International relations at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries International relations at the turn of the XX-XXI centuries. Causes of the Crisis in International Relations

While there were disputes in scientific circles about the structure of the new system of international relations, a number of events that took place at the turn of the century, in fact, themselves dotted all the i's.

Several stages can be distinguished:

1. 1991 - 2000 - this stage can be defined as a period of crisis of the entire international system and a period of crisis in Russia. At that time, the idea of ​​unipolarity led by the United States categorically dominated world politics, and Russia was perceived as a “former superpower”, as a “losing side” in the Cold War, some researchers even write about the possible collapse of the Russian Federation in the near future (for example, Z. Brzezinski ). As a result, during this period there was a certain dictatorship in relation to the actions of the Russian Federation by the world community.

This was largely due to the fact that the foreign policy of the Russian Federation in the early 1990s had a clear “pro-American vector”. Other tendencies in foreign policy emerged approximately after 1996, thanks to the replacement of the Westernizer A. Kozyrev as Minister of Foreign Affairs by the statesman E. Primakov. The difference in the positions of these figures led not only to a change in the vector of Russian politics - it becomes more independent, but many analysts started talking about the transformation of the model of Russian foreign policy. Changes introduced by E.M. Primakov, may well be called the consistent "Primakov Doctrine". “Its essence: to interact with the main world actors, without rigidly adhering to anyone.” According to the Russian researcher A. Pushkov, “this is the “third way”, which allows avoiding the extremes of the “Kozyrev doctrine” (“the position of America’s junior partner and for everything or almost everything”) and the nationalist doctrine (“to distance oneself from Europe, the United States and Western institutions - NATO, the IMF, the World Bank"), to try to become an independent center of gravity for all those who did not have relations with the West, from the Bosnian Serbs to the Iranians.

After Yevgeny Primakov's resignation from the post of prime minister in 1999, the geostrategy he defined was basically continued - in fact, there was no other alternative to it and it corresponded to Russia's geopolitical ambitions. Thus, finally, Russia managed to formulate its own geostrategy, which is conceptually well-founded and quite practical. It is quite natural that the West did not accept it, since it was ambitious: Russia still intends to play the role of a world power and is not going to agree to the downgrading of its global status.

2. 2000-2008 - The beginning of the second stage was undoubtedly marked to a greater extent by the events of September 11, 2001, as a result of which the idea of ​​unipolarity is actually collapsing in the world. In political and scientific circles, the United States is gradually beginning to talk about moving away from hegemonic politics and the need to establish US global leadership, supported by the closest associates from the developed world.

In addition, at the beginning of the 21st century, there is a change of political leaders in almost all leading countries. In Russia, a new president, V. Putin, comes to power, and the situation begins to change.

In Putin finally approves the idea of ​​a multipolar world as a base in Russia's foreign policy strategy. In such a multipolar structure, Russia claims to be one of the main players, along with China, France, Germany, Brazil and India. However, the US does not want to give up its leadership. As a result, a real geopolitical war is played out, and the main battles are played out in the post-Soviet space (for example, “color revolutions”, gas conflicts, the problem of NATO expansion at the expense of a number of countries in the post-Soviet space, etc.).

The second stage is defined by some researchers as “post-American”: “We are living in the post-American period of world history. This is actually a multipolar world based on 8-10 pillars. They are not equally strong, but have enough autonomy. These are the USA, Western Europe, China, Russia, Japan, but also Iran and South America, where Brazil has a leading role. South Africa on the African continent and other pillars - centers of power. However, this is not a “world after the US”, much less without the US. It is a world where the rise and rise of other global centers of power is declining the relative importance of America's role, as has been observed in the global economy and trade over the past decades. A real “global political awakening” is taking place, as Z. Brzezinski writes in his latest book. This "global awakening" is determined by such multidirectional forces as economic success, national dignity, raising the level of education, information "armament", the historical memory of peoples. Hence, in particular, there is a rejection of the American version of world history.

3. 2008 - present - the third stage, first of all, was marked by the coming to power in Russia of a new president - D.A. Medvedev. In general, the foreign policy of the times of V. Putin was continued.

In addition, the events in Georgia in August 2008 played a key role in this phase:

firstly, the war in Georgia was evidence that the “transitional” period of the transformation of the international system was over;

secondly, there was a final alignment of forces at the interstate level: it became obvious that the new system has completely different foundations and Russia can play a key role here by developing some kind of global concept based on the idea of ​​multipolarity.

“After 2008, Russia moved to a position of consistent criticism of the global activities of the United States, defending the prerogatives of the UN, the inviolability of sovereignty and the need to strengthen the regulatory framework in the field of security. The United States, on the contrary, shows disdain for the UN, contributing to the "interception" of a number of its functions by other organizations - NATO in the first place. American politicians put forward the idea of ​​creating new international organizations according to the political and ideological principle - based on the conformity of their future members to democratic ideals. American diplomacy stimulates anti-Russian tendencies in the policy of the countries of Eastern and South-Eastern Europe and tries to create regional associations in the CIS without Russia's participation,” writes Russian researcher T. Shakleina.

Russia, together with the United States, is trying to form some kind of adequate model of Russian-American interaction "in the context of a weakening of the overall controllability (governance) of the world system." The model that existed before was adapted to take into account the interests of the United States, since Russia had been busy rebuilding its own forces for a long time and was largely dependent on relations with the United States.

Today, many people accuse Russia of being ambitious and intending to compete with the United States. The American researcher A. Cohen writes: “... Russia has noticeably tightened its international policy and, in achieving its goals, increasingly relies on force rather than on international law... Moscow has stepped up its anti-American policy and rhetoric and is ready to challenge US interests wherever and whenever possible, including the Far North.

Such statements form the current context of statements about Russia's participation in world politics. The desire of the Russian leadership to limit the dictates of the United States in all international affairs is obvious, but thanks to this, there is an increase in the competitiveness of the international environment. Nevertheless, "reducing the intensity of contradictions is possible if all countries, and not just Russia, realize the importance of mutually beneficial cooperation and mutual concessions" . It is necessary to work out a new global paradigm for the further development of the world community, based on the idea of ​​multi-vector and polycentricity.

In the mid-1980s, international relations reached a critical point, and the atmosphere of the "cold war" was revived in the world. The USSR found itself in a difficult situation: continued afghan war, a new round of the arms race began, which the exhausted economy of the country could no longer withstand. The technical backwardness in the main sectors of the economy, low labor productivity, and the cessation of economic growth - all this was evidence of a deep crisis in the communist system. Under such conditions, another change in the political leadership of the USSR took place. In March 1985, N.S. was elected General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU. Gorbachev, whose name is associated with fundamental changes in the foreign policy of the USSR.

Mikhail Sergeevich Gorbachev (born 1931) - Soviet party and statesman. Z1955 at the Komsomol and party work in the Stavropol region of the RSFSR. U1978-1985 Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU. Z1980r. member of the Politburo of the Central Committee of the CPSU, since 1985 General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU. 1988-1990 Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. In 1990-1991 the president of the USSR. The initiator of "perestroika", which led to significant changes in the economic and political spheres of life in Soviet society, as well as in international relations. Nobel Peace Prize Laureate for 1990 On August 19-21, 1991, Gorbachev was removed from power by orthodox top officials who, in an effort to preserve the Union unchanged, carried out a coup d'etat. He remained president of the USSR until December 25, 1991, but did not have real power and could not stop the process of the final collapse of the USSR. Since December 1991, President of the International Foundation for Social, Economic and Political Research ("Gorbachev Foundation"). In 1996, he took part in the presidential elections in the Russian Federation, but received less than 1% of the vote.

Main directions new policy Moscow consisted in softening relations with the West and facilitating the settlement regional conflicts. Having proclaimed a course towards the implementation of new political thinking in international relations - the recognition of the priority of universal human interests over class interests, as well as the fact that a nuclear war cannot be a means of achieving political, ideological and other goals, the Soviet leadership entered into an open dialogue with the West. A series of meetings took place between G. Gorbachev and G. Reagan. In November 1985, at the first meeting in Geneva, the two leaders discussed the pressing problems of international relations and came to the conclusion that a nuclear war should not be unleashed, because there would be no winners in this war. In subsequent meetings (Reykjavik, 1986; Washington, 1987; Moscow, 1988;

New York, 1988) laid the foundations for mutual understanding between the USSR and the USA with the achievement of concrete decisions aimed at curtailing the arms race. A particularly important result of this was the signing on December 8, 1987 of an agreement on the elimination of new nuclear missiles of medium and shorter range (500-5000 km) from the European territory. It was assumed the complete destruction of two classes of missiles by the USSR and the USA. For the first time in the post-war period, the USSR agreed to control over the elimination of weapons. In 1987, Soviet-American negotiations began on limiting and ending nuclear tests.

In April 1988, an agreement was signed in Geneva to settle the conflict in Afghanistan. The USSR and the USA signed the Declaration on International Guarantees and a Memorandum of Understanding. Gradually - until February 15, 1989. - Soviet troops were withdrawn from Afghanistan. The most shameful war of the Soviet Union ended, in which it lost more than 13 thousand killed.

The American-Soviet peace dialogue continued during the presidency of George W. Bush (1989-1993), in particular, there were negotiations on the reduction of strategic offensive arms (START). An important step in this direction was the first visit of M.S. Gorbachev as President of the USSR until Washington in 1990 and his negotiations with George W. Bush. Here, the main provisions of the START treaty were agreed, and an agreement was concluded on the elimination of the vast majority of chemical weapons and the refusal to produce them. The documents noted that the period of confrontation between the West and the East is giving way to partnership and cooperation.

The negotiation process has captured a wide range of weapons. In 1989, multilateral negotiations began in Vienna on the reduction of armed forces and conventional weapons in Europe. At a meeting of 22 member countries of the Conference on Security and Cooperation (CSCE) in November 1990. In Paris, the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe was signed, which determined the radical reduction of conventional forces of NATO and the Warsaw Pact.

At the turn of the 1980s and 1990s, the USSR pursued an active international policy. Moscow contributed to the settlement of a number of regional conflicts with the involvement of the UN, which for the first time in its history began to play the role of a guarantor in maintaining peace. After G. Gorbachev's visit to Beijing in 1989, the normalization of Soviet-Chinese relations began. But even greater changes have taken place in European politics. During 1988-1989. In the European states of the Warsaw Pact, the economic crisis worsened sharply. Almost everywhere there was a stagnation of production and a decline in the level of real incomes of the population. Growing budget deficits. The population of the countries of Eastern Europe resolutely rose to fight against the totalitarian communist regimes. The ruling circles of Poland and

The transition to political pluralism in Yugoslavia took place in 1990 against the backdrop of aggravated ethnic conflicts that led to the collapse of the federation. Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia proclaimed 1991. independence. The Communists retained power only in Serbia and Montenegro. These two republics announced the restoration of the Yugoslav federation. The Serbian population of Croatia (11%) and Bosnia and Herzegovina demanded the annexation of their areas of compact residence in Serbia. An interethnic war broke out in the former Yugoslavia, which became especially brutal in Bosnia and Herzegovina. To resolve these contradictions, the UN military contingent, which included a Ukrainian unit, had to intervene.

The final end of the Cold War period was marked by the unification of Germany. In February 1990, the four powers - the victors in World War II - the USSR, the USA, Great Britain and France - agreed with two German states - the FRG and the GDR - on the creation of a 2 + 4 negotiating mechanism for the unification of Germany. In September 1990, the Treaty on the Final Settlement of the German Question was signed in Moscow, according to which the united Germany recognized the existing borders in Europe, renounced weapons of mass destruction, and undertook to reduce its armed forces. The Soviet Union undertook to withdraw its troops from German territory and did not deny its entry into NATO.

Changes in the political climate in Eastern Europe led to the dissolution of the Warsaw Pact in 1991 and the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Germany in subsequent years. The powerful state of the communist bloc - the USSR - also collapsed. Back in November 1988, the Supreme Soviet of the Estonian SSR proclaimed Estonian state sovereignty. 1989-1990 pp. For the first time in the republics of the USSR, elections were held on a multi-party basis. The national-patriotic forces pushed the communists out of the helm of power. On July 16, 1990, the newly elected Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine adopted the Declaration on the State Sovereignty of Ukraine. Declarations on state sovereignty were also proclaimed by the parliaments of Lithuania, Latvia, Belarus, Russia, Moldova and other republics. After an unsuccessful attempt by conservative forces to carry out a coup d'état in the USSR (August 19-20, 1991), the Communist Party, a participant in the rebellion, was outlawed. On August 24, 1991, the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine adopted the Act of Declaration of Independence of Ukraine, and on December 1, 1991, in an All-Ukrainian referendum, more than 90% of the votes approved it. December 8, 1991 p. in Belovezhskaya Pushcha, the leaders of Russia, Ukraine, Belarus announced the termination of the existence of the USSR as a subject of international law. A new association was created - the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), which is more of a political declaration than a real treaty. Russia declared itself the heir of the USSR and responsible for all the agreements signed by Moscow. After the collapse of the USSR, Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Kazakhstan became nuclear powers, having concluded an agreement in 1992 in Lisbon that they, in addition to Russia, would lose their nuclear weapons within 7 years. Based on these agreements, the presidents would. Yeltsin and George W. Bush in Washington signed in the same year the text of the START-1 treaty, according to which the United States and the states former USSR reduce strategic offensive weapons by 50% for 7 years, which symbolized the end of the confrontation between the USSR and the USA.

The end of the Cold War is considered to be:

o the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan (February 1989);

o fall totalitarian regimes in the countries of Central and Eastern Europe (1989);

o the destruction of the Berlin Wall (November 1989 p.);

o the unification of Germany and the dissolution of the Warsaw Pact (July 1991 p.).

February 1, 1992 G. Bush and By. Yeltsin signed an agreement at Camp David under which the United States and Russia ceased to consider each other potential adversaries, laying the foundation for the development of partnerships between them. However, in the late 1990s, the crisis in Kosovo and the events in Chechnya revived mutual distrust between the two major nuclear powers.

In January 1993, in Moscow, Yeltsin and Bush signed a new START-2 treaty halving strategic offensive arms to the level of the START-1 treaty. Under a tripartite agreement between the United States, Russia and Ukraine dated January 14, 1994, Ukraine agreed to transfer 200 nuclear warheads to Russia for dismantling. Moscow pledged to provide Ukraine with nuclear fuel, and the United States to finance this deal.

With the collapse of communism, the bipolarity of the world and the East-West confrontation disappeared, but the number of international conflicts did not decrease. Particularly dangerous was the conflict in the Persian Gulf, which began in August 1990 with the attack by the troops of Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein on Kuwait. The UN Security Council, having condemned the aggression, set a final date for the withdrawal of Iraqi troops from Kuwait - January 15, 1991. The multinational armed forces under the leadership of the American command carried out Operation Desert Storm against Iraq and liberated Kuwait.

The changes that took place in international life in the early 1990s led to a new alignment of forces in the world. Russia proved unable to support "pro-Soviet" regimes in Asia and Africa. This contributed to the resolution or deepening of dialogue in resolving regional conflicts, in particular the Arab-Israeli one. Although the process of normalizing Israel's relations with the Arab countries is constantly hampered, the ways to resolve this longest conflict are outlined quite clearly. On the whole, the conflicts in Cambodia, Angola, and Mozambique were resolved; in 1990, the apartheid regime in Swedish Africa was liquidated. However, a just and secure world community is still a long way off. On the territory of the former USSR and the camp of socialism, local conflicts have arisen and continue to smolder (the war of Russia against Chechnya, the Abkhazian-Georgian conflict, the Armenian-Azerbaijani clashes in Karabakh, the unsettled relations after the bloody clashes between Moldova and the so-called Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic, interethnic conflicts on the territory of the former Yugoslavia, etc.).

An important element of international relations was the acceleration of Western European and pan-European integration. In 1992, in Maastricht (Netherlands), the member countries of the European Economic Community signed a new agreement on the European Union, on the basis of which in 1999 the creation of an economic and monetary union should be completed. The Community also plans to develop a common defense security policy and introduce a single European citizenship. In 1997, the EU introduced a single European citizenship, which does not cancel national citizenship. On January 31, 1999, a single currency, the euro, was introduced for non-cash transactions in 12 of the 15 EU countries (Belgium, Germany, Greece, Spain.

France, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Austria, Portugal and Finland). The former Soviet bloc countries are trying to get out of Russia's sphere of influence through gradual integration into the EU and NATO. However, their level economic development does not allow Western Europeans to open the door to the EU for everyone. In May 2004, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Slovenia, Slovenia, Poland, Hungary, and the Czech Republic joined the EU. Since January 1, 2007, Bulgaria and Romania have become full members of the EU. With regard to the North Atlantic bloc, in early 1994 the United States proposed a program within the framework of NATO "Partnership for Peace", which implies a gradual rapprochement of the countries of Eastern Europe. In 1997, the Atlantic leadership considered applications for Poland, the Czech Republic, and Hungary to join NATO and accepted them into NATO in 1999. In May 2004, Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia, and Slovenia became NATO members. In July 1997, in Madrid, President of Ukraine L. Kuchma signed the Charter on Special Relations between Ukraine and NATO, which provided for the expansion of relations between Kiev and Brussels in matters of European security. In 1997, the NATO Information and Documentation Center in Ukraine was opened in Kyiv, and in 1999 the NATO Liaison Office in Ukraine was established. Since 2000, Kiev and Brussels have launched a number of initiatives that should contribute to the development of a special partnership between both sides, in particular, in 2001, the State Program of Cooperation between Ukraine and NATO for 2001-2004 was approved, created State Council on European and Euro-Atlantic Integration of Ukraine in 2002 and the National Center for Euro-Atlantic Integration of Ukraine in 2003; new government Ukraine's entry into NATO. In April 2005, during the "Ukraine-NATO" meeting (Vilnius, Lithuania), a dialogue on Ukraine's membership in NATO was officially launched at the level of foreign ministers. However, political instability in Ukraine, foreign policy complications hinder Ukraine's European integration process.

The international situation in the post-communist era has not become more predictable and stable. In overcoming local and regional conflicts, the United Nations plays an increasingly important role, which is assigned the role of the main guarantor of international security.

by the most an important factor influence on the development of international relations in the post-bipolar era was the foreign policy of the United States of America. The Republican administration of George W. Bush, who was elected the 43rd President of the United States in November 2000, proclaimed the long-term goal of establishing the dominant position of the United States in the system of international relations. Washington set a course for the quantitative and qualitative strengthening of military power. The US military budget rose from $310 billion in 2001 to $380 billion in 2003 and to $450 billion in 2008. The US went beyond the limitations of the ABM Treaty by announcing in 2001 the deployment of the National System missile defense (NMD). The Bush administration has actively promoted the accession to NATO of the countries of East Central Europe and the Baltics.

An important place in US foreign policy was occupied by the fight against international terrorism, especially after the terrorist attacks against American cities on September 11, 2001. The United States created a broad anti-terrorist coalition, which in October 2001 launched a war against the Taliban government in Afghanistan, which gave refuge to terrorists Al Qaddi. One-sidedness in making decisions on international problems became a characteristic feature of the foreign policy of the administration of George W. Bush, which, in particular, was manifested in the decision in March 2003 of the war against Iraq, contrary to the position of the UN and many states. This war complicated US relations with France, Germany and other states. US-Russian relations developed ambiguously. The Russian Federation's support for US anti-terrorist activities after the September 2001 events contributed to a significant improvement in relations between the two states, but the Russian leadership's condemnation of the US Iraqi war, human rights violations in Russia, Moscow's desire to play a dominant role in the post-Soviet space, which led to Russian-Ukrainian contradictions through Tuzla, the Russian-Georgian war in South Ossetia in the fall of 2008, the energy (gas) war against Ukraine in late 2008 and early 2009, soured bilateral US-Russian relations. In the Persian Gulf, international tensions caused by military operations in Afghanistan and Iraq are intensified by US-Russian contradictions over Iran's nuclear program. Russia continues to assist (sell equipment) in the construction of an Iranian nuclear power plant, the waste from which can be used to manufacture nuclear weapons, while the United States strongly opposes the development of Iran's nuclear program. The US war in Iraq and Afghanistan, the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, which periodically develops into a crisis situation, and the like - all this turns the Middle and Middle East in an explosive region.

End of XX - beginning of XXI century. associated with both the weakening and the intensification of many conflicts that have not only domestic political but also international significance. They are based on many factors: religious, ethnic, socio-economic, etc. The struggle of the Tamil minority in Sri Lanka for the formation of their own state, the Taliban regime in Afghanistan, the desire of a significant part of the Tibetan people for independence, Chechen wars demanded adequate responses not only from individual countries, but also from the entire world community.

Some results of the last century and new plans for the future were formulated in the declaration and program of action of the Millennium Summit, held under the auspices of the UN on September 8, 2000 at the level of heads of state and government. One of the priorities was to overcome poverty and destitution by 2015 and improve the situation with human rights. But humanity is only standing in the way of fulfilling these tasks. Today, about half of the world's population lives below the poverty line. One of the main priorities, including in the activities of the UN, is the fight against the spread of HIV/AIDS. However, according to the United Nations Special Agency for Combating the Epidemic of this Disease, an effective response to AIDS in poor countries requires a fairly significant amount - up to 10 billion US dollars annually.

The UN is working to alleviate the plight of refugees forced to seek rescue and assistance abroad. In 2006, there were up to 10 million people who were under the patronage of the UN Refugee Agency. The organization maintains offices in Afghanistan and Sudan. Overall, out of 18 UN peacekeeping missions in 2004, seven were in Africa and two were in Asia.

Whereas the UN is an organization of global importance, whose activities cover almost all areas of mutual activity between states, at the beginning of the 21st century. an increasingly prominent role is played by various interstate formations with different functional tasks. World oil prices are formed largely under the influence of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), established in 1960. Of its twelve members, 10 belong to the countries of the Afro-Asian space.

An important role in the inter-civilizational dialogue as a representative of the Islamic world is played by the League of Arab States, formed back in 1945, which includes 22 Arab countries. This organization is an important factor influencing the international political situation in the Middle East. Despite significant disagreements in the Arab world, the All-Arab Parliament began its work in 2005, which in the future will contribute to greater consolidation of the Arab world, including in relation to key international problems.

An important systemic factor of stability and development in the Asia-Pacific region can be called the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), a political and economic organization founded in 1967.

In order to overcome specific African problems, strengthening the role of Africa in the modern world in 2002, the former Organization of African Unity was transformed into the African Union (AU), within which a gradual process of political and economic integration of 53 countries of the Black Continent began. The AU plays an important role in the process of pacification (reconciliation) of long civil conflicts. In July 2007, together with the UN, the AU launched a peacekeeping operation in the Sudanese province of Darfur, in which more than 70,000 people died as a result of a conflict between the Sudanese government and the local population.

In the field of vision of the informal association of the world's leading economic powers - the "Big Eight", which includes Japan, the key world problems and ways to overcome them are being discussed. In particular, in 2007, the topics of the 33rd summit of the heads of state of these countries covered the issues of global warming, the situation in the Middle East and Iraq, as well as the situation in Africa, and the like.

At the turn of the XX-XXI centuries, a qualitatively new geopolitical, civilizational and economic situation is taking shape, due to the influence of a number of factors.

The collapse of the USSR and the system of socialism led to the transformation of the bipolar system of the world order into a unipolar one. At the heart of this order is the growing power of the United States, the only remaining superpower. The hegemony of the United States is based on their military and economic superiority, which is dangerous because of imperial omnipotence, a tendency to dictate by force and the dominance of an absolute minority over an absolute majority, which feels that there is no alternative to the future.

In the absence of real checks and balances, the United States openly disregards international law, the UN Charter and the opinion of the international community. These tendencies manifested themselves most clearly during the US aggression against Yugoslavia in 1999 and Iraq in 2003.

However, the aggressive and clumsy American policy (which reached its climax under George W. Bush) led to a number of negative consequences for international security and the United States itself:

1. As a result of ill-conceived forceful intervention in Iraq and Afghanistan, as well as an attempt to implement the “Greater Middle East” project (change of regimes objectionable to the United States and the West and establishing their control over the region under the guise of “democratization”), an arc of instability arose from North Africa to Afghanistan and Pakistan. The predominantly Muslim region has become a breeding ground for international terrorism and Islamic radicalism. Which, in turn, is a serious destabilizing factor for the situation in Turkey, Arab countries, Iran, Pakistan, Central Asia and the world in general. The situation is aggravated by the global financial and economic crisis.

2. The threat of US invasion has prompted Iran and North Korea to seek nuclear weapons, since only the presence of such weapons can serve as a guarantee against US aggression. And such a desire, in turn, inevitably leads to constant crises in relations between these countries and the West.

3. The American threat helped rally Iranian society around radical Islamists. On the other hand, the overthrow of the Iraqi regime and the destabilization of Afghanistan led to an increase in the influence of Shiite Iran in these countries. As a result, Iran is again turning into the leader of the Islamic revolution. The situation is especially dangerous in the event of this unpredictable country mastering nuclear technology and a possible alliance with al-Qaeda and other Islamic extremists.

4. The US and NATO aggression in Yugoslavia, followed by the occupation of Kosovo, led to the actual genocide of the Serbs. The campaign of systematic harassment, armed attacks, threats, destruction of national shrines with the connivance of peacekeepers from NATO led to the almost complete displacement of the Serbs from their historical territories and the actual transformation of Kosovo into the state of Albanian nationalists. The further disintegration of Yugoslavia (in 2006, Montenegro held a referendum on independence and separated from Serbia, Kosovo, with the support of the West, unilaterally declared its independence in 2008) is capable of further destabilizing the most explosive region in Europe, significantly strengthening the factor of Islamic radicalism in it , to revive the idea of ​​"Great Albania" and create a dangerous precedent for the forceful redistribution of borders. The example of Kosovo provoked an aggravation of the situation in the Caucasus, where Georgia, hoping for the support of the West, tried to subdue by force the former Soviet autonomies formally included in it and proclaiming themselves sovereign. As a result, in 2008 the independence of Abkhazia and South Ossetia was recognized by Russia, and then by some other countries. These examples can be followed by Transnistria, Nagorno-Karabakh, the Serbian Republic, which is part of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Iraqi Kurdistan, the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, etc.

5. Hatred towards the United States, caused by their policy, is capable of provoking a sharp increase in the confrontation of civilizations and a counteroffensive of the Islamic world.

According to the unwritten law: action always gives rise to reaction. Dissatisfaction with the American diktat led to a spontaneous repulsion from the only superpower, the search for checks and balances.

So the European Union (EU) is gradually becoming an independent center of power, which already includes 28 states of Europe (a number of other countries are in line). Its economic power is comparable to that of the US: the share of the EU in the global gross product is 19.8%, and the US - 20.4%. Europe no longer needs American protection from the mythical or real "Soviet threat", so it is pursuing an increasingly independent foreign policy, viewing the United States more as an economic competitor. The ideological approaches of the US and the EU are becoming more and more divergent. In particular, the US relies on military force, and the EU on political means. On this basis, its rapprochement with Russia is possible. This is how the European trio acted during the Iraqi crisis: Russia, Germany and France, opposing the United States. However, subsequently the EU tried to make peace with the United States and in the Ukrainian crisis of 2004 was already on different sides with Russia. The same thing happened during the conflict in the Caucasus in August 2008. At the same time, the economic and political interests of Russia and the EU largely coincide.

Russia itself is also gradually becoming a powerful center of power and a factor in international politics. Characteristically, in 2006 Russia led the "Big Eight" of the world's largest industrial countries and the Council of Europe. Rejecting its one-sided orientation towards the US and the West, it is restoring old ties and developing new ones. Even during the premiership E. M. Primakova the idea of ​​a "strategic triangle" India-China-Russia was put forward, capable of becoming a serious counterbalance to American hegemony and NATO expansion. The Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), which includes Russia, China, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan as full members, as well as India, Pakistan, Iran and Mongolia as observers, is also becoming a powerful political factor. Russia also actively interacts with the Islamic world. Thus, Russia has a wide field for maneuver, allowing it to effectively protect its interests and significantly influence the global political process.

The biggest challenge to the US could come from China. According to forecasts, by 2020 Asia, led by the PRC, will produce 40% of the world's gross domestic product, and China's GNP will reach 20 trillion dollars. At the same time, the United States will only be in second place with a GNP of $13.5 trillion. The military power of the two countries will also be comparable. Japan and, potentially, a united Korea are also becoming serious centers of power.

The population of India has already exceeded 1.1 billion people and, according to demographers, by the middle of the 21st century, India can bypass China in this indicator and come out on top. In terms of GNP, this country has already reached the fourth place in the world, and its economic and military potentials continue to grow. It should be noted that India, like its neighbor Pakistan, recently became nuclear powers.

The Islamic world is gradually realizing its strength and unity. A landmark event for him was the process of Israel's liberation of the occupied Arab territories, which is perceived by Muslims as a victory in a fair long-term struggle. The countries of this region have huge economic (primarily oil reserves) and human resources. They are increasingly dissatisfied with their place in the world order, and the American invasion of Afghanistan and Iraq is perceived as "a new crusade against Islam."

Even Latin America, which has always been considered the "backyard of the United States", is becoming more and more independent. In this region, anti-American sentiment is stronger than ever. Evidence of this is the creation of an anti-American tripartite alliance, which included Cuba, Venezuela and Bolivia. Symptomatic and the return to power (moreover, by winning democratic elections) of the leader of the Sandinista revolution D. Ortega in Nicaragua. Other countries in the region are also becoming increasingly aware of their own distinct interests from those of the United States. Of particular note is Brazil, which, together with Russia, India, China and South Africa, is ranked among the most dynamically developing countries (by the first letters of the English name, these countries are called BRICS). Recently, the BRICS countries began to hold joint summits and come up with joint proposals to reform the world order. Characteristically, in terms of population, Brazil has already reached the fifth place in the world.

In addition to this, the following factors can objectively impede American hegemony:

1. The possible refusal of the American people to pay a high price for imperial omnipotence. Prosperous Americans welcomed the "small victorious wars" in Afghanistan and Iraq (especially against the backdrop of the September 11, 2001 attacks). However, it gradually becomes clear that there are no visible results (except for the overthrow of odious regimes). And as conflicts drag on and casualties rise, dissatisfaction with wars on the other side of the globe among American citizens rises sharply.

2. Lack of guaranteed solidarity of allies.

3. Organized confrontation of potential victims.

Thus, the unipolar world that emerged after the collapse of the socialist system is inevitably drifting slowly but surely towards a multipolar one.

2008 can be considered a turning point, when the global financial and economic crisis that began in the United States further undermined the claims of Americans to leadership in the world. Moreover, in August 2008, for the first time since the collapse of the USSR, Russia used military force outside its territory, ignoring the reaction of the West, which clearly demonstrated the end of the unipolar world. It is symbolic that in the same month, China overtook the United States in the number of awards at the Beijing Olympics.

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History abstract

On the topic: International relations in the late XX - early XXI century.

Introduction

1. The problem of disarmament in the late XX - early XXI century.

2. Political problem

5. Africa in the system of international relations

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

Independent states do not develop in a vacuum, they interact with each other, influencing the development of world politics. That is, states act in the sphere of international relations. disarmament africa power america

International relations are a set of economic, political, legal, ideological, diplomatic, military, cultural and other ties and relationships between entities operating on the world stage.

The main feature of international relations is the absence of a single central core of power and control in them. Therefore, spontaneous processes and subjective factors play an important role in international relations. International relations are the space in which they collide and interact on different levels various forces: state, military, economic, political, social and intellectual.

International relations have passed a long historical path. They arose several millennia ago, simultaneously with the emergence of states, and developed on all continents. However, due to the relatively rapid growth of the economic and military power of European countries, and especially after the great discoveries of con. IV - beg. In the 16th century, colonization by European businessmen and governments of countries and regions in Africa, Latin America, Asia, and Australia began, which lost their independent role in international relations, ceased to be subjects of international relations and turned into objects of politics of a number of European countries. The most important element over the centuries were the contradictions between the capitalist countries, and with the con. 19th century - early 20th century - contradictions between the imperialist countries. Since the time of the American Revolution, con. 18th century to this day, the peoples of the colonized countries struggled for their liberation. As a result, to the con. 20th century a system of more or less independent states has developed in the world, which enter into international relations with each other. If for centuries the nature and content were determined by the interests of the ruling classes of various states, then in recent decades, with the growth of interdependence and mutual influence of countries, the development of the world market and the international division of labor. Such a turn in international relations was associated with the development of scientific and technological and scientific and technological revolution, which resulted in the intensification of information exchange, the creation of infrastructures covering vast regions.

International relations and the domestic policy of states are interconnected and influence each other. On the one hand, international relations largely reflect and express internal politics leading powers in one or another historical epoch; and on the other hand, any state is forced to take into account the existing world realities of relations, the norms and principles of international law, the "rules of the world political game." They also interact with the natural environment, with the processes taking place in this environment - geographical, climatic, the state of raw materials and energy resources. Moreover, the boundaries of the natural environment are constantly expanding. One of the evidence of this was the exit of man into outer space. A person can and should think and act not only in the aspect of an individual, family or clan, states, their unions, but also in a planetary aspect. The intensive interaction of man with nature, his intervention in the natural environment in the course of economic activity contributed to the promotion of global, universal problems to one of the first places in international relations. By the end of the last century, along with the task of preventing nuclear war, a new task arose - the preservation of the human environment, which can only be achieved through the joint efforts of all countries and peoples.

The most important component of international relations are interstate relations. They are affected by the global economic situation. The rise and fall of the world economy, the situation in the raw materials, fuel and energy, food sectors, the degree of involvement of a particular state in international economic relations, its dependence on imports and exports, on external loans and borrowings - all these are factors that have a significant impact on international relationship. Other important element international relations are relations between regional, interstate associations - military-political coalitions, unions, integration organizations. The creation of such associations is based, as a rule, on the coinciding interests and goals of the participating states. The third element of international relations are political governmental and non-governmental organizations.

The type of interstate relations in such worlds may differ: a) war, b) cold war, c) peaceful existence, d) non-alignment, e) cooperation.

In a broad sense, all international relations can be divided into two main types:

Rivalry attitude;

Collaborative attitude.

Studying the processes of international cooperation, political science really showed the possibility of ending the arms race and establishing a lasting peace on the planet. International cooperation and a common need for all to address the growing global problems: pollution environment, destruction of the Earth's ozone layer, depletion of natural resources, international terrorism, etc. In modern conditions, individual states are simply not able to solve such problems alone.

1. The problem of disarmament in the late 20th - early 21st century.

One of the most important issues in the field of strategic security is arms control and disarmament in the world. During the period under review, another trend emerged in international relations. As the arms race grew, hostilities unfolded in different parts of the world, and the desire of many people to protect the world intensified.

In 1959, the USSR came up with a program for a phased general and complete disarmament. The importance of the issue of disarmament was recognized in a resolution of the UN General Assembly. An international Disarmament Committee was created. Later, more than 100 states joined the treaty. In 1972, the signing of an international convention on the prohibition of the development, production and stockpiling of bacteriological (biological) weapons and toxins and their destruction began. In this regard, the United Nations and other international organizations have undertaken arms control and disarmament efforts in three areas: nuclear, conventional and biological weapons. However, unfortunately, the human community still does not have a clear program of general disarmament. In 2004, the countries of the world spent a total of more than one trillion dollars on military needs. This amount means the allocation of more than 6% of the total world gross production for the development and purchase of weapons. According to a report by the International Institute for Peace Studies in Stockholm, of the total amount of military spending in the world in 2004, about 47% came from the United States alone.

Currently, the arms trade is a significant part of the total world trade, or rather about 16% of the 5 trillion. dollars of world trade, this is 800 billion. The sale of weapons and military equipment in the world continues to grow, so that weapons and defense enterprises in 2002-2003. increased production by 23%. In 2003, these businesses generated $236 billion in arms sales, with US companies accounting for 63%. The United States has been the world's largest arms supplier since the end of the Cold War. They are followed by Russia, Great Britain and France. For the past half century, the countries of the Middle East have been among the world's top arms buyers. The facts show that there is an inextricable link between the supply of arms and the emergence of crises and subsequent armed conflicts around the world.

In view of the huge profits received from the sale of weapons in the world, some countries-producers of weapons, provoking friction and disagreement between other countries, which then develop into political and interethnic conflicts, as if create an opportunity to increase the sale of weapons produced by them.

Unfortunately, today the world community, under the pretext of ensuring world security, is spending huge amounts of money on the purchase of the latest weapons. Due to the devastating consequences of the buildup of armaments, namely wars, conflicts, destruction and the colossal costs associated with this, the world community has been striving for many years to somehow curb the arms race and achieve general disarmament.

In recent years, as a result of progress in the development of ever new weapons, it has become increasingly difficult to give qualitative and quantitative estimates of the production of weapons in the world. The complexity is added, on the one hand, by the growing accuracy of destruction, and, on the other hand, by the development of new means of intercepting these weapons. Today, the pace of qualitative, technical development of means of warfare is constantly accelerating. Therefore, the first step is to “slow down”. However, all signs point to the fact that the world community has not yet achieved appreciable success in arms control, curbing the arms race and general disarmament. One of the most important international institutions dealing with arms control and general disarmament is the United Nations. This organization, whose philosophy of existence is to protect peace and ensure world security, from the very beginning of its activity, faced problems and disagreements in the interpretation of arms control and disarmament. studying achievement list The UN in this area, we see that, despite the functioning of numerous committees and commissions, it has not been able to make significant progress in curbing the arms race.

The UN agencies that are somehow connected with arms control include the International Agency for Atomic Energy, the Commission on Non-Nuclear Arms, the Commission on Disarmament, the Committee on Disarmament, etc. The Committee on Disarmament, which proclaimed its goal complete and comprehensive disarmament in the world, acted outside the UN. Throughout the activity of this committee, various initiatives and programs have been proposed to curb the arms race and general disarmament. However, the cold war between the US and the USSR and tensions in international relations prevented the implementation of any of these projects. The activities of the 10-party disarmament committee ceased in 1960. Three years later, by agreement between the United States, the Soviet Union and Great Britain, another disarmament committee was created to limit nuclear tests, this time consisting of 18 countries. With the accession of the rest of the UN members to this committee, a conference on disarmament was formed, which operates within the framework of the United Nations.

Along with the activities aimed at the control and limitation of arms in the world, other disarmament efforts were also made at the international level. With the division of all weapons into nuclear and non-nuclear, treaties and agreements were concluded between different countries. The most important conventions in this regard are the Moscow Agreement of 1963 and the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons of 1968.

At the moment, the solution of all global problems is handled by the UN. This organization was originally created to solve the problems of maintaining peace, so the problem of disarmament is one of the priorities. The UN has been trying to find a solution to this problem for decades, trying to negotiate with the USA and the USSR on the mutual reduction of weapons, which by October 1986 in the USSR amounted to 10,000 nuclear charges, and in the USA 14,800 charges. Various laws and resolutions were developed that had the goal of peacefully and legislatively stopping the bloody confrontations between the two ideological systems in third world countries, as well as reducing the risk of new military conflicts (both local and global). Thus, in December 1984, the UN opposed the transfer of the arms race to outer space, adopting a resolution on the use of outer space exclusively for peaceful purposes. Although these attempts in different years had different results, on the whole the problem of disarmament remained open, and there were no radical changes in its solution until the end of the 1980s.

With the beginning of perestroika in the Soviet Union (1985), the process of rapprochement of the two superpowers in matters of peace and cooperation began. In November 1987, a meeting was held between the Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU, M.S. Gorbachev and US President R. Reagan, during which an agreement was signed between the USSR and the USA on the elimination of intermediate and shorter-range missiles, as well as protocols related to it on procedures for the elimination of missiles and on inspections. In March 1989, negotiations were held in Vienna between the countries belonging to the Warsaw Pact and NATO, these negotiations provided for the reduction of armaments from the Atlantic to the Urals. In July 1991, a new meeting of the leaders of the USSR and the USA took place in Moscow, during which an agreement was signed on the reduction of approximately one-third of the strategic offensive weapons of both countries. Finally, in 1992, Russia and the United States signed a declaration to end the Cold War.

The threat of a third world war has ceased to be real. And this is rightfully the merit of the UN. But even after the end of the Cold War and the destruction of the Soviet Union, the possibility that undestroyed nuclear warheads could again be aimed at the cities of the world has not disappeared. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) has pledged to help Russia cope with the dangerous legacy of the USSR. The IMF as well as the UN is a body engaged in solving global problems. It provides financial assistance to solve these problems. Most of the cash assistance is provided to the country in the form of loans, which must be repaid within a predetermined period. Thus, there is no need for any country to seek financial means to solve its problems. These funds can be provided by the IMF at any time. Russia was also granted IMF loans to solve internal economic problems, including disarmament problems, but this will be discussed later.

At the beginning of the 21st century, new methods of solving global problems appeared. These methods include the creation of Global Custodians. This is a global electronic exchange that allows you to attract unlimited resources from abroad for any period. Trading on this exchange is carried out via the Internet, which is also a method of solving global problems. With the help of Global Custodians, countries can purchase any amount of the required resource without resorting to military methods to seize the same resource. And therefore, excessive weapons become unnecessary.

After the collapse of the USSR (December 1991), Russia became his successor. She inherited all the problems and debts of the Soviet Union, while losing a third of the territory, more than 40% of the population, more than 30% of production assets. At the same time, the economy was on the verge of collapse, and this trend was outlined in previous years. Summing up what has been said and taking a look at the entire process of building up armaments in the world, it can be noted that, despite the efforts made in the framework of arms control and global disarmament, the arms race in the world is still ongoing. More than half a century after the formation of the United Nations, the contribution of this organization to world disarmament remains negligible. During the Cold War, this circumstance assigned the UN a marginal, ineffective role in resolving world problems, while at the same time provoking a qualitative and quantitative buildup of weapons, both nuclear and conventional.

Among the countries producing and exporting weapons, the United States still retains, undoubtedly, the leading position. The militaristic plans and ambitions of such powers as the United States since the Cold War have shown that the world community is still very far from realizing its main aspirations, i.e. arms control and, to the extent possible, global disarmament, achieving world peace. For in recent decades, the United States and other arms manufacturers continue to develop new technologies for the production of the latest weapons. This speaks of the failure of all peacekeeping and disarmament efforts, including the already signed agreements and conventions on the control and prohibition of especially dangerous types of weapons. As long as major military powers like the United States do not live up to their obligations under disarmament agreements, all of these conventions, without executive guarantees, remain just beautiful paper projects.

2. Political issues

In 1991, an event occurred that completely changed the face of the world. This event was the end of the Cold War and the collapse of the Soviet Union. The Cold War is more than 40 years of conflict between two superpowers claiming world leadership - the USSR and the USA. During this period of time, there was a so-called bipolar system of international relations based on the balance of power between the two leaders and their mutual deterrence. In the late 1980s, the Soviet Union voluntarily abandoned the continuation of the Cold War.

The collapse of the Soviet Union in December 1991 was a consequence of a number of geopolitical and socio-economic mistakes of the Soviet leadership, as well as the policy of Western states aimed at undermining the foundations of the existence of the Soviet state.

The end of the Cold War led to the emergence of a new geopolitical reality - the so-called post-bipolar world. It is characterized by the transformation of the main elements of the Yalta-Potsdam system of international relations, the role and place in the system of international relations of the UN, the status of permanent members of the UN Security Council, decision-making mechanisms on the most important issues of world politics.

The collapse of the Soviet Union in December 1991 was, according to Vladimir Putin, "the biggest geopolitical catastrophe of the 20th century." It led to a sharp change in the balance of power in the world in favor of the one remaining superpower - the United States - and became the direct cause of subsequent wars and armed conflicts involving Americans. The liquidation of the Soviet Union contributed to a significant destabilization of the situation in the post-Soviet space, caused a number of armed conflicts (Pridnestrovian, Georgian-Abkhazian, Georgian-South Ossetian, Armenian-Azerbaijani conflicts, military operations on the territory of Chechnya, Civil War in Tajikistan, etc.).

In the 1990s, Russia experienced a systemic political and socio-economic crisis that put the very existence of the country as a sovereign state on the agenda.

Along with the collapse of the USSR, the most important geopolitical trends in the post-bipolar world were the strengthening of the geopolitical positions of the United States, the growth of China's power and the unification of Europe.

Remaining the only superpower, the United States attempted to establish world domination by assuming the functions of world arbiter and world policeman. They took an active part in all the most important international conflicts of our time, carrying out armed intervention in the internal affairs of a number of sovereign states (the wars in the Persian Gulf, in Yugoslavia, in Afghanistan and Iraq). Thus, the current policy of the United States is the desire to create a unipolar world with the complete subordination of everyone to their own will. The consequence of the US policy was the erosion of the norms of international law, the destruction of the system of international relations created after the Second World War, the weakening of the position of the UN and other international structures. The military actions of the United States and its allies, carried out without UN sanction in Yugoslavia and Iraq, undermine the position of the UN and violate the foundations modern system international security, allowing the use of force only with the consent of the UN Security Council. Attempts are being made to "subordinate the ineffective UN to effective NATO", that is, to replace the UN with Western regional structures - NATO and the European Union. The concepts of preventive war, humanitarian intervention and selective legitimacy deal a blow to the fundamental principle of international relations - non-interference in the internal affairs of sovereign states.

The aggravation of Georgian-South Ossetian and Georgian-Abkhazian relations in 2007-2008 should be considered as a vivid example of the US hegemonic policy in the post-Soviet space. The result of the escalation of tension was the attack armed forces Georgia to South Ossetia on the night of August 7-8, 2008. Tskhinvali and other settlements of South Ossetia were subjected to destruction. The attack was accompanied by numerous casualties among civilians and Russian peacekeepers. Russia was forced to intervene in the conflict to protect its citizens and prevent the genocide of the South Ossetian population. During five days of armed clashes, the Georgian army was defeated and left the territory of South Ossetia and the previously occupied part of Abkhazia (Kodori Gorge).

The Georgian-South Ossetian armed conflict completely changed the geopolitical situation not only in the Caucasus, but also in the post-Soviet space as a whole. Further implementation of the peacekeeping mission proved impossible. Under these conditions, Russia went for the only remaining possible option - the recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia as sovereign states, the establishment of diplomatic relations with them and the signing of an agreement on the deployment of its armed forces here. At the same time, in accordance with the so-called "Medvedev-Sarkozy plan", international observers from the European Union were introduced into the border regions of Georgia with Abkhazia and South Ossetia. The conflict led to the strengthening of Russia's position in the region, which demonstrated firmness in defending its national interests and the interests of its allies. At the same time, he showed the toughening of the West's position towards Russia. Using the policy of double standards, the US and its allies accused Russia of committing aggression against Georgia, violating international law, and occupying Georgian territory. The reaction of Senator John McCain, who called for the exclusion of Russia from the G8, its international isolation and the imposition of political and economic sanctions, is indicative. Speaking to his voters, the US presidential candidate said: "Today we are all Georgians" . At the same time, the fact of Georgia's aggression against South Ossetia was hushed up, as well as the armed actions of the United States and its allies in Iraq, Afghanistan, Serbia and other countries.

Certain geopolitical successes have been achieved. In 1997-1999 The Portuguese colony of Macao and the British colony of Hong Kong were returned to Chinese jurisdiction. After the loneliness that characterized the period of Mao Zedong and Deng Xiaoping, China is becoming an active participant in international relations. A number of neighboring states, including North Korea, Myanmar, Mongolia, are in the sphere of influence of the Land of the Rising Sun. According to a sociological survey conducted by the German Bertelsmann Foundation in 2007 among the population of the leading countries of the world, China is considered the second most powerful after. USA is a world power. The main geopolitical trend of modern Europe is the integration process associated with the activities of the European Union. The Community was an economic integration structure operating in the American sphere of influence, that is, in the western part of Europe.

After the end of the Soviet-American confrontation, the process of dynamic development of the community began, which went immediately in two mutually exclusive directions - towards the further integration of its members and towards the expansion of its ranks.

The European Union represents, perhaps, the last chance for the old geopolitical center of the world - Europe - to maintain its leading position on a global scale.

In total, the EU currently has 27 European states. In terms of total population, the European Union is 488 million people, and in terms of GDP it surpasses the United States.

A new step along the path of EU expansion in the post-Soviet space was the creation of the so-called Eastern Partnership. In the conditions of the crisis of the process of European integration, it became obvious that the further expansion of the EU at the present time can cause an increase in internal contradictions and disintegration tendencies within the United Europe. At the same time, the European Union does not remove from the agenda the idea of ​​expanding its sphere of influence at the expense of the former Soviet republics. The result was the creation of a new organization under the auspices of the EU. The idea of ​​the Eastern Partnership was first announced by the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Poland on May 26, 2008. A year later, on May 7, 2009, at the summit in Prague, its creation was officially announced. The Eastern Partnership includes six countries of the post-Soviet space: Ukraine, Belarus, Moldova, Georgia, Azerbaijan and Armenia. The Eastern Partnership is viewed by the European Union as a platform for discussions on visa agreements, free trade agreements and strategic partnerships with countries - Eastern neighbors, replacing discussions on the expansion of the European Union and the entry of these countries there.

The desire of the United States for world leadership, the growth of China's power, the integration and expansion of the European Union have led to a change in the balance of power in Eurasia and in the world as a whole.

3. The development of the Islamic movement

The concept of political Islam first entered the scientific and political circulation after the victory of the Islamic revolution in Iran in 1979. And since then, the position of political Islam has not weakened, as evidenced by the results of parliamentary elections in recent years in the countries of the East. Islamic parties are successful in winning votes and are often inadequate response from the West.

Islam, which appeared at the beginning of the 7th century AD, is the youngest of the world's religions. In the 7th century, most of the disparate Arab tribes united to resist the external conquerors of Byzantium and Sasanian Iran. The center of the association was Hijaz - the region with the most highly developed agriculture, crafts and trade on the Arabian Peninsula - and its cities of Mecca, Medina and Taif. The unification of the Arab tribes was also facilitated by their adoption of a single religion - Islam - with its strict monotheism and the preaching of the brotherhood of all Muslims, regardless of tribal division. The Arab conquests, which began in the 7th century, contributed to the widespread spread of Islam, and by the 10th century, Muslims began to make up the majority in the caliphate - the state founded by the prophet Muhammad. But Islam is not only a set of spiritual canons, but also a way of life. This religion is all-encompassing, all sides Everyday life and the behavior of believers are strictly regulated - from family and marriage relations to economic ethics and criminal penalties. Another feature is the fact that in a number of countries of the Near and Middle East this religion is not separated from the state: in almost all Arab countries and in Iran it is the state religion.

The politicization of Islam became especially clear after the lost six-day Arab-Israeli war in 1967, when the role of religion in shaping the public consciousness of the Arabs began to grow rapidly. Many Muslims associated the failures of the Arab countries with the departure of their secular governments from the traditional canons of Islam and saw a return to traditional Islamic values ​​as a way to restore the greatness not only of the Arab, but of the entire Muslim world. Not the last role was also played by disappointment in the possibilities of quickly overcoming socio-economic backwardness along the paths of the secular doctrines of Arab nationalism, Arab socialism, etc. (Egypt, Algeria, Iraq, etc.). This led to the strengthening of the influence of fundamentalists, who argued that all the troubles of Muslims are in the departure from the teachings of the Prophet, and a return to the "true path" will provide an opportunity for a quick revival of the former power and glory of the Muslim East. In essence, the demands of fundamentalists to return to the origins of religion are rather a kind of protest against the existing reality. At the same time, religion is used as a banner in the fight against poverty, humiliation, violation of rights, etc.

At the same time, according to a number of Arab political scientists, the desire of the ruling circles of a number of Western states to spread their way of life, to seize the oil wealth of Muslim countries, led to significant political and religious radicalization in the Islamic world. In the last quarter of the 20th century, attempts by Islamists to come to political power in a number of states, in particular in Algeria, Egypt, Syria, Tajikistan. In the 1990s, under Islamic slogans, the Taliban terrorist regime in Afghanistan matured. Moreover, the very appearance of the Taliban in the political arena of Afghanistan is interesting. When, 1992 the Mujahideen came to power and began to "divide" it, the events in Afghanistan aroused the concern of its neighbors, who rightly considered these events as a threat to regional stability. Not the last role was played here by the economic interests of a number of countries, primarily the United States and Saudi Arabia, whose oil companies have joined the struggle for the energy resources of the Caspian Sea, planning the construction of the Turkmenistan-Pakistan gas pipeline through Afghan territory.

The main sponsor of the Taliban was Pakistan, whose leaders had been hatching the idea of ​​creating an Afghan-Pakistani confederation since 1956, facilitating the coming to power in Kabul of a "friendly" puppet government. The bulk of the Taliban underwent tough religious and military training in numerous Pakistani madrasas. The Taliban movement was based not so much on an ethnic basis as on a confessional basis. By imposing puritanical Islam on Afghanistan through the Taliban, foreign sponsors have staked on the Pashtuns, seeking to return the country to the fold of traditional Pashtun statehood. It was from among the Pashtun youth from the Afghan refugees that the participants in the movement were recruited. The basis of the ideology of the movement was the religious fanaticism of the Taliban. The proclamation by the Taliban of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan in 1997 was one of the noticeable components of the process of the world "Islamic renaissance". Islamic extremism has become the main content of the state policy of yesterday's Afghan "seminarians". Inside Afghanistan, this process took the form of a harsh suppression of dissent and persecution of Afghans who refused to accept the norms of orthodox Islam in its extreme forms imposed on them. One of the manifestations of the religious intolerance of the Taliban was the destruction in February 2001 of the oldest monuments of world culture - the giant statues of Buddha in Bamiyan under the pretext of their incompatibility with Islam. However, there were clear political motives behind this act of vandalism: it was a daring challenge to the world community, an attempt to blackmail and put pressure on it in order to force the UN to lift the international sanctions imposed on Kabul and achieve international recognition. The 90s of the twentieth century witnessed a new upsurge in the activities of extremist terrorist organizations and movements that spoke from religious and ethnic positions and sought mainly the triumph of their ideological and moral principles not only in the countries of the Near and Middle East, but also in Russia, in particularly in Dagestan.

The movements and organizations created in the 90s, which set themselves the goal of re-Islamizing the socio-political life in Muslim countries, reforming it according to the criteria of “pure”, original Islam, essentially belong to a special political ideology, which is characterized by the term “Islamism” .

Since the beginning of the 21st century, when one of the urgent problems of mankind and one of the main priorities of world politics has become the task of combating international terrorism, the term "Islamism" has been added to the term "terrorism" by the media. This is a very dangerous trend and it is incorrect and unlawful to use such generalizing terms when describing the activities of extremist movements and groups in the Muslim world.

Terrorism is a terrible phenomenon of our time. Terrorists are criminals who violate both legal laws and norms of human morality. But it is wrong to talk about Catholic terrorists, or Basque terrorists, or Islamic terror. Terrorism cannot be associated with any nation or religion. Although, many religious ideologists claim that only they have a monopoly on the truth and more often than others resort to violent methods in order to "convince" others of the correctness of their views. There are many examples of this from history. One can recall the Inquisition, and St. Bartholomew's Night, and the current events in Ireland, and so on. The tragedy of the situation lies in the fact that such views and actions lead to the death of many innocent people.

Unfortunately, the history of Dagestan at the turn of the 20th-21st centuries was also replenished with a terrible list of victims of terrorists: 1996 explosion of residential buildings in Makhachkala on Parkhomenko and Kaspiysk, 1999 in Buynaksk, 2003 in Kaspiysk. In August 1999, an armed group of Islamists invaded the territory of the Tsumadinsky and Botlikhsky regions of Dagestan from Chechnya, in which mercenaries from Arab countries took part. There is a point of view that terrorism is the eternal companion of mankind and as a political phenomenon appeared together with dynamite and telegraph. In the most general view Terrorism can be defined as politically motivated violence. Terrorism usually finds ground for itself where geopolitical voids, “hot spots” appear, where power is weakened, where state and international mechanisms of political and legal regulation of the development of society and the resolution of contradictions and conflicts arising from this weaken or even disappear, where truly moral and humanitarian principles in the actions of people and political movements are supplanted by considerations of a thirst for power or fame, profit, personal or group gain, blood feud, etc. Attempts to identify Islam as such with terrorism offend the feelings of millions of believers. The Muslim religion still attracts millions of people to this day. We must not forget that when Islam began its spread throughout the world, it created a culture of the highest level for its time.

Thus, one of the serious problems of the beginning of the XXI century. there remains a complex set of issues related to the complex and often contradictory processes that took place in the Islamic world. Political Islam in the countries of the East and Dagestan showed the world a kind of fusion of multidimensional movements of different vectors and resources, more aimed at destruction than at creation, and failed to offer societies and states economic, social, cultural, and so on. development prospects.

The growing activation and radicalization of the Islamists, who put forward the slogan of creating a world caliphate (since in the Arab chronicles, as the only example of a righteous state, its most perfect form, possible in the sublunar world and acceptable to Muslims, appears "Caliphate that will live forever"), their desire to increase influence on world politics in their own interests, not embarrassed in the means and methods of achieving the goal, become a global problem and require an adequate response from the world community.

4. Latin America in the system of international relations

The 1990s for Latin America became a decade of qualitative changes in the political and economic field, which significantly influenced the international activities of the states of this region. Having overcome the consequences of the “decade lost for development” - the 1980s, most of the countries of the region entered a period of economic growth. And if the regional average GDP growth in the region was about 2% per year, then in the leading countries - Mexico, Chile, Argentina, Brazil - it annually at least doubled this figure. This impressive economic success was due to the structural transformations implemented by most countries in the region in the first half of the decade. They were based on measures to open the economy: liberalization of the trade regime, privatization, improvement of the financial system. In the same years, a transition was made to an active foreign trade policy. In 1990-1996 growth rates of foreign trade of the leading states of the region were among the highest in the world. In the same years, a number of measures were taken to create a favorable investment climate. The inflow of foreign capital into Latin America by the middle of the decade averaged about $50 billion annually.

Significant changes have also taken place in the field of socio-political development. The process of democratization and transition to a civil form of government that began in the middle of the last decade in the 1990s led to the stabilization of the constitutional regimes of representative democracy in almost all countries of the region, with the exception of Cuba. US interest in the Latin American region increased sharply at the beginning of the decade. After the end of the Cold War, the formation of two powerful economic mega-blocs - in Western Europe and in the Asia-Pacific region, became more obvious, which in the coming decades could become the main structural links of the new world order. A factor in the increased interdependence of the "two Americas" was a complex of problems of the drug business and drug trafficking. In general, the first half of the 1990s could be characterized as a stage of rapprochement between the "two Americas", the harmonization of inter-American relations, the highest point of which was the meeting of the heads of 34 states of the Western Hemisphere on December 10-13, 1994 in Miami. However, already during the preparation of the summit, different approaches to its tasks emerged. The Latin American states expected from the summit, first of all, an answer to a specific question: how does the US plan to expand the free trade zone? On the eve of the summit, the Latin American coalition diplomacy worked at full speed. As a result, the issue of the Continental Free Trade Area was placed on the agenda and attracted particular attention. The summit Declaration of Principles for Partnership for Development and Prosperity: Democracy, Free Trade and Development in the Americas, and the 100-Point Action Plan that was invited, proclaimed the establishment by 2005 of a

Pan American Free Trade Area. A number of other decisions were made at the meeting of the Presidents of the Americas. In Miami, the beginning of a “full-scale offensive against corruption” and a comprehensive counteraction to the drug business and drug trafficking were proclaimed. Let us recall in this connection that in the 1980s the countries of the hemisphere accumulated considerable experience in multilateral cooperation in countering drug cartels by force. In general, by the middle of the decade, the expansion of NAFTA also became more and more problematic.

The US Congress, in fact, blocked the entry of Chile into this organization, the issue of which seemed to be practically resolved back in 1994. While the North American integration project faced considerable internal difficulties, another integration association began to play an increasingly prominent role in international relations - The common market of the countries of the southern cone (MERCOSUR), which united two South American giants - Brazil and Argentina, as well as neighboring Paraguay and Uruguay. The agreement on the creation of the association was signed in March 1991 in the city of Asuncion (Paraguay). MERCOSUR has become the most dynamically developing integration bloc in the Western Hemisphere, covering almost 60% of the territory of Latin America, 46% of its population and about 50% of GDP. MERCOSUR in the second half of the 1990s became more than NAFTA, a pole of attraction for other states in the region. In 1996, Chile, one of the most developed countries in the region, became an associate member of the association. From a geostrategic point of view, the accession of this state, as it were, opens the gates to the Pacific region for the union. In the same 1996, Bolivia joined MERCOSUR. The negotiation process began on the issue of association between MERCOSUR and the Andean Community of Nations, which includes Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia. . dollars) equal to the ASEAN countries. At the same time, there was a sharp activation of extra-regional ties. On December 15, 1995, an agreement on cooperation between MERCOSUR and the European Union was signed in Madrid. Such a partnership not only generally contributed to building up the negotiating potential of the MERCOSUR member countries, but also significantly strengthened their positions in the dialogue with the United States, which took shape in the middle of the decade very difficult.

In fact, in the middle of the decade, two approaches to the creation of a continental free trade area clashed. The United States and Canada insisted on a separate discussion of the issue of accession to NAFTA by each of the new members, while the MERCOSUR countries advocated an inter-bloc nature of negotiations and subsequent unification. In US policy, features of the traditional approach have again begun to be seen: the desire to divide the countries of the region and deal with them one on one. As a result, NAFTA would gradually absorb Central America and the Caribbean after Mexico, and the South American countries would consolidate around MERCOSUR.

The mid-1990s are characterized by the emergence of yet another "purely Latin American" association, which includes not only the member countries of MERCOSUR, but practically all the leading countries of Latin Caribbean America. We are talking about the Rio Group - a mechanism for political consultations and collective diplomacy of the countries of the region. The Rio Group became institutionalized in 1986 and has since become an increasingly influential actor in international relations in the Western Hemisphere. Particular attention was paid to issues such as the illegal arms trade and the fight against drug trafficking. In particular, it was noted that it should provide for the process of limitation and control over conventional arms and the development of confidence-building measures in this area, the declaration adopted in Asuncion notes that the overthrow of a legitimately elected government or the violation of democratic procedures in one of the countries - members of the Rio Group should be considered as threaten democracy in other member countries and lead to collective sanctions.

At the same time, the activities of the Rio Group were not limited to the Western Hemisphere. Thus, at the summit in Asuncion, the problem of UN reform and, in particular, the expansion of the number of permanent members of the Security Council (SC) was discussed. The participating countries stressed the need to provide Latin America with one or two seats for permanent members of the Security Council. However, Asuncion failed to determine which State would specifically represent the region in that capacity. The extra-regional ties of the Rio Group should also be noted, in particular the regular meetings of the ministers of foreign affairs of member countries with representatives of the European Union.

The tendency noted above to expand the sphere of foreign policy activity of Latin American countries in the mid-1990s found expression in the intensification of ties with the former metropolises - Spain and Portugal. Since 1991, annual meetings of the heads of state and government of Latin America, Spain and Portugal have been held. Ibero-American interaction was not limited to political dialogue. At the previous fifth summit in Bariloche (Argentina, 1995), the countries of the community established a permanent system of cooperation aimed at the implementation of joint programs in the field of science and technology, education, problems of megacities, support for Indian peoples, etc. A feature of the Iberoamerican forums was the participation of Cuba in them. This significantly expanded the scope of the dialogue with F. Castro, in particular, on the issues of "reintegration" of Cuba with Latin America after the end of the Cold War. At the next summit meeting in Porto (Portugal, October 1998), the presidents of the Ibero-American countries adopted a special appeal to the G7, as well as to international financial organizations, to take part of the responsibility for the financial and economic crisis in Latin America and ensure "transparency" of mechanisms of global financial regulation. In the same place, in Porto, Havana was officially proclaimed as the venue for the Ibero-American summit in 1999.

Another significant event took place at the meeting in Porto. The President of Peru, A. Fujimori, and the President of Ecuador, X. Mauad, officially declared the end of the territorial dispute between the two countries, which had lasted for more than half a century, over the passage of the border along a stretch of almost 100 km. The Asia-Pacific region has become a relatively new direction in the foreign policy activity of the leading states of the continent. In the 1990s, the desire to connect to the new integration pole that was being formed in the Asia-Pacific region came to the fore. A kind of recognition of the growing influence of the leading Latin American states in world politics in general and the expansion of their ties with the countries of the region was the admission of Mexico and Chile as full members to the Association for Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC). In 1997, Peru was admitted to this organization. Recall that in recent years APEC has become a body coordinating the creation in the Asia-Pacific region of an open multilateral system of free trade and investment.

Since the beginning of the 1990s, Russian-Latin American relations have been developing. However, there were factors that hindered the development of relations in those years. First of all, these include the revealed divergent nature of the generally similar processes of internal reforms in Russia and the leading states of the region. While Russia, largely as a result of the “shock therapy” applied in 1992, was sinking deeper and deeper into a socio-economic crisis of unprecedented scale, such states as Mexico, Brazil, Argentina, Chile successfully carried out large-scale privatization, attracted foreign capital . All this gave rise to illusions in the region not only of a quick accession to the North, but also of a change in the weight categories in relations with Russia. And yet, by the middle of the decade, Russian-Latin American relations had prospects that go far beyond protocol ties. We are talking about a significantly expanded community of strategic goals and interests of Russia and the leading states of Latin America. Common paradigms of development create a fundamentally different field for partnership, especially since the powerful ideological barrier that significantly complicated relations between the superpower of the East and the fragile democracies of the Western Hemisphere has disappeared.

Russia and such Latin American giants as Brazil, Argentina, Mexico have acquired similar positions in the system of world economic relations. Latin America in the 1990s turned out to be the region where Russian exports grew most dynamically (by an average of 30% per year in 1994-1996; in 1996 it exceeded $4 billion). Another form of multilateral relations was Russia's dialogue with the Rio Group, which took place mainly at sessions of the UN General Assembly. Since 1996, contacts began between the CIS and MERCOSUR. During these contacts, issues of expanding trade and economic ties between the two integration associations and creating an appropriate organizational infrastructure for this were considered.

On the whole, the second half of the 1990s was marked by the intensification of Russian-Latin American ties, the expansion of areas of cooperation and the search for new forms of partnership.

5. Africa in contemporary international relations

With the end of the Cold War, the role of Africa in international relations has changed radically. Having ceased to be an arena of confrontation between East and West, this region has lost its strategic importance in the system of foreign policy coordinates of the leading powers, and the experience of their political and economic cooperation with African countries has undergone a critical reassessment.

In this regard, by the beginning of the 1990s, extremely pessimistic sentiments began to spread both in Africa and beyond its borders regarding not only the distant, but also the immediate prospects of the region, and scenarios for the development of the situation that had an apocalyptic tone were proposed. The concept of “Afropessimism” has firmly entered the international political lexicon, which has been supported and is supported by many serious arguments. The source of "Afro-pessimism" was, first of all, the disastrous economic situation of the vast majority of countries in the region. If in 1960 Africa was self-sufficient in food, since 1980 a third of Africans survive only through international assistance. At the same time, the population of Africa has grown faster than the population of other developing countries. By the beginning of the 1990s, Africa lagged behind not only the developed industrial states, but also the majority of developing countries that were experiencing a period of rapid economic growth. They pose a threat to the African continent and other serious problems. In all countries south of the Sahara, the problem of AIDS is extremely acute. Despite the efforts of the world community, it is not possible to solve the problem of hunger. Numerous internal and interstate conflicts in various parts of Africa have extremely unfavorable consequences for international security interests. During the post-colonial period, 35 armed conflicts were recorded on the continent, during which about 10 million people died, most of them civilians. The weakening of military-political interference in the affairs of Africa by the superpowers initially led to a decrease in the number and intensity of conflicts in the region, but soon old feuds resumed and new feuds broke out, in which the struggle of various political forces was no longer masked by the confrontation between East and West, but was widely fueled by traditional ethnic , confessional and clan contradictions, social costs of reforms. "Afro-pessimists" believe that the socio-economic and political characteristics of the African continent doom the vast majority of countries in the region to constant instability, and the high likelihood of a new round of crisis development also blocks international efforts to overcome this situation. In general, in their opinion, Africa was, is and will be a "source of increased danger" in the system of international relations.

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History of local communities of Slavic and nomadic peoples of the Central Ciscaucasia in the late 18th - early 20th centuries. The process of socio-cultural interaction of the Slavic (Russian and Ukrainian) and nomadic (Turkmen, Kalmyks, Nogais) population of Stavropol.

Economic and political situation in the Czech Republic at the end of the 14th and beginning of the 15th centuries. Hussite revolution. The structure of the Czech state and the political situation of individual sections of society. Exacerbation of political contradictions during the Thirty Years' War.

term paper, added 02/04/2011

Analysis of the causes and positive results of the socio-political crisis in India in the late 1960s - early 1970s. The alignment of political forces; ethnic conflicts between the center and the states. Autonomist movements and the evolution of the party-political system.

term paper, added 02/01/2012

Stages of development of Russian-Crimean relations. Russia and Crimea at the end of the XV-beginning of the XVII century. Russian-Crimean relations in the second half of the 16th century. Participation of the Crimean Tatars in the Time of Troubles at the beginning of the 17th century. Crimean Khanate in the system of international relations.

term paper, added 03/06/2005

The choice of foreign policy in Sweden and its implementation. Russia and Sweden are neighbors in the North. Their relationship in late XIX- the beginning of the XX century. The main directions of development of the foreign policy of Norway and Denmark with the countries of Western and Eastern Europe.

term paper, added 11/11/2010

Complications in the traditional ties between Latin America and Western Europe, increased US expansion in the region. The interventionist policy of the United States and the aggravation of anti-imperialist sentiments. Difficult living conditions for Latin Americans, the rise of the labor movement.

abstract, added 09/17/2009

At the end of the XIX - beginning of the XX century. the development of the national movement leads to the development of systems of national education in Hebrew and Yiddish. Cheder is a Jewish religious elementary school. The Talmud Torah is a school for poor Jewish boys. Women's gymnasiums in Belarus.

abstract, added 02/22/2011

The main features of the economic development of France in the late XIX - early XX centuries. Foreign and colonial policy of the country. The influence of the conclusion of the Entente agreement on the development of the foreign policy of the French Republic. Features of the colonial policy of France.

After the Second World War, the most important issue was the post-war order of the world. To solve it, it was necessary to coordinate the positions of all countries participating in the anti-Hitler coalition. It was necessary to implement the measures recorded in the documents signed in Yalta and Potsdam. The preparatory work was entrusted to the Council of Foreign Ministers established at the Potsdam Conference. In July-October 1946, the Paris Peace Conference was held, which considered the draft peace treaties prepared by the Council of Ministers of Foreign Affairs with the former European allies of Nazi Germany - Bulgaria, Hungary, Italy, Romania, and Finland. On February 10, 1947 they were signed. The treaties restored the pre-war borders with some modifications. The volume of reparations and the procedure for compensation for damage caused to the allied states were also determined. Political articles obligated to provide all citizens with human rights and fundamental freedoms, to prevent the revival of fascist organizations. The USSR took an active part in resolving all issues. Generally peace treaties were fair and contributed to the independent, democratic development of the states with which they were concluded. Nevertheless, the differences that emerged made it impossible to settle the German problem peacefully on a mutually acceptable basis. And in 1949 the split of Germany became historical fact. Alienation between the great powers increased. Ideological differences and various doctrines began to play a dominant role in international relations. Western countries were extremely negative about totalitarian socialism. The USSR, in turn, was also hostile to capitalism. The influence of the parties on international relations and on their weaker subjects increased more and more. The USA and the USSR considered themselves leaders placed by the course of history at the head of forces defending various social and economic systems.

The geopolitical situation changed dramatically. The revolution of the 40s in Eastern Europe, the conclusion by the Soviet Union with the states of this region of treaties on friendship, cooperation and mutual assistance formed a new system of international relations. This system was limited by the framework of states, the development of which proceeded under the conditions of the operation of the Stalinist model of socialism with all its integral features.

The aggravation of relations and the complication of the political situation in the world also occurred in connection with the support of the Soviet Union for the just struggle of the colonial and dependent countries for their liberation. The metropolises in every possible way hindered the national liberation movement. In 1949, the people's revolution in China won, leading to a radical change in the geopolitical situation in Asia, which increased the anxiety of the United States and other Western countries. All this strengthened the distrust of the two superpowers in each other, exacerbated all the existing contradictions.

A global rivalry between the USSR and the USA emerged. Both Churchill's speech in Fulton on March 5, 1946, and the Truman Doctrine put forward in March 1947 were perceived in the USSR as an open proclamation of a "cold war" that lasted more than 40 years. During all this time, the rivalry between the two great powers did not develop into a hot war, which gave reason to call this period the "cold war". It has drawn the whole planet into itself, split the world into two parts, two military-political and economic groups, two socio-economic systems. The world has become bipolar. A peculiar political logic of this global rivalry has arisen – “whoever is not with us is against us”. In everything and everywhere, each side saw the insidious hand of the enemy.

The Cold War brought militarism in politics and thinking to unprecedented proportions. Everything in world politics began to be evaluated from the point of view of the correlation of military force, the balance of armaments. Western countries adopted a bloc strategy that kept confrontation in international relations for many years. Most of the states that accepted the Marshall Plan signed the North Atlantic Treaty (NATO) in April 1949. A unified armed force was created under the command of American military leaders. The creation of a closed military-political grouping of an ideological nature, directed essentially against the USSR and its allies, had a negative impact on the development of international relations.

The US policy "from a position of strength" met with a harsh response from the USSR and caused an aggravation of international tension. In 1949, the US nuclear monopoly was abolished. After the creation of thermonuclear weapons in the 50s, and after that the means of delivering them to the target (intercontinental ballistic missiles), the USSR made every effort to achieve military-strategic parity with the United States, which was realized at the turn of the 60s-70s. The number of military blocs grew. In 1951, the ANZUS military-political group arose. A "security treaty" was concluded between the US and Japan. In 1954, the SEATO bloc was created. In 1955, another closed group was formed - the Baghdad Pact. After Iraq left it, this bloc became known as CENTO. Fearing for their security, the USSR and the countries of Central and South-Eastern Europe, in response to the agreement of Western countries on the remilitarization of the FRG and its admission to NATO, concluded in May 1955 in Warsaw a multilateral Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance. The signatory states provided for the provision of immediate assistance by all means in the event of an armed attack in Europe against one or more of the Warsaw Treaty member states.

A huge danger to peace on Earth was fraught with international conflicts in various regions, which threatened to escalate them into war. In June 1950, the Korean War broke out and lasted three years. For eight years after the war, France waged war in Indochina. In the autumn of 1956 Great Britain, France and Israel committed aggression against Egypt. In 1958, the United States undertook an armed intervention in Lebanon, and Great Britain - in Jordan. The most dangerous international crisis arose in the autumn of 1962 in connection with the situation around Cuba, which brought mankind to the brink of nuclear war. The Caribbean crisis was resolved thanks to a compromise between the USSR and the USA. The US aggression in Indochina has become protracted. It was the most brutal war of the second half of the 20th century. Vietnam has become a testing ground for the most sophisticated means of warfare, created by highly developed US industrial technologies. The US attempt to involve its allies in the war and give it the character of an international action failed. However, some countries participated in the war on the side of the United States. The enormous assistance rendered to Vietnam by the USSR, the support of the heroic Vietnamese people by all peace-loving forces forced the United States to conclude an agreement on ending the war and restoring peace in Vietnam. The Middle East remained a dangerous hotbed of conflict. The complex contradictions and intransigence of the parties led to several Arab-Israeli wars and for a long time ruled out the possibility of a peaceful settlement in this region.

However, in these difficult decades, humanity has become increasingly aware that the new World War it is not inevitable that the efforts of progressive forces can stop humanity's slide into a nuclear catastrophe.

The 1950s and 1960s were marked by an arms race on an unprecedented scale. Huge material, intellectual and other resources were wasted on the development and production of ever new means of warfare. At the same time, there was an extremely acute shortage of them to solve socio-economic problems in most countries of the world. In 1960, the USSR proposed to the Session of the UN General Assembly to consider the main provisions of the treaty on the general and complete disarmament of states under strict international control. Western countries rejected this initiative, however, the first step towards warming international relations was taken. In August 1963 Great Britain, the USSR and the USA signed in Moscow the Treaty Banning Nuclear Tests in the Atmosphere, Outer Space and Under Water.

The ever-increasing arms race, especially nuclear arms, was bringing humanity to a fatal point, and huge efforts were needed to stop this negative process. The active position of the USSR and its allies aimed at improving the international situation, the efforts of the non-aligned movement, the political realism of the leaders of a number of Western countries have brought positive results. From the beginning of the 1970s, international relations entered a phase of detente. In March 1970, the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons came into force. By the beginning of the 1990s, more than 135 states had signed it. For the European region, the Treaty between the USSR and the FRG, concluded in August 1970, was of great importance.

In 1972–1974, intensive negotiations were held at the highest level between the USSR and the USA, which led to the signing of a number of important political documents. "Fundamentals of relations between the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the United States of America" ​​contained a platform for taking bilateral relations to a qualitatively new level of their radical improvement.

In the same period, the Treaty between the USSR and the United States on the limitation of anti-missile defense systems (ABM) was concluded, and the Interim Agreement on Certain Measures in the Field of Limitation of Strategic Offensive Arms (OCB-1) was signed.

The improvement of relations between the two superpowers created the prerequisites for strengthening security and developing interstate cooperation on the European continent. The initiatives of the USSR and other socialist countries played a big role in this. Of no small importance was the change in the position of the FRG on issues European politics. The coalition government of the Social Democrats, headed by Chancellor Willy Brandt, proposed a "new eastern policy", the core of which was the recognition of the post-war realities that had developed in Europe and the normalization of relations with the USSR and the countries of Eastern Europe. This gave impetus to the development of the process of strengthening pan-European security. In 1973, Helsinki hosted multilateral consultations of 33 European states, the United States and Canada on the preparation of a pan-European Conference. On July 30 - August 4, 1975, the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE) was held in Helsinki. The leaders of 35 states signed the Final Act, which fixes the agreed principles of relations between the countries participating in the Conference, determines the content and forms of cooperation between them, and measures to reduce the risk of armed conflicts. Growing interest in developing the process started in Helsinki was shown by subsequent meetings of the CSCE participating states in Belgrade (1977-1978), Madrid (1980-1983), Stockholm (1984-1987), Vienna (1986-1989). d.), Paris (1990), Helsinki (1992).

The 1970s and 1980s were marked by an unprecedented growth in industrial, scientific and technical ties between Western countries and the USSR and other socialist countries. France, Great Britain, Austria, Italy, Belgium, Norway, Sweden, Greece, the Federal Republic of Germany and a number of other states concluded promising programs and agreements with the USSR. However, it should be noted that in the late 1970s and early 1980s the international situation escalated. The political course of the United States towards the USSR sharply tightened with the coming to power in January 1981 of the administration of R. Reagan. In March 1983, he launched the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI). Tensions culminated in the fall of 1983 when a South Korean airliner with passengers on board was shot down over Soviet territory.

The growth of international tension was also associated with the foreign policy of the United States and other Western countries. Almost all regions of the planet have been declared a sphere of vital US interests. Many have experienced political, economic, and often military pressure from the United States. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, Iran, Lebanon, Libya, Nicaragua, El Salvador, Grenada and other countries became objects of intervention. Tensions also increased in connection with the introduction of a limited contingent of Soviet troops into Afghanistan.

The changes that took place in the USSR with the coming to power in 1985 of new leaders made it possible to substantiate the foundations of new political thinking at the state level and begin their practical implementation. This led to a radical renewal of the foreign policy of the USSR. The central ideas of the new political thinking were: the idea of ​​the priority of universal human interests over class, national, social; the idea of ​​the interdependence of mankind in the face of the threat of rapidly impending global problems; the idea of ​​freedom of choice of social structure; the idea of ​​democratization and de-ideologization of the entire system of international relations.

The new philosophy of the world made its way through concrete steps. Real confirmation of this was the development and deepening of the political dialogue between the USSR and the USA on all key issues of world politics and bilateral relations.

The Soviet-American talks at the highest level in Geneva (1985), Reykjavik (1986), Washington (1987) and Moscow (1988) led to an important result. In December 1987, the ROSMD Agreement was signed, and in June 1988, the ROSMD Agreement came into effect. This is the first agreement in history to provide for the destruction of two classes of nuclear weapons under strict international control. The result was a significant improvement in Soviet-American relations. Their further qualitative development took place as a result of negotiations at the highest level in Washington (May-June 1990) and in Moscow (July 1991). Of exceptional importance was the signing of a bilateral treaty on the limitation and reduction of strategic offensive arms. The balance of the treaty was in the interests of strengthening strategic stability and reducing the likelihood of a nuclear conflict. However, in this direction there are huge opportunities for moving forward and a more significant reduction in strategic offensive arms.

The settlement of Germany's relations and the signing of the corresponding agreement on September 10, 1990 played an important role in eliminating tension in international affairs both on the planet as a whole and in Europe. In practice, this treaty drew the final line under the results of the Second World War.

Subsequently, new acute problems arose in international affairs. The collapse of the Yugoslav Federation, and then the USSR, led to the emergence of new regional conflicts that have not been resolved to date. The geopolitical situation in the world has changed, the system of international relations between the socialist states has ceased to exist. The countries of Eastern Europe reoriented towards the West. In July 1997, at the NATO summit in Madrid, it was decided to expand the alliance to include three states of the former Warsaw Pact - the Czech Republic, Poland and Hungary. Bringing NATO's military structure closer to most of the CIS states could change the geopolitical situation and could undermine the system of arms limitation treaties. Such a development of events may complicate the creation of a new European structure and destabilize the entire system of international relations. The war in the Balkans, other conflicts in the European region, the difficulties of the transition period in the countries of Eastern Europe and in the post-Soviet space pose a threat to security in Europe. This threat is complemented by aggressive nationalism, religious and ethnic intolerance, terrorism, organized crime, and uncontrolled migration. In recent years, the struggle for control over decision-making on a global scale has intensified. The greatest attention "centers of power" focus on activities that allow you to control the main financial, intellectual and information flows. The importance of control over economic processes and the development of the entire social sphere is rapidly growing. All this requires huge new efforts to preserve and strengthen peace and international security.

Entering the 21st century, humanity is faced not only with new global challenges, but also with a changed geopolitical situation. Remaining the only superpower in the world, the United States presents its leading role as a necessity, dictated not only by American national interests, but also by the desire of the world community.

The use of force in Iraq and Yugoslavia, the expansion of the North Atlantic Alliance, the use of force in other regions of the planet demonstrate the desire to establish absolute US hegemony in the world. China, Russia, India, and many independent states that are and will continue to resist hegemonism will hardly agree with this. In the current situation, the true security of mankind is not connected with the deepening of confrontation between countries and peoples, but with the search for new ways and directions of comprehensive and mutually beneficial cooperation that can ensure the preservation and flourishing of human civilization.

Y question. USA in 1945 - 2005

After World War II, the United States became one of the world's two superpowers. On December 4, 1945, the US Congress approved entry into the United Nations, thereby moving away from the traditional policy of isolationism towards greater involvement in international relations. The post-war era in the United States around the world has been defined as the beginning of the Cold War, in which the United States and the Soviet Union tried to increase their influence at the expense of other countries, building up their nuclear arsenal and the doctrine of mutual destruction. The result was a series of conflicts, including the Korean War and the Cuban Missile Crisis. Within the United States itself, the Cold War raised concerns about the influence of communism, and also culminated in efforts to support math and science for such ventures as the "space race."

Decades after World War II, the United States has become a global influence in the economy, politics, military affairs, culture and technology. In the middle class culture, since the early 1950s, there has been an obsession with the consumption of goods.

John F. Kennedy was elected president in 1960. Famed for his charisma, he was the only Catholic US president. During his tenure, the Cold War reached its highest point during the Cuban Missile Crisis. Kennedy was shot dead in Dallas, Texas on November 22, 1963.

In the meantime, the American people have completed their great migration from farms to cities, enjoying a period of sustained economic growth. At the same time, ingrained racism throughout the United States, and especially in the South, was challenged by the growing Civil Rights Movement, as well as by African American leaders such as Martin Luther King. During the 1960s, the Jim Crow Laws, which legalized segregation (the policy of forced secession) between whites and blacks, were repealed.

Countercultural revolution and détente (1964-1980)

During the Cold War, the United States became involved in the Vietnam War, whose unpopularity fueled social movements, including movements among women, minorities, and youth. President Lyndon Johnson's "Great Society" social programs and Chief Justice Earl Warren's legal activism brought about a wide range of social reforms throughout the 1960s and 1980s. Feminism and the environmental movement became political forces, and the progress of civil rights for all Americans continued. The countercultural revolution swept through all of America and much of the Western world in the late 60s, further dividing the dissenting society, but also bringing more liberal public attitudes.

Richard Nixon succeeded Lyndon Johnson in 1969, increasing involvement in the Vietnam War, but was soon ready to sign a peace treaty in 1973, successfully ending American involvement in the war. The Americans lost 58,000 people during the war, the Vietnamese lost millions. Nixon used the conflict in the Communist bloc between the Soviet Union and China, which was beneficial for the United States, by maintaining relations with the People's Republic of China. A new era of the Cold War, known as détente, has begun. An embargo (a government prohibiting the importation into or exportation of goods to any other country) influenced a period of economic recession in 1973. The Nixon administration left in disgrace due to the Watergate political scandal (setting up listening equipment at the headquarters of the Democrats) in August 1974 Under his successor, Gerald Ford, the pro-American South Vietnamese regime fell.

Jimmy Carter was elected in 1976 due to the fact that he was not part of the Washington establishment (power elite). The US suffered from a recession (moderate, non-critical decline in production), an energy crisis, slow economic growth, high unemployment and high interest rates. On the world stage, Carter brokered the Camp David Accords between Israel and Egypt. In 1979, Iranian students seized the American embassy in Tehran and took 52 American hostages. Carter lost the 1980 election to Republican Ronald Reagan, who promised to "bring morning to America."

The Reagan Revolution and the end of the Cold War (1980-1991)

In 1980, the Reagan coalition became possible due to the loss of Democrats in most socio-economic groups. "Reagan Democrats" was the name given to those who normally voted Democratic but were drawn to his policies, personality, and leadership. The implementation of the Economic Recovery Tax Act reduced income tax from 70% to 28% over a seven-year course. Reagan continued to reduce government taxation and regulation. In 1982, the US went through a recession, the unemployment rate and the number of bankruptcies were close to the levels of the Great Depression. The following year, the situation changed dramatically: inflation fell from 11% to 2%, unemployment to 7.5%, and economic growth increased from 4.5% to 7.2%.

Reagan took a hard line against the Soviet Union, declaring it the "Evil Empire". He shared many views and goals with friend and ally Margaret Thatcher, the British Prime Minister. Reagan met with Mikhail Gorbachev four times. Gorbachev tried to keep communism alive in the Soviet Union by first ending a costly arms race with America and then freeing the countries of the Eastern European bloc. The USSR collapsed in 1991, ending the Cold War.

After the events of August 1991 in Russia and the collapse of the USSR, George W. Bush supported the course taken by BN Yeltsin for reforms in Russia. It was decided to close 400 military bases. At the same time, the United States threatened Russia with economic sanctions for supplying missile technology to India.

The 1992 election campaign took place against the background of some economic recession, a growing trade deficit, and the strengthening of the positions of US competitors in world markets. Japan's GDP was 60% of the US. Opinion polls showed that the majority believed that a Democratic president would be better able to cope with economic problems than a Republican president. Democratic candidate B. Clinton said that America needs change.

He proposed to expand employment through the development of infrastructure, promised to reduce taxes, rebuild the system of social assistance to the poor, advocated universal education and health care. Having come to power, he went on to reduce appropriations for a number of social programs, cut the state apparatus by a quarter. In early 1993, he unveiled the New Deal, an economic program that conservative commentator Buchanan described as the biggest one-time rip-off of American wealth and income by the government in US history. But Clinton initially failed to obtain through Congress (the Senate) the allocation of funds to stimulate the economy and create new jobs. Were only approved spending on unemployment benefits.

In November 1996, regular presidential elections were held. The President announced the creation of 10.5 million jobs. Adjusted for inflation, the average income of an American family increased by $1,600 per city. The average rate of economic development was 3.1% in 1993, 4.1% in 1994, and 3.2% in 1995.

B. Clinton was elected for another term. But in November 1994, the Republicans won a majority in the House of Representatives. 2/3 of state governors are Republicans. This made things difficult for the Clinton administration.

In his 10-point message to Congress, Clinton drew attention to the development of education.

By the mid 90s. the problem of African Americans still reminded of itself. Although racial and national minorities have found it easier to get an education and a job than 30 years ago, they are less educated than whites and their jobs are less well paid. And only by the end of the 90s. the process of resettlement of the black population to the southern states went more actively - an indicator that, apparently, the severity of the racial problem began to decrease.

2000 was the last year of B. Clinton's stay in power. His administration achieved impressive success on a number of domestic and international issues.

Within 7 years, the annual GDP growth was more than 3%, higher than in other developed countries. Inflation fell to less than 2% in the city. The US accounted for 4% of the population but 22% of world income. This provided Americans with one of the highest living standards in the world - 27% higher than in Japan, 41% higher than in Germany. Poverty has been significantly reduced. Unemployment fell to 4.5% (1998). More than 200 million new jobs were created over 7 years, 1/3 of them in the information sector. The economic boom was largely associated with the rapid development of the latest information technologies. In 1998, the volume of electronic commerce on the Internet in the United States amounted to 50 billion dollars. The United States has taken over from Japan leadership in the competitiveness of a number of export goods.

In 1997, the Clinton administration succeeded in eliminating the state budget deficit for the first time in 42 years. In 1998, there was a budget surplus of 1.3% of GDP. As a result, the problem of public debt was partially solved. The Clinton administration has retained the most powerful military machine in the world, relying on absolute US military superiority. The composition of the armed forces and the deployment of defense spending has decreased by about 1/3. But the military infrastructure, including the forward deployment of US troops in Europe, is pacific ocean and in the Persian Gulf has been largely preserved. The US accounted for 35% of world military spending and 75% of defense R&D spending. This allowed the United States, without rivals, to enter a new round of the arms race, with inclusion in plans to create a "national missile defense system." It is planned to re-equip the armed forces with 6th generation weapons systems within 10 years. In 1999, US military spending increased substantially for the first time.

US claims to the role of the only superpower are supported not only by military and economic power, but also by the system of military-political alliances. These alliances were strengthened by the Clinton administration. NATO has appropriated to itself the functions of collective security in Europe. Adopted in April 1999, NATO's new concept means "force projection" on a global scale. This concept was tested during the war against Yugoslavia in March - June 1999. NATO forces were deployed in Bosnia, Kosovo, Albania, Macedonia. The composition of NATO was replenished with Poland, the Czech Republic, Hungary. 25 countries participate in the "Partnership for Peace" program, 50 - in the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council.

Strengthened ties with South Korea. In general, the US and its allies account for 60% of world military spending. A bet was made on strengthening the mechanisms for regulating the globalization of the world economy after the collapse of the bipolar world.

Clinton's achievement was the creation of NAFTA (North American Free Trade Area). The US has strengthened its role in the OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development), the IMF, the World Bank. Clinton played a decisive role in the creation of the WTO (135 countries), which determines the rules of the game in world trade. In most contentious issues, the WTO supports the position of the United States.

The share of foreign trade in US GDP is 25%. Essentially, the whole world today is working for the US, providing prosperity. The trade deficit has become one of the sources of financing for the investment boom. There was an influx of capital into America. US integration into the global market ensures prosperity through US dominance in the global financial arena.

In general, the administration was characterized by the search for a "third way" - a combination of modern market methods with an effective regulatory mechanism. Clinton tried to avoid over-expanding the role of the state without abandoning its social function.

But Clinton's personal reputation was tarnished by Whitewatergate and scandalous connections with Monica Lewinsky and an attempt to give false information in court. Clinton (after E. Jackson) was impeached. But he managed to keep the presidency.

In foreign policy, B. Clinton completed the nuclear disarmament of the former Soviet republics - Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Belarus. The START-2 treaty was concluded with Russia, which, if implemented, deprives the Russian Federation of the main element of the nuclear deterrence forces - heavy missiles in mines. At the beginning of his first term, Clinton proclaimed a "strategic partnership" with Russia, but soon abandoned this slogan. Washington did not rush to integrate the Russian Federation into Western institutions. The question of Russia's admission to NATO has never been seriously discussed.

During the events in Yugoslavia (1999), relations with Russia were complicated and frozen. In the neighboring states of the Russian Federation, the influence of the United States has increased. The US is trying to control the production and export of oil in the Caspian Sea. Disagreements with Russia also exist regarding the events in Chechnya. Rather difficult relations are developing with China because of the "problem of human rights" in China. The United States considers Latin America a zone of "special interests", seeking to strengthen its positions here. The administration tried to play the role of arbiter in the settlement of relations between the UN and Israel, although this role did not bring success. At the same time, the US tried to "punish" Iraq for attempts (unproven) to create weapons of mass destruction by bombing, as a result of which civilians were also killed.

7. USA at the turn of the century. The course for change in the United States under B. Clinton. Return to power of the Republicans, led by George W. Bush.

During election campaign In 2000, traditional economic problems receded into the background, and the problems of education, health care and social security came to the fore. Foreign policy issues played an insignificant role in the struggle for the presidency, which played into the hands of the governor of Texas, George W. Bush, Jr., who had no experience in international affairs. He criticized the Democrats for "weakness", promised to increase defense spending and be guided by US national security interests. In a programme Republican Party, which nominated George W. Bush, contains the thesis that China is a rival to the United States. Rather soft rhetoric towards Russia, although Clinton's policy is criticized, among other things, for supporting the erroneous course of B.N. Yeltsin. The document contains support for the early deployment of a national missile defense system. In general, the republican program is characterized by moderation and pragmatism. Republicans recognized the need for active government action in the socio-economic sphere. The state should play the role of a partner in relation to people who require compassion. Bush's "compassionate conservatism" differs only in nuances from the course proposed by Democratic candidate A. Gore, US vice president. Only on the issue of tax cuts does the Republican platform look more traditional. But it does not claim that such cuts will not undermine basic social and medical care programs. The democratic platform contained the idea of ​​a "third way" - between state liberalism and moderate conservatism.

As a result of the presidential election, A. Gore outstripped his opponent in the number of votes by more than 500 thousand, but lost the election due to the two-stage election system: George W. Bush received more electoral votes from the states.

George Walker Bush Jr. January 20, 2001 took office as President of the United States. During his inauguration, he called Americans to civility, courage, compassion, and moral integrity, and vowed to build a united nation of justice and equal opportunity. In the Senate, the majority of Republicans were provided only by the vote of Vice President D. Cheney, they have a slightly larger advantage in the House of Representatives. Bush, having a weak mandate, is trying to declare himself the unifier of the country and enlist the support of the Democrats. The exit from the Republican Party of Senator J. Jeffars changed the balance of power in the Senate. President's team: Secretary of State C. Powell, Secretary of Defense D. Rumsfeld, Condoleezza Rice became Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs. Of the 14 cabinet members, only 6 are white men, the rest are 3 white women, 2 African Americans, 2 Hispanics, including a woman, and even a member of the Clinton cabinet, Democrat of Japanese origin, Minister of Transportation N. Mineta. On the whole, the cabinet has a comparatively moderate character.

Bush began by revisiting his predecessor's recent decisions: shutting down the White House AIDS and race affairs departments, ending attempts to prosecute tobacco corporations, repealing orders on baby food programs, banning government subsidies to pro-abortion charities.

Congress was asked to cut taxes by $1.6 trillion over 10 years. dollars, and tax rates from 15 to 10% for the poor and from 39 to 33% for the rich. Bush took up the Bill of Rights for patients who can claim fair payment from specialists through the courts. It is proposed to allocate $12 billion to the states for drug subsidies for the poor.

Putting environmental issues aside, the president proposed more than $7 billion to explore and develop oil and gas fields, including Alaska, and build a gas pipeline from there. Bush called for a revision of American military power and the formation of a new strategic doctrine. He is for the unilateral reduction of US nuclear forces (currently the US has 7,519 nuclear warheads, Russia has 6,464), and for revising the structure of the armed forces. Bush stands for meeting the challenges of the new century with renewed vigor. In this regard, he advocates the creation of a national missile defense system (NMD).

US foreign policy is under revision. The primary focus is on relations with Mexico and Canada. As for Russia, problems have emerged here: NMD, nuclear disarmament, Russia's relations with Iran and Iraq, as well as with China, Russia and the WTO. Internal Russian problems are also mixed in: corruption, "a threat to freedom of speech." The expulsion of Russian diplomats for "unlawful actions" and Russia's retaliatory measures, the internment of the Secretary of the Union of Russia and Belarus, P. Borodin, somewhat complicated US-Russian relations, which became cooler by the beginning of the 21st century. The future of these relations depends on what the course of the US administration will be after the revision of American foreign policy and on the direction and how successful the reforms in Russia will be.

Bush served 2 terms as President of the United States. In the 2009 elections, Bush lost to the Democratic candidate, and for the first time in US history, to an African-American president, Barack Obama, who is the US president for 2 terms.