Does not play a significant role. Frontier test in social studies. The mechanism of relative erythrocytosis is associated with
Syrian President Bashar al-Assad must step down. This was stated by the head of the delegation of the Syrian opposition "Higher Committee for Negotiations" Asaad al-Zoubi. On April 13, the next round of talks on Syria started in Geneva. Earlier, US Secretary of State John Kerry said that the transfer of power in the country can be agreed in the coming days. Political scientist, expert international relations Mikhail Troitsky answered questions from Kommersant FM host Oksana Barykina.
- Tell me, do you agree with the opinion of the US Secretary of State that Syrian President Assad should leave his post?
- This is a political issue. I'm not a politician, I'm just an expert. The situation is such that, most likely, the opposition to President Assad will continue to insist on such guarantees in order to continue the process of negotiations and the formation of a coalition government. They feel support behind their backs - not so much the United States, but Saudi Arabia, Turkey, other countries of the Persian Gulf. This factor, at the very least, whether I agree with this opinion or not, will greatly complicate the negotiations for a final settlement in Syria.
- What do you think about the parliamentary elections: did they take place on time now?
- Again, of course, it is difficult to say what the elections could look like in a country in which, firstly, there is still Civil War, and, secondly, large terrorist units that hold at least two important provinces in the country have not been eliminated. Either way, the parliament does not appear to play a significant role in Syrian domestic politics.
The most important thing is who will form the government, who will become the head of the government. Parliamentary elections are probably good that they took place, but, as we see, neither the opposition nor those powers that support the opposition recognize them.
- Tell me, what should happen now, happen so that the parties can agree?
- I think it is necessary to start determining the fate of President Assad, who, of course, has a very serious grudge against the opposition, against whom a lot of facts and accusations of violating not only human rights, but also crimes against humanity in general, have been accumulated. Representatives of the opposition will all refer to this.
I think, one way or another, it is necessary to agree on some kind of perspective regarding Assad and his associates, if indeed the negotiations are to be successful, as if in the spirit of the 2012 Geneva communiqué. And another option is that President Assad will still try to finally take over the opposition and not conduct any negotiations with it. Then the alignment will be completely different - external powers have warned that they will support the opposition much more strongly. Apparently, Assad will not succeed.
So, frankly, I don't see how a final and lasting settlement of the situation in Syria can be achieved through the current negotiations. Most likely, this situation of neither peace nor war will continue for some time. And then, quite possibly, fighting will be resumed, although none of the major external sponsors of the truce wants this.
Although formally the draw of the numbers of the lists for elections to the Seimas has great importance, the order of the ballots probably does not significantly affect the results. The fact that a certain number can bring good luck, or, on the contrary, "drown" some party, is ruled out by all specialists interviewed by LTV journalists.
“The fact that these lists have this or that figure - I don’t think it matters,” admitted Arnis Cimdars, head of the Central Election Commission.
Sociologist Arnis Kaktiņš pointed out that numbers have no meaning that could affect the outcome of the election.
First of all, the personality is important for voters, and the party or party program that these people represent is most often secondary.
“We know that many voters who come to the polls do not have one choice in their mind. A lot of people make their choice at the polling station. But, as we know, in most cases they already have a fairly short list in their heads. They know that they could vote for party A, for party B or C. And then these three are chosen from a pile of ballots, and they look at these three - what kind of people are there, ”added Kaktiņš.
“We have enlarged the font, and if it used to be gray, now we have made it black – for those people who have poor eyesight, so that they can take the ballot and make their choice without the help of outsiders,” Cimdars told LTV7 journalists.
The volume of work of the Central Electoral Commission will increase due to the increase in the lists and the number of candidates for deputies - in comparison with the elections to the 10th, 11th and 12th Saeima. This means that many more ballots will have to be printed. According to the head of the CEC, this is an extra truckload of paper.
As already Rus.lsm.lv, on Friday, August 10, in the Red Hall of the Seimas, a meeting of the Central Electoral Commission (CEC) was held, at which the numbers of candidate lists of parties in the parliamentary elections were drawn. They will take place on October 6th.
Agglutination occurs with all interactions except: 2. A+b
Agglutinins α and β are included in the following components of the blood: 4 . plasma
Agglutinogens A and B are found in: 3.erythrocytes
Agranulocytosis is characterized by: 4. absence or significant decrease in the absolute number of all types of granulocytes
The activity of the fibrinolytic system is assessed by: 5. determination of antithrombin III
Alimentary factor that increases the peptic activity of gastric juice: 5.frequent consumption of meat food
Arrhythmias are the result of a violation of the properties: 4) their combined disorders
Arterial hypotension can develop when: 3.heart failure
Arterial hypertension is divided depending on: 5) all of the above is correct
Atrioventricular blockade of the III degree is characterized by: 5) complete separation of the atrial and ventricular rhythms
Paleness and decrease in skin temperature in patients with congestive heart failure is associated with: 3. increased tone of the sympathetic nervous system
Depending on the minute volume of the heart, arterial hypertension is: 2.hyper- and eukinetic
In protecting the gastric mucosa from acid-peptic aggression of gastric juice plays a role: 2.bicarbonate secretion
Excess cAMP accumulates in cardiomyocytes as a result of: 5) a decrease in K-ATPase of the plasma membrane
The blood of the second blood group contains: 3. A-agglutinogen and b-agglutinin
The blood of the third blood group contains: 2. agglutinogen B and agglutinin a
The blood of the fourth group contains: 2. agglutinogens A and B
In the mechanism of platelet-vascular hemostasis, the following is important: 1. adhesion, aggregation of platelets and their release of biologically active substances (thromboxane-A2, etc.)
The Frank-Starling compensatory mechanism is based on: 1.increase in cardiac tension in response to myocardial tension
In the pathogenesis of leukemia, the formation of a malignant autonomous cell clone is of decisive importance: formation of malignant genes or activation of oncogenes in stem cells of the 11-111 order
In the pathogenesis of edema in congestive heart failure is important: 4.increased levels of aldosterone and vasopressin in the blood
In the pathogenesis of peptic ulcer of the stomach, the mechanism does not play a significant role: 2.reduction of parasympathetic influences on the gastric mucosa
In the pathogenesis of primary arterial hypotension, it does not matter: 1. damage to the adrenal cortex, accompanied by a decrease in glucocorticoids
In the pathogenesis of sinus (respiratory) arrhythmia, 1) the formation of an ectopic focus of impulsation 2) fluctuations in vagal tone
In the pathogenesis of sinus bradycardia is important 1) slowing down spontaneous depolarization of the membrane of cardiomyocytes
The first blood group contains: 4. a- and b-agglutinins, agglutinogens A and B are absent
In the first phase of coagulation hemostasis occurs: 5.formation of prothrombinase
As a result of the second phase of coagulation hemostasis, the following occurs: 5 . thrombin formation
Mast cells and basophils produce an active anticoagulant: 2. heparin
An important difference between hypertension and other arterial hypertension is: 5. occurs against the background of the absence of significant organic lesions of the internal organs involved in its regulation
Substances that block the various phases of blood coagulation are called: 4.anticoagulants
Extraintestinal manifestation of enteritis: 2.significant reduction in body weight
Possible cause of arterial hypotension: 2) hypohydration of the body
A possible cause of intestinal autointoxication can be: 5.acholia
A possible cause of left ventricular failure is: 1.infarction of the lateral wall of the left ventricle
A possible cause of right ventricular failure may be: 1.ventricular septal defect
A possible consequence of chronic arterial hypertension may be: 5.All listed
Possible reasons for a decrease in the secretory activity of the pancreas are: 1.decrease in the production and secretion of secretin
The occurrence of steatorrhea is caused by the following digestive disorders: 3. insufficiency of the synthesis of intestinal lipases
Absorption of certain vitamins is significantly impaired in acholia: 2. vitamin B2
Is it always possible to detect blast forms in peripheral blood in leukemia?? 2) no
Select manifestations that characterize the erectile phase of shock: 2) arterial hypotension
The release of leukocytes from the depot leads to distributive leukocytosis with: 1. excitation of the vagus nerve
There are the following types of pathological leukocytosis: 2.traumatic
There are the following types of neutrophil shift to the right: degenerative
There are the following forms of essential arterial hypertension: 5) all of the above is correct
Hematomas are typical for: 4. deficiency of plasma factors
Hemodynamics in heart failure is characterized by: 1.increased venous pressure
1. increase the sensitivity of adrenoreceptors to pressor factors
Hypernatremia contributes to the development of arterial hypertension through: 3.increasing the vasomotor component of vascular tone
Hyper-regenerative shift to the left manifests itself: 2. an increase in the total number of leukocytes 20-25 x10 / 9
Hypersecretion in the small intestine occurs as a result of: 2.excess production of gastrin
Hyposecretion (ahiliya) is the cause of insufficient absorption of ions: 2.iron
Hyposecretion and achilia in the stomach is most often observed with: 4.atrophic gastritis
Hypotension is characterized by: 2) a decrease in vascular tone
The hormonal mechanism that provides an increase in vascular tone in heart failure is: 1. release of mineralocorticoids
The hormonal mechanism that provides an increase in vascular tone in heart failure is: 3.activation of the cortico-hypothalamic-pituitary system
Humoral factor that inhibits gastric motility: 4.serotonin
Humoral factor that enhances gastric motility include: 2.gastrin
ActionHelicobacterpylorion the mucosa is determined: 1.production of urease
dissociation with interference is: 4) a decrease at rest in the frequency of generation of excitation impulses by the sinus-atrial node below the norm with the same intervals between them
Esophageal dysfunction is characterized by: 4. difficulty in passing food through the esophagus to the stomach
Diffuse spasm of the esophagus is characterized by: 3. contraction of the smooth muscles of all parts of the esophageal wall while maintaining the tone of the lower sphincter
Which of the following diseases is characterized by pancytosis (an increase in the content of erythrocytes, leukocytes and platelets in the blood)? erythremia (Wakez disease);
Left ventricular failure is characterized by the following manifestations: 4.decreased cardiac output
The leukemoid reaction is characterized by: 1. a significant increase in the number of mature forms of leukocytes
For acute leukemia in the expanded stage in the peripheral blood are characterized by: a sharp shift of the formula to the left and leukemoid failure
For pancreatic achilia is not typical: 1.bulimia
Paroxysmal atrial tachycardia is characterized by: 3. Heart rate exceeds 250/min
For the course of all phases of hemocoagulation, the participation of ions is necessary: 4. calcium
For disorders of intestinal digestion with insufficient or complete cessation of the flow of bile into the intestine is not typical: 2. Acceleration of digestion and absorption of fats
The regenerative shift to the left is characterized by: 3.increased segmented
The third stage of hypertension is characterized by: 2) damage to target organs and violation of their function
The protective value of vomiting on the body is: 1. elimination of toxic substances from the body
Excessive alkalization during hypersalivation leads to: 2. decrease in peptic activity of gastric juice
Perversion of appetite is called: 5.pararexia
Changes in the parameters of the gas composition and CBS in acute DN are as follows: hypoxemia, acute respiratory acidosis;
The nuclear shift index reflects: 1. the sum of all young forms of neutrophils
The intensity of the functioning of hypertrophied cardiomyocytes in the phase of stable compensation: 1.reduces to normal
The use of cytostatics for the treatment of leukemia in insufficient dosage can accelerate the development of tumor progression, because: 3) the selection of the most malignant clones from leukemia cells is possible
True leukopenia develops due to: 4. all of the above
True leukocytosis is characterized by: 4. qualitative changes in leukocytes
True leukocytosis: due to an increase in the number of leukocytes in the blood vessels of the intestine after eating
3.essential
"Symptomatic" arterial hypertension does not include: 3.essential
Nutritional factors that increase the peptic activity of gastric juice include: 5.frequent consumption of meat food
Allorhythms include: 4) all of the above
The arrhythmogenic effects of an increase in the extracellular content of K ions include: 3) lowering the threshold of excitability of cardiomyocytes
Biological factors that directly damage the digestive organs include: 3. deficiency or excess of vitamins
Substances with vasoconstrictive effects do not include: 3.aldosterone
TO possible complications arterial hypertension include: 4.myocardial infarction
3.stroke
TO possible consequences chronic arterial hypertension include: 3.myocardial infarction
Secondary anticoagulants include: antithrombin IV
Patients at high risk of developing arterial hypertension include: 3) with proteinuria and creatinemia 1.2-2 mg/dl
Patients with a very high risk of developing cardiovascular complications include: 2) associated diseases (angina pectoris, heart failure, etc.), regardless of the degree of blood pressure
Intrapulmonary causes of DN do not include: 3) Damage to the respiratory muscles;
Intrapulmonary causes of DN include: 1) violations of ventilation-perfusion ratios;
The clinical signs of malabsorption syndrome do not include: 3.weight loss
Combined arrhythmias include: 5) all of the above is correct
The compensatory mechanism associated with dysfunction of the heart include: 2.change in minute volume
Metabolites with antihypertensive effect include: 1) nitric oxide
The mechanism of development of hypertension does not include: 2.depletion of the function of the adrenal cortex
The mechanism of urgent cardiac compensation of hemodynamic disorders in heart failure does not include: 4. myocardial hypertrophy
The mechanism of urgent extracardiac compensation of hemodynamic disorders in heart failure includes: 2. increased activity of the sympathetic nervous system
The molecular-cellular mechanism for the development of heart failure includes: 1.defects in genes and their expression
To the molecular-cellular mechanism of development of heart failure: 4. damage to the membrane apparatus
Conduction disorders in the heart include: 4) change in the speed of the impulse (slowdown, blockade)
Nomotopic arrhythmias as a result of a violation of the automatism of the heart do not include: 1) atrioventricular rhythm
Complications of arterial hypertension do not include: 1) decrease in cardiac output
The main mechanism for reducing the contractile function of the myocardium in heart failure does not include: 5.Cell degranulation
The main manifestations of acute DN do not include: 1) bradypnea;
The main properties of the myocardium do not include: 5.glycolytic metabolism of carbohydrates
Membrane digestion features include: 1.carried out by enzymes fixed on the membrane of the intestinal brush border
The reasons for the development of heart failure in the myocardial type do not include: 5. aortic stenosis
The causes of essential hypertension include: 3. genetic defects of the centers of the autonomic nervous system
The manifestation of malabsorption syndrome includes the factor: 5.all listed factors
The following type of heart failure can lead to the development of cardiac asthma: 4.left ventricular and total
Distributive leukocytosis leads to: 2.anaphylactic shock
The reflex-adaptive mechanism of the heart in heart failure includes: 2. increased heart rate (Starling's law)
Symptomatic hypertension does not include: 1.essential
Sick sinus syndrome includes: 5 - all of the above
The vasoconstrictor effect of angiotensin 2 does not include: 1.stimulation of glucocorticoid secretion
The stage of compensatory hyperfunction of the myocardium does not include: 5.completed myosclerosis
Typical changes in the number of leukocytes per unit volume of blood include: leukocytosis
The following leads to an increase in intestinal perelstatics: 5.ahiliya
Risk factors for developing hypertension do not include: 5.cachexia
The factors not involved in the pathogenesis of belching include: 3.cardiospasm
The factors that determine the strength of heart contractions in heart failure include: 5.sympathetic reflexes
Cardiac overload factors that increase afterload include: 3.arterial hypertension
Risk factors for developing hypertension do not include: 5.spicy food
Physiological leukocytosis includes: 3.traumatic
The functional characteristics of lymphocytes include: 3.produce histamine
Among the endogenous substances that reduce blood pressure by reducing peripheral vascular resistance do not include: 1. catecholamines
Extrapulmonary reasons for the development of DN do not include: myasthenia gravis;
The emergency mechanism for compensating for heart failure includes: 2.tachycardia
How will bleeding and protein synthesis change in liver failure: 3 decrease in protein synthesis, procoagulants e increase in bleeding
How does the evacuation of food masses from the stomach change with an increase in the secretion and acidity of gastric juice: 1.slow down
How does the amplitude change during gasping breathing: decreases;
How does the amplitude change during hasting breathing? increases, then decreases.
What is the value of blood pressure in mm Hg. indicates the presence of hypertension in people aged 20 to 60 years: 4.170/110
What types of arrhythmias are heterotopic: (6) 5) idioventricular rhythm
What types of arrhythmias are nomotopic: 2) AV rhythm
What changes in external respiration parameters are typical for severe DN (3 stages): increase in MOD;
What cells are descendants of B-lymphocytes: 4.plasma cells
What medical and social factors do not affect the increase in the incidence of DN: 3) a decrease in the birth rate;
Which breath is not terminal: gasping breath.
What is the terminal breath? Biota;
Which of the following medical and social conditions does not affect the increase in the incidence of respiratory failure (RF): widespread diseases of the cardiovascular system;
What pathological condition is accompanied by inspiratory dyspnea: diphtheria;
What condition leads to an increase in intestinal statics: 5.ahiliya
What phenomenon underlies the compensatory pause after ventricular extrasystole? 1) decrease in excitability of cells of the sinoatrial node of refractoriness 4) positive dromotropic effect of extrasystole
What type of hypoxia develops in acute arterial hypotension: 2.circulatory
Which of the following options is most typical for a typical course of chronic lymphocytic leukemia? marked leukocytosis with absolute lymphocytosis.
Which of the indicators most likely characterizes the violation of the systolic function of the left ventricle of the heart? 2) decrease in stroke volume of the heart (SV)
Which of the ECG signs reflects the presence of a focus of necrosis in the myocardium? 5) shift of the ST segment upwards from the isoline
Which of the ECG signs reflects the presence of a focus of subendocardial ischemia in the myocardium? 3) positive "coronary" T wave
What process is a peculiar form of infiltrative growth in leukemia? displacement of other germs of hematopoiesis in the bone marrow;
What type of breathing develops with stenosis of the larynx? infrequent deep breathing with difficulty inhaling.
What type of leukemia is most common in childhood: acute lymphoblastic leukemia.
Which factor is usually more important in the pathogenesis of duodenal ulcer: 1.acid-peptic aggression
The clinical manifestation of the defeat of the respiratory center is: apnestic breathing;
Coagulation hemostasis includes the following stages: 5. formation of thromboplastin, thrombin, fibrin
Combined rhythm disturbances are caused by: 4) a combination of changes in the properties of excitability, conductivity and automatism
The compensatory mechanism that ensures the normal gas composition of the blood in DN is: hyperventilation;
Bleeding in the early stages of acute leukemia is associated with: inhibition of megakaryocytic germ
Laboratory indicators for DIC in the stage of hypocoagulation have the following values: 3. blood clotting time and prothrombin time are increased
3.hypoxia
A leukemoid reaction can develop when: 3.liver dystrophy
A leukemoid reaction can develop when: 3.acute infectious process
Leukopenia manifests itself: 3.activation of myelopoiesis
Leukopenia is characterized by: 1. a condition characterized by an increase in the number of leukocytes per unit volume of blood above 9x10 9 / l
Medicines that contribute to the development of leukopenia: 1.sulfonamides
The mechanism of absolute erythrocytosis is associated with: activation of the sympathoadrenal system
The mechanism of DIC in the stage of hypercoagulability is associated with: 3. activation of both coagulation cascades
The mechanism of formation of a white blood clot is associated with:
The mechanism of formation of a white blood clot is associated with: 2. Adhesion, aggregation and agglutination of platelets.
The mechanism of formation of a red thrombus is associated with: 4. Activation of procoagulants.
The mechanism of formation of a red thrombus is associated with: 4. Activation of procoagulants.
The mechanism of relative erythrocytosis is associated with:
The mechanism of primary erythrocytosis is associated with: stem cell mutation (CFUe type)
The mechanism of development of the leukemoid reaction is: 3. focal hyperplasia of normal sprouts of erythropoietic tissue
The mechanism of development of the leukemoid reaction is due to: 1.hypovolemia
The mechanism of intracardiac compensation during overload with blood volume (pressure) is: 2. homeometric compensation mechanism
The mechanism of damage to membranes and enzymes of myocardial cells in heart failure is: 5.excessive intensification of SPOL
Myeloma (plasmocytoma) is associated with the appearance of a mutant clone from: B-lymphocytes
Myocardial heart failure develops when: 2.intoxication
Can neutropenia be combined with a leukemoid reaction? 1) yes
Name the extrapulmonary etiological factor in the development of DN: damage to the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system.
Name which cells are present in the leukocyte formula in chronic myeloid leukemia: a large number of myeloblasts;
Name the cell that exocytes TNF (tumor necrosis factor): Tissue macrofvg
Name the cell that does not take part in the process of metastasis: Macrophage
Name the methods of laboratory diagnostics that allow to detect clusters of differentiation of blast cells: immunophenotyping with monoclonal antibodies;
Name the main method for diagnosing forms of acute leukemia: cytochemical study;
What are examples of diseases in which the likelihood of developing leukemia is increased: Klinefelter's syndrome;
Name the cause of secondary pulmonary emphysema: 4) bronchial asthma.
Name the extrapulmonary etiological factors of DN: strokes;
What is the cause of graft-versus-host disease? develops as a result of transplantation of donor T-lymphocytes;
What is the morphological substrate of chronic leukemia: relatively differentiated cells of the hematopoietic tissue;
What is the result of changes in the cell genome? transformation of normal hematopoietic cells into tumor cells;
Name the etiological factors leading to the development of leukemia: carcinogens;
The most common cause of the development of centrogenic arterial hypertension due to organic damage to brain structures is: 5) brain tumors
Presence of what cells in peripheral blood is typical for acute myeloid leukemia? 2) myeloblasts, promyelocytes, stab neutrophils, segmented neutrophils
Presence of what cells in peripheral blood is typical for chronic myelogenous leukemia? 1) myeloblasts, promyelocytes, myelocytes, metamyelocytes, stab neutrophils, segmented neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils
Violation of the diffuse properties of alveolo-capillary membranes plays a major role in the development of respiratory failure in: interstitial pulmonary edema;
Violation of gastric motility does not lead to the development of: 4.constipation
Violations of what properties of the heart lead to the development of arrhythmias? 2) automatism
The initial and leading link in the pathogenesis of adult respiratory distress syndrome is: pulmonary edema;
The initial and leading link in the pathogenesis of neonatal respiratory distress syndrome is: reduction in the amount of surfactant;
Not a risk factor for circulatory failure: 4.lack of fat in the diet
Heart failure from overload with increased volume (preload) develops in the following cases: 2.hypervolemia
1. Prothrombin time (Quick time)
The activity of anticoagulants is judged by: 5. determination of antithrombin III
One of the reasons for the development of obstructive respiratory failure is: collapse of bronchioles with the loss of elastic properties of the lungs;
One of the mechanisms for the development of leukocytosis is: hemodilution
One of the typical changes in the number of leukocytes per unit volume of blood is: 1.leukemia
One of possible causes leukopenia is: 1.tumor activation of leukopoiesis
The main cause of alveolar hypoventilation is: violation of centrogenic mechanisms of regulation of external respiration.
The main cause of disorders of the digestive function of the intestine: 4.disorders of bile secretion
The main reason for the development of leukopenia as a result of a violation of the formation of leukocytes is: 4. exit of a large number of leukocytes from the vascular bed
The main reason for the development of hypersecretion of the stomach is: 1. increase in the mass of secretory cells
The main mechanisms of violations of coagulation hemostasis: deficiency of one or more plasma factors
The main properties of a malignant autonomous clone of leukemic cells: release of growth inhibitors, migration of malignant cells,
The main link in the pathogenesis of congestive heart failure with heart defects is: 1. imbalance between the increased mass of actomyosin and the mass of mitochondria with an outcome in relative energy deficit
The main mechanism for the development of "true" lymphocytic leukocytosis is: 4. increased proliferation of agranulocyte cells
The main mechanism for the development of hypertension according to E. Gelgorn's hypothesis is: 1. hypersecretion of renin in the JGA of the kidneys
The main mechanism for the development of a leukemoid reaction is: entry into the vascular bed of an excess of blood cells
The main mechanism for the development of leukopenia is: 3.hemoconcentration
The main pathogenetic mechanism for the development of dumping syndrome is: 2. decrease in the reservoir function of the stomach
The main factor determining the level of blood pressure is: 4) cardiac output and total peripheral vascular resistance
The main ECG sign of the Wolf-Parkinson-White phenomenon is et: 2 – the presence of a “delta wave”
Features of the pathogenesis of chronic leukemia: most of the mutant blast cells differentiate, there is no "leukemoid" dip
Relative lymphocytosis is accompanied by: 3.tuberculosis
Describe the concept of "leukemoid reaction": changes in hematopoietic tissue and in peripheral blood, similar to leukemia;
Describe the concept of "leukemoid reaction": conditions characterized by changes in the organs of hematopoiesis, in peripheral blood and in the body as a whole, similar to leukemia.
During preschool age, children's communication with each other changes significantly. Three qualitatively unique stages (or forms of communication) between preschoolers and their peers can be distinguished in these changes.
Emotionally-practical form of communication (second - fourth years of life)
In junior preschool age the child expects from a peer complicity in his amusements and craves self-expression. It is necessary and sufficient for him that a peer joins his pranks and, acting together or alternately with him, supports and enhances the general fun. Each participant in such communication is primarily concerned with drawing attention to himself and getting an emotional response from his partner. Emotional-practical communication is extremely situational - both in its content and in the means of implementation. It entirely depends on the specific environment in which the interaction takes place, and on the practical actions of the partner. It is characteristic that introducing an attractive object into a situation can disrupt children's interaction: they switch attention from their peers to the subject or fight over it. At this stage communication of children is not yet connected with objects or actions and is separated from them.
For younger preschoolers, the most characteristic is an indifferent-friendly attitude towards another child. Three-year-old children, as a rule, are indifferent to the success of their peers and to their assessment by an adult. At the same time, as a rule, they easily solve problem situations "in favor" of others: they give way to the game, give away their items (although their gifts are more often addressed to adults - parents or educators than to peers). All this may indicate that the peer does not yet play a significant role in the life of the child. The kid, as it were, does not notice the actions and states of a peer. At the same time, its presence increases the overall emotionality and activity of the child. This is evidenced by the desire of children for emotional and practical interaction, imitation of the movements of their peers. The ease with which three-year-old children become infected with common emotional states may indicate a special commonality with him, which is expressed in the discovery of the same properties, things or actions. The child, “looking at a peer”, as it were, highlights specific properties in himself. But this generality has a purely external, procedural and situational character.
Situational-business form of communication
It develops around the age of four and remains most typical until the age of six. After the age of four, children (especially those who attend kindergarten) a peer in their attractiveness begins to overtake an adult and take an increasing place in their lives. This age is the heyday of the role-playing game. At this time, the role-playing game becomes collective - children prefer to play together, and not alone. Business cooperation becomes the main content of children's communication in the middle of preschool age. Cooperation should be distinguished from complicity. During emotional and practical communication, the children acted side by side, but not together; the attention and complicity of their peers was important to them. In situational business communication, preschoolers are busy common cause, they must coordinate their actions and take into account the activity of their partner in order to achieve a common result. This kind of interaction was called cooperation. The need for peer cooperation becomes central to children's communication.
In the middle of preschool age, a decisive change occurs in relation to peers. The picture of interaction between children is changing significantly.
“At senior preschool age, the emotional well-being of a child in a peer group depends either on the ability to organize joint play activities or on the success of productive activities. Popular children have high success in joint cognitive, labor and play activities. They are proactive, result-oriented, and expect positive feedback. Children with an unfavorable position in the group have low success in activities that cause them negative emotions, refusal to work. Along with the need for cooperation at this stage, the need for peer recognition and respect is clearly highlighted. The child seeks to attract the attention of others. Sensitively catches in their views and facial expressions signs of attitude towards himself, demonstrates resentment in response to inattention or reproaches of partners. The “invisibility” of a peer turns into keen interest in everything he does. At the age of four or five, children often ask adults about the successes of their comrades, demonstrate their advantages, and try to hide their mistakes and failures from their peers. In children's communication at this age, a competitive, competitive beginning appears. The successes and failures of others take on special significance. In the process of playing or other activities, children closely and jealously observe the actions of their peers and evaluate them. Children's reactions to an adult's assessment also become more acute and emotional.
The successes of peers can cause grief for children, and his failures cause undisguised joy. At this age, the number of children's conflicts increases significantly, such phenomena as envy, jealousy, and resentment towards a peer arise.
All this allows us to talk about a deep qualitative restructuring of the child's relationship to peers. The other child becomes the subject of constant comparison with himself. This comparison is not aimed at revealing commonality (as with three-year-olds), but at opposing oneself and the other, which primarily reflects changes in the child's self-awareness. Through comparison with a peer, the child evaluates and asserts himself as the owner of certain virtues that are important not in themselves, but "in the eyes of another." This other for a four-five-year-old child becomes a peer. All this gives rise to numerous conflicts of children and such phenomena as boasting, demonstrativeness, competitiveness, etc. However, these phenomena can be considered as age-related features of five-year-olds. By the older preschool age, the attitude towards peers again changes significantly.
By the age of six or seven, friendliness towards peers and the ability to help each other significantly increase. Of course, the competitive, competitive beginning is preserved in the communication of children. However, along with this, in the communication of older preschoolers there appears the ability to see in a partner not only his situational manifestations, but also some psychological aspects of his existence - his desires, preferences, moods. Preschoolers not only talk about themselves, but also turn to their peers with questions: what he wants to do, what he likes, where he was, what he saw, etc. Their communication becomes out-of-situation.
Extra-situational form of communication
The development of out-of-situation in the communication of children occurs in two directions. On the one hand, the number of off-site contacts is increasing: children tell each other about where they have been and what they have seen, share their plans or preferences, and evaluate the qualities and actions of others. On the other hand, the very image of a peer becomes more stable, independent of the specific circumstances of the interaction. By the end of preschool age, stable selective attachments arise between children, the first shoots of friendship appear. Preschoolers "gather" in small groups (two or three people each) and show a clear preference for their friends. The child begins to isolate and feel the inner essence of the other, which, although not represented in the situational manifestations of a peer (in his specific actions, statements, toys), but becomes more and more significant for the child.
By the age of six, emotional involvement in the activities and experiences of a peer increases significantly. In most cases, older preschoolers carefully observe the actions of their peers and are emotionally involved in them. Sometimes, even contrary to the rules of the game, they seek to help him, suggest the right move. If four-five-year-old children willingly, following an adult, condemn the actions of their peers, then six-year-olds, on the contrary, can unite with a friend in their “opposition” to an adult. All this may indicate that the actions of older preschoolers are aimed not at a positive assessment of an adult and not at observing moral standards, but directly at another child.
By the age of six, many children have an immediate and unselfish desire to help a peer, give him something or give in. Malevolence, envy, competitiveness appear less frequently and not as sharply as at the age of five. Many children are already able to empathize with both the successes and failures of their peers. All this may indicate that a peer becomes for the child not only a means of self-affirmation and an object of comparison with himself, not only a preferred partner, but also a self-worthy personality, important and interesting, regardless of his achievements and subjects.
This is, in general terms, the age logic of the development of communication and attitudes towards peers in preschool age. However, it is not always realized in the development of specific children. It is widely known that there are significant individual differences in relation to the child's peers, which largely determine his well-being, position among others and, ultimately, the features of the formation of personality. Of particular concern are problematic forms interpersonal relationships.
Among the most typical variants of conflict relations for preschoolers are increased aggressiveness, resentment, shyness and demonstrativeness of preschoolers. Let's dwell on them in more detail.
Problematic forms of relationships with peers
Comparing different types"problem" children, one can see that they differ significantly in the nature of their behavior and in the degree of difficulties that they create for others. Some of them constantly fight, and you have to call them to order all the time, others do their best to attract attention and look “good”, others hide from prying eyes and avoid any contact. Cm.
It does not play a significant role in the total volume of freight and passenger traffic, although it is out of competition in terms of speed of delivery over long distances. The first regular flights to former USSR were started in 1920 Moscow - Kharkov.
Airway elements:
Rolling stock (transport aircraft),
airports,
airfields,
Parking lots for maintenance and repair of rolling stock,
Ground air navigation equipment.
The advantages of air transport are manifested from a distance of 200 km.
The airport occupies 25-50 km2, Dallas - 70 km2. Due to flight safety and noise, about 120 km2 is uninhabitable.
Interaction environment associated with flights of all types of aircraft and helicopters, and such with the construction and operation of airports, maintenance and repair enterprises, which, as a rule, are located near large industrial centers.
In aviation, 2 types of fuel are used: kerosene and gasoline, which differ somewhat in the composition of combustion products. Leaded gasoline (C 4 - C 12) is used in aircraft with piston engines, gives Pb in the exhaust gases, i.e. emissions are similar to motor vehicle emissions. The role of aircraft with piston engines is insignificant and is constantly decreasing (now about 5% of piston aircraft - Yak-12, LA, AN-2, LI-2).
The majority of aircraft use gas turbine (jet) engines, running on kerosene - heat engines in which the air-fuel mixture is first compressed and heated (in the combustion chamber), and then the energy of the compressed and heated mixture is converted into mechanical work. The efficiency of gas turbine engines (GTE) reaches 50%.
Fuel consumption for different stages of the flight depends on the length of the flight: with a flight range of 550-570 km, 50% is used for takeoff and climb, 25% for cruising, and 25% for descent and landing. With a 2-fold increase in range, 45% of the fuel goes to takeoff and climb, and 15% of the fuel goes to descent and landing. With a 3-fold increase in range, fuel consumption for cruising flight increases to 63%. At altitudes above 21-15 km, the specific fuel consumption increases due to the deterioration of the combustion efficiency.
The combustion products of fuel (kerosene) in gas turbine engines contain non-toxic CO 2, steam H 2 O, N 2, as well as CO, NOx, hydrocarbons (methane, acetylene, ethane, ethylene, propane, benzene, toluene), aldehydes (formaldehyde, acrolein CH 2=CH-CHO, acetaldehyde), solid soot particles forming a smoky plume behind the nozzle. In addition, aircraft also throw out the original fuel not only in emergency situations, but also when purging and emptying tanks, after an unsuccessful engine start or after it is turned off after a flight.
Studies of the combustion products of the engines of the Boeing-747 aircraft have shown that the content of toxicants in the combustion products significantly depends on the mode of operation of the engines. About 42% of the total fuel consumption and high concentrations of CO and hydrocarbons are typical when the engine is operating at reduced modes (idling, taxiing to and from the runway, approaching the airport, landing approach), and the NOx content increases significantly under operating modes close to nominal ( takeoff, climb, flight mode). From start to takeoff, the aircraft burns about 2000 liters of fuel. The total emission of toxic substances into the atmosphere by aircraft with gas turbine engines is constantly growing, which is associated with an increase in fuel consumption up to 20-30 tons / hour and an increase in the number of aircraft in operation.
