fine Arts (1895). In sculpture, L. Correa Morales (1852-1923) turned to local themes. In the beginning. 20th century Impressionism became the dominant trend in the art of Argentina, the main representatives of which were M. Mallarro (1865-1911), F. Fader (1882-1935), sculptors R. Irur-tiya (1879-1950), P. Sonsa Briano (1886-1941) and others; later post-impressionism (R. Silva, 1890-1919), expressionism (E. Cullen Aersa, 1879-1936) develop. Since the 1920s, especially after the creation (1929) of the so-called. avant-garde school (R. Soldi, b. 1905), modernist trends - cubism (E. petto-ruti), surrealism (R. Forner), abstractionism (sculptors A. Sibellino, 1891-1960, P. Curatelia Manes, 1891-1962), which became widespread after World War II. At the same time, the school of modern realistic art of Argentina. Its largest representatives: X. K. castagnino, BUT. Ber-ni(departed from realism in the 60s), L. E. spilimbergo, B. Kin-kela Martin, S. b. de kyros, A. Alice (1886-1943), D. Urruchua (b. 1902), sculptors A. Riganelli, L. Falsipi and others reflected the life of the people in their works in various ways. Monumental painting (X. K. Castagnino and others) and sculpture (L. Badii, b. 1916) developed on a realistic basis. E. Centurion (b. 1894), R. Gomez Cornet (1898-1964), O. Butler (b. 1897) and others gravitated towards the realistic direction (1884-1955), in whose landscapes and genre scenes the decorative brightness of color combined with plastic expressive form. The majority of sculptors also stand on the positions of realism: A. Bigatti (1898-1964), X. fioravanti, E. soto avendagno and others. The graphics of Argentina have been successfully developing since the 1930s. The social theme in graphics was developed by the oldest artists A.R. vigo, X. K. Castagnino, V. Rebuffo (b. 1903) and continued by the masters of subsequent generations - L. Pellegrini (b. 1911), X. Gnecco (b. 1914), N. Onofrio (b. 1927), A. Bries (b. 1933) and others.

In the 60-70s. in Argentina, the latest avant-garde trends are spreading: “kinetic art” (X. Le Parc, b. 1928), “geometric art” (E. McIntyre, b. 1929), “pop art” (A. Burney, M. Minukhin, b. 1941) and others. As an opposition to abstractionism, the course of the “new materiality” develops (R. Maxio, b. 1931).

Music.

Argentine folk music is dominated by Creole folklore. Aboriginal music survives only in the northwestern provinces of Argentina. Its stylistic features, song and dance. genres (baruala, vidala, yaravi, waino) and instruments (wind instruments - kena, erke, erkencho, pinquillo, sikuil and antara; various percussion) preim. the same as in the Indian music of Bolivia and Peru. Under the influence of the Spaniards, the Indians began to use some European instruments (violin, harp), as well as to use 3-meters and diatonic elements in their traditional music.

Of the old Creole songs and dances (the heyday belongs to the late 18th - 1st half of the 19th centuries) are preserved triste, estilo, tono, kueka (see Samakueka), gato, chacarera, firmesa, bailecito, malambo, pericone, cielito, cuando, media-kanya, ranchera; from the later milonga, tango. Main instrument - guitar;

the accordion is also widespread (mainly in the eastern provinces and on the coast of Argentina).

The study and systematization of the musical folklore of Argentina was carried out by K. Vega, founded in 1931 the Institute of Musicology under the Ministry of National Education. Significant contribution to argent. folkloristics of his student - I. Arets-Thiele.

Becoming a prof. music (17th century) is associated with the activities of Catholic missionaries and musicians (X. Vaseo, L. Berger, A. Sep, and others). The first national the composers were arr. amateurs, among them - the publicist and public figure X. B. Alberdi, A. Alcorta, X. P. Esnaola. Composers of the next generation, who received the title of "first professionals", created works of the academy, genres and forms - from chamber compositions to the first experiments in symphonic and operatic music: D. Costa, X. Gutierrez, L. X. Bernasconi, M. Rojas, S. Beron, F. Hargreaves.

The founder of the professional composer school of Argentina was A. William, founded one of the first conservatories in Argentina (1893), the music publishing house "Kena" and the music magazine of the same name; for many years he headed the National. Fine Arts Commission and the National concert association, did a lot of pedagogical work.

In con. 19 - beg. 20th century much attention was paid to the opera genre, but the composers were under the influence of Italian opera. One of the founders of the national trends in opera - F. Boero (1884-1958) was the author of the first argent. opera in Spanish "Tucuman" (1918). First national the symphony was created by A. Berutti (1862-1938) (“Argentine Symphony”, 1890). X. Aguirre (1868-1924), whose style is notable for its bright originality, turned to a serious development of Argentine musical folklore. Nar. music is the basis of many works. F. Ugart(symphonic poem "Among the Mountains", 1922; "Tango" for orchestra, 1950, etc.), C. Lopez Buchardo (1881-1948) ("Argentine Scenes" for orchestra, 1922).

In 1929 the Group of Musicians was formed. updates”, which set as its task the creation of a modern. music art. It included composers nat. orientation: br. X.M. Castro X. X. Castro and V. Castro, X. Hilardi P889-1963), X. Fisher, L. jan neo, O. Siccardi. Among them, X. X. Castro stands out, whose work was formed under the influence of the French. impressionism and national Argentine traditions ("Argentine Symphony", 1936; opera "Proserpina and the Stranger", 1952). For some time X. K. joined this group. Pass(soon moved away from the national direction, became a follower of the dodecaphonic system of the Austrian composer A. Schoenberg).

In the 1940s a new generation of argents is coming forward. composers: R. Garcia Morillo (b. 1911), author of the theater., symphony. and chamber music, monographs about skom (1943), Kosakov (1945), K. Chavez (1960); TO. Guastavino, BUT. hinastera, in the 1950s taking a leading position in Argentine music; R. Arisaga (b. 1926), author of numerous chamber instrumental and vocal compositions (including texts by F. Garcia Lorca).

The musical center of Argentina is Buenos Aires. Here is one of the largest and the only permanent opera house in LA "Colon" (1857-88, reopened in 1908), orchestras function - the Philharmonic (founded in 1946), the National. symphonic (founded in 1949) and Nat. radio (founded in 1950); music societies organizing concerts (Wagner Association, Friends of Music, New Music Group, Argentinean Mozarteum, Association of Chamber Concerts, etc.). Personnel prof. musicians are trained by the National conservatory. K. Lopez Buchardo (founded in 1924) and the Municipal Conservatory. M. de Falla, there are conservatories in Cordoba, La Plata, Mevdos (High School of Music), etc.

Research work is carried out by the Department of Music History of the University of Buenos Aires, the Institute of Musicology, the Latin American Center of Music. research at the Institute "Torcuato di Tella" (founded in 1965). The newspaper Buenos Aires Musical (since 1957) and the magazine Mundo Musical (since 1938) have been published.

Dances of the Indians who inhabited Argentina before the Spanish. conquests, were used by the Jesuit monks in the theater, performances of the 17th century. In the 18th century Forms of musical theater rich in dances (Sainete, etc.), imported from Spain, became widespread. From the 20s. 19th century European ballet companies toured in Buenos Aires. These troupes performed romantic ballets by choreographers F. Taglioni, J. Perrot, and others. dancers. Touring in the 1910s Russian ballet and troupe contributed to the development of nat. ballet. Schools were opened. From the 20s. ballets with national music foreign choreographers began to stage composers:, (“Irupe Flower” by K. Gaito, 1929), P. Petrov (“Mekano” by X. X. Castro, 1937), M. Valman (“Panambi” by A. Ginastera, 1940, “Apurimak River” - no, 1944) and others. The repertoire of the Colon Theater was enriched with classical ballets. heritage ("Swan Lake" edited by choreographer J. Carter, etc.), performances and productions of famous European. and American choreographers, J. Balanchine, A. Tudor, A. Millosh, W. Dollar and others. These same choreographers turned to the music of the nat. composers: Myasin staged "House of Usher" by R. Garcia Morillo (1955), J. Taras - "Concert Variations" to the music of Ginastera (1960). In the 70s. the repertoire included ballets by I. Georgi (to the music of oratorios by C. Orff “Carmina Burana” and others), J. Skibin (“Cinderella”, “Daphnis and Chloe” by M. Ravel, “The Firebird”), V. Biaggi and others. Aztsrade staged “Mekano” by X. X. Castro, “Orpheus” to the music of F. Liszt (both in 1971), and others, R. Hiachero - “On Dance and Death” by X. Fontenla (1975). Since the 1930s the troupe of the theater "Colon" already consisted mainly of Argentines. Leading artists of the 30-40s: M. Ruanova, V. Ferrari;

50-70s: dancers - I. Borovska, O. Ferri, E. Agoglia, N. Fontenla, N. Lopez, L. Belfiore, V. Haneiro; dancers - X. Tomin, V. Tupin, E. Lommy, C. Schiafino, R. Rodriguez, G. Mogliaholi, A. Truyol, R. Chayan. X. Neglia (died in 1971) was especially popular. The group was led by T. Grigoryeva (50-60s), Ruanova (1968-72), then Agoglia and others. running a ballet school. The famous groups were: Ballet Argent. theater in La Plata (since 1946), Argent. ballet troupe R. Hiachero (since 1948), Sovrem. ballet of the city of Buenos Aires O. Arais (1968-74), whose repertoire included performances by Arais - "Halo" to the music of Albioni, 1965, "Indian Symphony" to the music of Chavez, 1967, Prokofiev's Romeo and Juliet, 1970, etc. From 30- x years. Art Nouveau dance teams worked hand in hand. R. Schottelius, D. Hoyer, S. Ingeneros. Folklore groups were headed by I. Perez Fernandez, A. Veles and others.

Theatre of Drama

Dramatic theater in Argentina arose on the basis of Indian ritual games and Catholic. theatergoers. action In con. 16th-17th centuries Spanish missionaries staged theatergoers. performances (dances, liturgies and pantomime-mysteries) with the aim of converting the Indians to Christianity. The first permanent theater (founded in 1757) repeated Spanish. repertoire - Spanish was praised in the plays. monarchy and Catholicism. In 1789, the first national tragedy, Siripo by M. H. de La Varden, was staged. In 1804, the Coliseo Provicional Theater (since 1838, the Argentino Theater) was founded in Buenos Aires, in which the Spanish predominated. repertoire, but in individual pieces manifested and free, tendencies. In 1817, the so-called. Society of Theater Connoisseurs in order to promote the development of nat. theater, lawsuit. Significant was the activity of nat. theater during the May Revolution of 1810, in the struggle against the tyranny of X. M. Rosas(especially in the genre of political satire). Staging of E. Gutierrez's drama "Juan Moreira" (1886, dir. X. Podesta) contributed to the formation of romanticism. gaucho drama genre.

First decade of the 20th century was marked by the rise of Argentine. theater. National reality was vividly embodied in the work of playwrights F. Sanchez R. X. Piro, Where Laferrere. In the 20s. an acute crisis began in the theatre. Entertaining plays were staged. A small genre spread - zarzuela and sainet (short, often comic plays from people's life with songs and dances). The founder of this genre in Argentina was N. Trejo. In 1935, the National comedy theater, etc. National Theater Studies Institute. In 1935-45, numerous troupes that fought for the rise of the national. lawsuit. Such, so-called. independent, theaters resisted the dominance of commercial. theater, they proclaimed the nationality of the art, without rejecting the best world dramaturgy; created a new type of actor who mastered the skill of reincarnation. These public theaters were often persecuted, they were not provided with state. subsidies. The largest independent theaters operate in Buenos Aires: Nar. theater (1930; later - the theater "San Martin"), Theater X. B. Justo (1935), where in 1938 E. Achilda created a children's troupe, and "Maskara" (1939). Among the leading directors, directors, and actors of independent theaters are L. Barletta, Achilda, R. Pasano, E. Muinho, P. Askini, A. Boero, M. Sela, S. Benavente. In the 60-70s. the movement of non-professional theater is spreading, which is characterized by collective creativity, addressed to the actual problems of modernity, national reality, agitation, propaganda orientation, direct contacts with the audience. Political the performances of the troupes "Alliance" (founded in 1967) and "LTL" (founded in 1969) - hence, a contribution to the art of the Latin American theater. Modern argent. the theater uses nat. traditions and experience of the world theatre. suit-va for the further development of nat. culture. The largest representatives of the Argentine drama - B. Feihoo channel, BUT. dissepolo, R. Arlt, O. Dragoon, BUT. bite, A. Lisarraga, K. Gorostis, E, Eichelbaum.

State structure

The current constitution of Argentina was adopted in 1853 and remained unchanged for the next seventy years. However, after 1930, during successive dictatorships and military regimes, many democratic institutions were abolished. In 1949, the Peron government introduced a new constitution, according to which the rights of the president were significantly expanded, the heads of the provinces acted as representatives of the president, and the legislative and judicial bodies were practically deprived of any power. After the overthrow of Peron in 1955, the constitution of 1853 was restored. However, as before, many laws were repealed or ignored if they interfered with the government in implementing its plans. The military junta that seized power in 1976 introduced a number of laws in addition to the constitution. In 1983, as Argentina's political life returned to the path of democracy, the 1853 constitution was restored to its original form. According to the agreement reached between the main political parties in the National Congress, in 1994 a meeting of the Constituent Assembly was held, which was supposed to revise some of the provisions of the 1853 constitution.

Constitution. In accordance with the constitution of Argentina, the country has a republican form of government and a representative politic system, with a moderate role for the federal government (about the same as in the United States, which in many ways served as a model for Argentina). However, unlike the United States, in Argentina, the provinces do not participate in the adoption of constitutional amendments. Moreover, the constitution provides for the possibility of intervention by the federal government in the affairs of the provinces to prevent violations of the republican form of government; consequently, the heads of provinces often play the role of mere conductors of the president's policies.

The constitution guarantees citizens freedom of religion, but the Roman Catholic Church has long held a privileged position in the country. The constitutional reform of 1994 abolished many of the remaining forms of state guardianship of the church, and also abolished the requirement that the president and vice president must be a member of the Catholic Church; however, even after that, the constitution retained a provision obliging the federal government to "maintain the Roman Catholic Apostolic Faith."

Executive power. Prior to the constitutional reform of 1994, the president and vice president were elected for six-year terms (election for a second term immediately after the end of the first was not allowed) by an electoral college, whose members were elected by popular vote. In accordance with the 1994 amendments, the direct election of the president and vice president by universal secret ballot for a four-year term was introduced, after which they can be immediately re-elected, but not more than for one term. The offices of President and Vice President may be held by persons of at least 30 years of age, natives of Argentina or direct descendants of native Argentines. If for any reason the president is unable to perform his duties, his place is taken by the vice president until the end of the presidential term.

The President is the head of the executive power in the country and the commander-in-chief of the armed forces, appoints the government (cabinet of ministers) and determines its functions; appoints the heads of state-owned enterprises, as well as judges and ambassadors, with their subsequent approval by the Senate; defines foreign policy; has the right to veto legislation; in the event of a threat of military attack, may declare (with the approval of the Senate) martial law, temporarily restricting certain civil liberties. In the event of internal disturbances occurring during the parliamentary recess, the president has the right to single-handedly declare martial law or intervene in the affairs of any province by changing its leadership. However, these measures must be approved National Congress after he resumes his work. The constitutional reform of 1994 provides for measures aimed at expanding the rights of parliament and the judiciary and some limiting the powers of the president and the executive; for example, the accountability of the head of the cabinet of ministers to parliament is introduced, the president's right to issue legislative decrees is limited, and the rights of judges are expanded.

Legislature. In accordance with the country's constitution, the National Congress of Argentina consists of the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate. Members of the Chamber of Deputies are elected for 4 years and can be re-elected. They are directly elected by proportional representation, with each of the 23 provinces and federal district considered as independent constituencies. In 1995, the Chamber of Deputies consisted of 258 people, more than half of them representing the most densely populated areas (Federal District and Province of Buenos Aires, Santa Fe, Córdoba).

Under the 1994 constitution, senators from each province and federal district are directly elected by the citizens of that province or district. The number of senators has been increased to 72, three for each province and three for the Federal District, with two senators in each district representing the majority party and one representing the minority party with the most votes. Under the 1994 electoral reform, senators are elected to six-year terms and can be re-elected; The composition of the Senate is renewed by a third every two years. The Argentine National Congress has the power to legislate and approve the budget; a majority vote in each house is required to pass a law or budget. A two-thirds vote in both houses is required to override a presidential veto. A bill that is not returned by the executive branch to Congress within 10 business days becomes law, although usually within those ten days a presidential decree promulgating the law is issued.

Judicial system. Traditionally, the judiciary is the weakest of the three branches of government. The head of the judicial system in Argentina is the Supreme Court of 9 judges, which is located in Buenos Aires. Members of the Supreme Court and other federal judges are appointed for life and can only be removed by impeachment in Parliament. Federal courts have the power to exercise judicial review by monitoring the constitutionality of pending cases. However, a ruling on unconstitutionality is extremely rare; usually courts prefer to avoid contentious cases so as not to conflict with other branches of government and dismiss them as being outside their jurisdiction.

The judicial system in Argentina was significantly weakened during the first period of Perón's tenure (1943-1955) and brought to complete impotence under the rule of the military junta (1976-1983). The last period was notable for the fact that the military and police authorities almost never brought legal cases against people who were declared terrorists and subversives. Instead, they were kidnapped, imprisoned, tortured and then most often killed. The number of such victims is estimated at about 30 thousand people. Friends and relatives of the victims could not go to court without any official documents at their disposal. After the restoration of the constitutional regime in 1983, the government made attempts to revive the judiciary and bring criminal cases against at least some of the murderers and executioners.

The constitutional reform of 1994 provides for some innovations in the judicial system, with the aim of making it more accessible to citizens and strengthening the independence of judges.

Local government. According to the constitution, all power is divided between the federal government, the governments of 23 provinces and the Federal Capital Region. This implies that the provinces have all local power, with the exception of powers delegated to the central (federal) government. Most of the functions of government, especially the right to dispose of most of the funds received from taxes, are carried out by the federal government, even in cases where matters of "local concern" are involved. Moreover, under the constitution of 1853, the president was given broad powers that allowed him to interfere in the affairs of the provinces and remove local officials, appointing his own representatives to their posts.

The provinces are divided into municipal districts and departments, under the control of local governments, whose powers are very limited. They are in charge of collecting local taxes, public works, health care and holding cultural events.

political organizations. At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century. Argentina was one of the few countries in Latin America where there was a developed and actively functioning system of political parties. However, from 1930 until 1983, the main role in the political life of Argentina was played by the armed forces. Nearly all the governments in power during this period were either outright military dictatorships or had the backing of the military; the change of government usually did not take place through alternative elections, but as a result of military coups. During the years of the military junta, the activities of all parties were suspended. However, in 1981 this ban was partially lifted. In 1982, after the armed forces of Argentina suffered a humiliating defeat in a military clash with Britain over the Falkland (Malvinas) Islands, political parties were free to prepare for national elections. As a result of these elections, held on October 30, 1983, a constitutional democratic regime was restored in Argentina.

The oldest political party in Argentina is the Civic Radical Union, or Radical Party, founded in 1891. At the beginning of the 20th century. The radical party, then led by Hipólito Yrigoyen, became the voice of the growing middle class, both urban and rural. After the introduction of universal suffrage (for men) in the country in 1912, the radicals came to power through democratic elections and ruled the country from 1916 to 1930. All this time they adhered to a moderate course in social and economic policy and never carried out fundamental reforms. Having lost power in 1930 in a military coup, the Radicals were the main opposition party throughout the "inglorious decade" and resisted attempts to annul democratic institutions and restore the power of large landowners.

During Perón's rule (1943–1955), the Civic Radical Union represented the main force in opposition to the national populist regime, and most other opposition groups supported the radicals in the elections. During this period, Arturo Frondisi, representing a group of moderate leftists, the so-called Irreconcilable Radicals, came forward as the leader of the party; he was opposed by another, more conservative wing. The split between the two groups within the party gradually deepened, and in the end, after the fall of the Peronist regime, in 1957 two independent parties were formed - the Civic Radical Union of the Irreconcilables (or Irreconcilable Radicals), headed by A. Frondisi (since 1973 - the party of irreconcilability) , and the Civic Radical Union of the People (or People's Radicals) under the leadership of Ricardo Balbina. The rivalry between these parties for power continued until 1966, when all political parties were outlawed. Later, the group led by Balbin was restored under the name of the Civic Radical Union.

In 1982, the radicals nominated Raul Alfonsin, who headed the most progressive wing of the party, as a candidate for the presidency. Alfonsín spoke out openly against the rule of the military, in favor of human rights and social and economic reforms. He won the 1983 presidential election with an absolute majority of votes. The Radicals also won the majority of seats in the Chamber of Deputies. However, in the next elections, in 1989, they were removed from power, and in the presidential elections in 1995, the Radical Party managed to get only 17% of the vote, and it lost its position as the main opposition party.

Other important political parties in Argentina include the Peronist Party (founded in 1947), known after 1958 as the Justicialist Party. Until the 1990s, when the Peronist leaders moved to the positions of a market economy, they were famous for their extreme nationalism and in every way extolled the deeds of their charismatic leader Juan Peron. The Peronists have always been the largest party in Argentina; their candidates won almost every presidential election in which this party could take part (the only exception, albeit a very significant one, was the victory of the radical candidate Raul Alfonsin in 1983).

Historically, the Peronist Party has been controlled by large trade unions. However, it never had a coherent program and many different factions existed within it. In the 1970s, the left wing of the Peronists led the guerrilla movement, while many groups on the right wing began to openly profess reactionary and neo-fascist doctrines and, even before the military coup of 1976, actively participated in paramilitaries designed to fight terrorism and persecute partisans, students, and intellectuals. and trade union leaders.

After Peron's death in 1974, his widow, Maria Estela Martinez de Peron (Isabelita), who succeeded her husband as president, became the nominal head of the party. Her reign, not marked by any notable achievements, turned out to be short - in 1976 there was a military coup. However, due to the fact that the Peronists enjoyed the support of the inhabitants of the less populated provinces, they received half the seats in the Senate. This allowed them to block bills that could weaken their position in the major trade unions and in the General Confederation of Labor, which later organized a series of nationwide strikes against the Radical government led by Raul Alfonsin. In 1989, a Peronist candidate, governor of the poor agricultural province of La Rioja, was elected president. The Peronists also won the majority of seats in both houses of the National Congress. Menem surprised his voters by launching a long-term program of transition to a market economy; this program included the liberalization of foreign trade and the free flow of foreign investment, the privatization of state-owned enterprises, the restriction of workers' rights to strike, and the political and economic rights of trade unions. Members of the Chamber of Deputies and senators from the Peronist Party, although reluctantly, still had to come to terms with the fact that Menem abandoned the populist slogans and techniques used by Peron. In 1995, Menem won the elections for the second time.

In addition to the two main parties, there are many smaller parties and political associations in Argentina, which at times played a significant role in the life of the country, but failed to gain enough votes to reach the national level. These include the largest of the conservative parties - the Union of the Democratic Center, founded in 1983; its leader is Alvaro Alsogaray. On the extreme right stands the Movement for Independence and Dignity, which arose in 1991, whose leader, former Colonel Aldo Rico, was one of the initiators of military uprisings against the government of President Alfonsin. Of the center-left political coalitions in the 1990s, the Frente Grande, or Grand Front, played the greatest role, uniting the remnants of the Communist Party of Argentina, the Intransigence Party and some Peronist factions. In 1994, the Grand Front joined a broader coalition, the Front for a Solidarity Country, which also included the Socialist Unity group, a small Christian Democratic Party and supporters of the dissident Peronist senator José Octavio Bordona. In the 1995 elections, the Front for a Solidarity Country (FSS) nominated Bordon as a candidate for the presidency; Skillfully capitalizing on the general discontent of the population, the Front secured almost 30% of the votes and thus temporarily ousted the radicals from their place as the second most important party in Argentina.

In 1997, on the eve of the parliamentary elections, the radicals and the FSS formed a common electoral bloc called the Union for Labour, Justice and Education. The election platform of the Union provided for the reduction of unemployment and the establishment of macroeconomic stability in the country, support for democratic processes and institutions, as well as the implementation of social programs aimed at reducing poverty and ensuring equality. This platform allowed the Union to win more than 45% of the vote in the elections and bypass the Peronist Party, whose candidates received 41% of the vote.

In the November 1998 primary elections, Fernando de la Rua, a member of the Radical Party and Mayor of Buenos Aires, won 63% of the vote and became the Union's candidate in the upcoming October 1999 presidential election. Human rights activist Graciela Fernández Mejide, who, as FSS representative, was de la Rua's rival in the primary, became the Union's candidate for governor of one of the country's most important provinces, Buenos Aires. The 1999 Union presidential candidate was Carlos "Chacho" Alvarez.

PERSPECTIVES

The government believes that the economic growth by 2004 will reach 6.5% per year. The further development program provides for maintaining a positive budget balance for the purchase of government bonds. loans and the disappearance of inflation. it

provides for an increase in the surplus from $3.3 billion in 1991 to $4.1 billion by 1995. The success of this program will depend on an improvement in the government structure. finance, social legislation, employment reforms and development of financial relations with the provinces, as well as further increasing the decentralization of power and responsibilities of the center from the provinces. During recent years Argentina has endured powerful structural reforms with broad popular support for these reforms. Memories of the hyperinflation of 1989/1990 create a strong political rear for the current government. All of this is a powerful political ballast that will keep the ship of structural adjustment spearheaded by the current leadership, even in a major financial storm.

Bibliography

Geographic Encyclopedic Dictionary: place names/ Ch. ed. . - M.: Sov. Encyclopelia, 1983 Pimenova. Economic and geographical characteristics. M.: "Thought", 1974 Latin American countries. Political and economic reference book. M.: Politizdat, 1969 Lukashova E. N., South America, M., 1958 Alberdi P. G., The Crisis of the Argentine Economy, trans. from Spanish, M., 1950 Schegolev BN, Argentina: economic development and problems of foreign trade. M., 1971 Field countries of Latin America, M., 1967 Alberto Barta Cortes. Economic development of Latin America. Per. from Spanish M.: "Foreign Literature", 1983 Genaro Carnero Checa. Essays on the countries of Latin America. Per. from Spanish M.: "Foreign Literature", 1980 Heinrich A., Sol A., Ballet en la Argentina, B. Aires, 1961

The manufacturing industry of Argentina is distinguished by a relatively large share of heavy industry in it. However, the traditional industries, light and food, continue to be important.
The manufacturing industry is characterized by its high concentration in port cities and, above all, in Buenos Aires.
Ferrous metallurgy is developed in the country. Full cycle plants are located in San Nicolás, Ensenada and Palpal. The first two focus on imported raw materials and partially use iron ore from the Sierra Grande deposit and Rio Turbio coal. The smelter in Palpala uses local iron ore (Sapla deposit) and charcoal.
Converting metallurgy plants are located in the lower reaches of the Parna, where a whole metallurgical belt has developed from Buenos Aires to Rosario.
Non-ferrous metallurgy is poorly developed, although Argentina has considerable reserves of raw materials. Produced: aluminum (Puerto Madryn), lead (Puerto Vilelas, Mercedes), zinc (Comodoro Rivadavia, Zarate, Rio Tercero), copper (El Pachon), tin (Comodoro Rivadavia, Zarate, Mercedes).
Mechanical engineering belongs to the younger branches of the Argentinean industry. Compared with other industries, it is characterized by a relatively complex structure and a high level of production.
The most developed are transport engineering, including automotive, agricultural engineering and electrical engineering. In transport engineering, the main place belongs to the automotive industry. Branches of the largest foreign corporations operate in the country - the North American Ford, the French Renault and Peugeot, the Italian Fiat, and the German Volkswagen. Automotive factories are concentrated in Buenos Aires and Cordoba.
Argentina has its own shipbuilding industry (production of river and sea vessels and tankers). The main centers are Buenos Aires, Ensenada, Tigre, San Fernando. The aircraft factory is located in Cordoba.
Agricultural engineering is an old industry, the main place in it is occupied by tractor building (Buenos Aires, Cordoba). Railway engineering is developed (San Cristobal, Tafi Viejo, Cruz del Eje, Junin).
The country has a developed oil refining industry. The largest plants with integrated production from oil refining to petrochemicals are located in Buenos Aires, La Plata, Campana, Banya Blanca. Smaller refineries with a predominance of primary processing are located in the production areas: San Lorenzo, Campo Duran, Plaza Uincul, Rio Grande, Lujan de Cuyo.
The chemical industry is represented mainly by the chemistry of organic synthesis. The most developed pulp and paper industry. The raw materials for it, in addition to forest resources, are reed beds in the Paraná delta and sugar cane waste. Leading pulp and paper mills are located in Puerto Piraj, Puerto Esperanza, Sarata. A special place in the forestry industry is occupied by the production of quebracho extract, based on the quebracho forest resources in the Chaco. Argentina is one of its largest producers and exporters.
AT light industry the most developed industries are textile and leather and footwear. The textile industry is entirely based on its own raw materials. The food industry is traditionally developed. It is closely related to agricultural production and is based on rich and varied raw materials. A special place is occupied by meat-packing production. Argentina is one of the largest producers and exporters of meat, mainly beef.
Large meat and cold enterprises are located in Buenos Aires, La Plata, Zarate, Rosario. In the port cities of Patagonia (Santa Cruz, Rio Grande and others), slaughterhouses produce lamb.

I am very fond of Argentine cuisine, and I especially like to cook various dishes from beef brought from this sunny country. After all, Argentines know almost everything about beef. So let's see why in Argentina they are engaged in cattle breeding?

Argentina is a "meat-loving" country

Yes, this country produces a lot of meat, because in terms of the number of cattle it occupies already the 6th place on our planet and the 5th place in meat production per capita. Also interesting is the fact that the Argentines not only produce meat in huge quantities, but they also eat a lot of it. Perhaps, more than them on our planet, no people eat meat. One resident of Argentina can eat up to 100 kilograms of meat per year, believe me, this is a lot.

Why are cattle breeding in Argentina?

It is an industrial-agrarian country with a very developed agriculture. The economy of this country is the most successful today among the countries of Latin America.

Trade in meat and semi-finished meat products brings this country more than half of all export earnings. It follows from this that animal husbandry is practically the main source of income for the country's budget in Argentina.

In Argentina, everything is available in order to engage in cattle breeding: pastures created by nature itself, a mild climate that compares favorably with a high content of nutrients, fertile soils. All these conditions naturally favor cattle breeding in this country.

The animals themselves graze exclusively on ecologically clean pastures, meadows and feed only on grass.

Absolutely in all provinces there is a well-functioning computerized system that strictly controls the condition of the animal and the quality of meat.