In what years did the restructuring of the USSR take place. Who benefited from perestroika in the USSR. In the economic sphere

Perestroika in the USSR in 1985-1991 - large-scale changes in the economic, political, and ideological life of the country, achieved through the introduction of radically new reforms. The goal of the reforms was the complete democratization of the political, social and economic system that had developed in the Soviet Union. Today we will take a closer look at the history of Perestroika in the USSR in 1985-1991.

Stages

The main stages of Perestroika in the USSR in 1985-1991:

1. March 1985 - early 1987 The phrases "acceleration" and "more socialism" became the slogans of this stage.
2. 1987-1988 At this stage, new slogans appeared: "glasnost" and "more democracy".
3. 1989-1990 Stage of "confusion and vacillation". The perestroika camp, which had been united before, split. Political and national confrontation began to gain momentum.
4. 1990-1991 This period was marked by the collapse of socialism, the political bankruptcy of the CPSU and, as a result, the collapse of the Soviet Union.

Reasons for perestroika in the USSR

The beginning of major reforms in the Soviet Union, as a rule, is associated with the coming to power of MS Gorbachev. At the same time, some experts consider one of his predecessors, Yu. A. Andropov, to be the "father of Perestroika". There is also an opinion that from 1983 to 1985, Perestroika experienced an “embryonic period”, while the USSR entered the stage of reform. One way or another, due to the lack of economic incentives to work, the ruinous arms race, the huge costs of military operations in Afghanistan, and the growing lag behind the West in the field of science and technology, at the dawn of the 1990s Soviet Union needed extensive reform. The gap between the slogans of the government and the real situation was huge. Distrust of communist ideology grew in society. All these facts became the reasons for Perestroika in the USSR.

The beginning of change

In March 1985, M. S. Gorbachev was elected to the post of General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU. The following month, the new leadership of the USSR proclaimed a course towards the accelerated development of the country in the social and economic spheres. This is where the real Perestroika began. "Glasnost" and "acceleration" as a result will become its main symbols. In society, more and more often one could hear slogans like: "we are waiting for changes." Gorbachev also understood that changes were urgently needed by the state. Since the time of Khrushchev, he was the first General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU, who did not disdain communication with the common people. Traveling around the country, he went out to people to ask about their problems.

Working on the implementation of the set course for the development and implementation of the Perestroika reforms in the USSR in 1985-1991, the country's leadership came to the conclusion that the sectors of the economy needed to be transferred to new ways of managing. From 1986 to 1989 laws were gradually issued on state enterprises, individual labor, cooperatives, and labor conflicts. The last law provided for the right of workers to strike. As part of the economic reforms, the following were introduced: state acceptance of products, economic accounting and self-financing, as well as the appointment of directors of enterprises based on the results of elections.

It is worth recognizing that all these measures not only did not lead to the main goal of Perestroika in the USSR in 1985-1991 - positive improvements in the country's economic situation, but also worsened the situation. The reason for this was: the "dampness" of reforms, significant budget spending, as well as an increase in the amount of money in the hands of the common population. Due to state deliveries of products, the communications established between enterprises were disrupted. The shortage of consumer goods has intensified.

"Publicity"

From an economic point of view, Perestroika began with "acceleration of development." In the spiritual and political life its main leitmotif was the so-called "glasnost". Gorbachev declared that democracy is impossible without "glasnost". By this he meant that the people should know about all state events of the past and the processes of the present. The ideas of changing “barracks socialism” to socialism with “human appearance” began to appear in the journalism and statements of party ideologists. Culture during the years of Perestroika of the USSR (1985-1991) began to "come to life". The authorities have changed their attitude towards dissidents. Camps for political prisoners gradually began to close.

The policy of "glasnost" gained special momentum in 1987. The legacy of the writers of the 1930s and 1950s and the works of Russian philosophers have returned to the Soviet reader. The repertoire of theatrical and cinematographic figures has expanded significantly. The processes of "glasnost" found expression in magazine and newspaper publications, as well as on television. The weekly "Moscow News" and the magazine "Spark" were very popular.

Political transformation

The policy of Perestroika in the USSR in 1985-1991 assumed the emancipation of society, as well as its deliverance from party tutelage. As a result, the question of the need for political reforms was put on the agenda. Major events in the domestic political life of the USSR were: the approval of the reform of the state system, the adoption of amendments to the constitution and the adoption of the law on the election of deputies. These decisions were a step towards organizing an alternative electoral system. The Congress of People's Deputies became the supreme legislative body of power. He nominated his representatives to the Supreme Council.

In the spring of 1989, elections were held for members of the Congress of People's Deputies. The legal opposition was included in the congress. The world-famous scientist and human rights activist Academician A. Sakharov, the former secretary of the Moscow City Party Committee B. Yeltsin and the economist G. Popov were placed at its head. The spread of "glasnost" and pluralism of opinions led to the creation of numerous associations, some of which were national.

Foreign policy

During the years of Perestroika, the course changed radically foreign policy Soviet Union. The government abandoned confrontation in relations with the West, stopped interfering in local conflicts and revised its relationship with the countries of the socialist camp. The new vector of foreign policy development was based not on a "class approach", but on universal human values. According to Gorbachev, relations between states should have been based on maintaining a balance of national interests, freedom to choose the paths of development in each individual state, and the collective responsibility of countries for resolving global issues.

Gorbachev was the initiator of the creation of a common European home. He regularly met with the rulers of America: Reagan (until 1988) and Bush (since 1989). At these meetings, politicians discussed disarmament issues. Soviet-American relations were "unfrozen". In 1987, agreements were signed on the destruction of missiles and missile defense. In 1990, politicians signed an agreement to reduce the number of strategic weapons.

During the years of Perestroika, Gorbachev was able to establish trusting relations with the heads of the leading states of Europe: Germany (G. Kohl), Great Britain (M. Thatcher) and France (F. Mitterrand). In 1990, the participants in the European Security Conference signed an agreement to reduce the number of conventional weapons in Europe. The USSR began to withdraw its soldiers from Afghanistan and Mongolia. During 1990-1991, both the political and military structures of the Warsaw Pact were dissolved. The military bloc, in fact, ceased to exist. The policy of "new thinking" brought fundamental changes to international relations. This was the end of the Cold War.

National movements and political struggle

In the Soviet Union, as in a multinational state, national contradictions have always existed. They gained special momentum in conditions of crises (political or economic) and radical changes. Being engaged in the construction of socialism, the authorities paid little attention to the historical features of the peoples. Having announced the formation of the Soviet community, the government actually began to destroy the traditional economy and life of many peoples of the state. The authorities exerted particularly strong pressure on Buddhism, Islam and shamanism. Among the nations Western Ukraine, Moldova and the Baltic states, which joined the USSR on the eve of the Second World War, anti-socialist and anti-Soviet sentiments were very common.

The peoples deported during the war years were strongly offended by the Soviet government: Chechens, Crimean Tatars, Ingush, Karachays, Kalmyks, Balkars, Meskhetian Turks and others. During Perestroika in the USSR in 1985-1991, there were historical conflicts between Georgia and Abkhazia, Armenia and Azerbaijan, Georgia and Armenia, and others.

The policy of "glasnost" gave the green light to the creation of nationalist and national social movements. The most significant of them were: the "People's Fronts" of the Baltic countries, the Armenian committee "Karabakh", the Ukrainian "Rukh" and the Russian community "Memory". The broad masses were attracted to the opposition movement.

The strengthening of national movements, as well as opposition to the allied Center and the power of the Communist Party, became the determining factor in the crisis of the “tops”. Back in 1988, tragic events unfolded in Nagorno-Karabakh. For the first time since civil war demonstrations were held under nationalist slogans. They were followed by pogroms in Azerbaijani Sumgayit and Uzbek Fergana. The apogee of national discontent was the armed clashes in Karabakh.

In November 1988, the Supreme Council of Estonia proclaimed the supremacy of the republican law over the all-union law. The following year, the Verkhovna Rada of Azerbaijan proclaimed the sovereignty of its republic, and the Armenian Social Movement began to advocate for the independence of Armenia and its separation from the Soviet Union. At the end of 1989 communist party Lithuania declared its independence.

1990 elections

At times election campaign 1990, the confrontation between the party apparatus and opposition forces was clearly expressed. The opposition received the Democratic Russia electoral bloc, which became nothing more than an organizational center for it, and later turned into a social movement. In February 1990, many rallies took place, the participants of which sought the elimination of the Communist Party's monopoly on power.

Deputy elections in Ukraine, Belarus and the RSFSR were the first truly democratic elections. About 30% of the positions in the highest legislative bodies were received by deputies with a democratic orientation. These elections have become an excellent illustration of the crisis in the power of the party elite. The society demanded the abolition of the 6th article of the Constitution of the Soviet Union, which proclaims the supremacy of the CPSU. Thus, a multi-party system began to take shape in the USSR. The main reformers - B. Yeltsin and G. Popov, received high posts. Yeltsin became chairman of the Supreme Soviet, and Popov became the mayor of Moscow.

The beginning of the collapse of the USSR

MS Gorbachev and Perestroika in the USSR in 1985-1991 are associated by many with the collapse of the Soviet Union. It all started in 1990, when national movements began to gain momentum. In January, as a result of the Armenian pogroms, troops were sent to Baku. The military operation, accompanied by a large number of victims, only temporarily distracted the public from the issue of Azerbaijan's independence. Around the same time, Lithuanian parliamentarians voted for the independence of the republic, as a result of which Soviet troops entered Vilnius. Following Lithuania, a similar decision was made by the parliaments of Latvia and Estonia. In the summer of 1990, the Supreme Soviet of Russia and the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine adopted declarations of sovereignty. In the spring of the following year, independence referendums were held in Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia and Georgia.

Autumn 1990. MS Gorbachev, who was elected President of the USSR at the Congress of People's Deputies, was forced to reorganize the authorities. Since then, the executive bodies have been directly subordinate to the president. The Federation Council was established - a new advisory body, which included the heads of the Union republics. Then began the development and discussion of a new Union Treaty regulating relations between the republics of the USSR.

In March 1991, the first referendum in the history of the USSR took place, in which the citizens of the countries had to speak out regarding the preservation of the Soviet Union as a federation of sovereign republics. Six union republics (Armenia, Moldova, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia and Georgia) out of 15 refused to take part in the referendum. 76% of those polled voted for the preservation of the USSR. In parallel, an All-Russian referendum was organized, as a result of which the post of president of the republic was introduced.

Russian presidential elections

On June 12, 1991, popular elections were held for the first president in the history of Russia. According to the voting results, this honorary post went to B. N. Yeltsin, who was supported by 57% of voters. So Moscow became the capital of two presidents: Russian and all-Union. Reconciling the positions of the two leaders was problematic, especially given the fact that their relationship was far from the most "smooth".

August coup

By the end of the summer of 1991, the political situation in the country had deteriorated greatly. On August 20, after heated discussions, the leadership of the nine republics agreed to sign an updated Union Treaty, which, in fact, meant the transition to a real federal state. A number of state structures of the USSR were eliminated or replaced with new ones.

The party and state leadership, believing that only decisive measures would lead to the preservation of the political positions of the Communist Party and stop the collapse of the USSR, resorted to forceful methods of management. On the night of August 18-19, when the President of the USSR was on vacation in the Crimea, they formed the GKChP (State Committee for the State of Emergency). The newly formed committee declared a state of emergency in some parts of the country; announced the dissolution of power structures that are contrary to the 1977 Constitution; hindered the activities of opposition structures; banned gatherings, demonstrations and rallies; took the media under tight control; and finally sent troops to Moscow. AI Lukyanov - Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union, supported the GKChP, although he himself was not a member of it.

B. Yeltsin, together with the leadership of Russia, led the resistance to the KGChP. In an appeal to the people, they urged them not to obey the illegal decisions of the committee, interpreting its actions as nothing more than an unconstitutional coup. Yeltsin was supported by more than 70% of Muscovites, as well as residents of a number of other regions. Tens of thousands of peaceful Russians, expressing support for Yeltsin, were ready to defend the Kremlin with weapons in their hands. Frightened by the unleashing of a civil war, the GKChP, after three days of confrontation, began to withdraw troops from the capital. On August 21, members of the committee were arrested.

The Russian leadership used the August coup to defeat the CPSU. Yeltsin issued a decree according to which the party should suspend its activities in Russia. The property of the Communist Party was nationalized, and the funds were seized. The liberals, who came to power in the central part of the country, took away from the leadership of the CPSU the levers of control of law enforcement agencies and the media. Gorbachev's presidency was only formal. The main number of republics refused to conclude the Union Treaty after the August events. No one thought about "glasnost" and "acceleration" of Perestroika. On the agenda was the question of future fate USSR.

final decay

AT recent months In 1991, the Soviet Union finally collapsed. The Congress of People's Deputies was dissolved, the Supreme Soviet was radically reformed, most of the union ministries were liquidated, and an inter-republican economic committee was created instead of the cabinet of ministers. The State Council of the USSR, which included the President of the Soviet Union and the heads of the union republics, became the supreme body for managing the internal and foreign policy. First decision State Council was the recognition of the independence of the Baltic countries.

On December 1, 1991, a referendum was held in Ukraine. More than 80% of the respondents spoke in favor of the independence of the state. As a result, Ukraine also decided not to sign the Union Treaty.

December 7-8, 1991 B. N. Yeltsin, L. M. Kravchuk and S. S. Shushkevich met in Belovezhskaya Pushcha. As a result of the negotiations, the politicians announced the termination of the existence of the Soviet Union and the formation of the CIS (Union of Independent States). At first, only Russia, Ukraine and Belarus joined the CIS, but later all the states that were previously part of the Soviet Union, except for the Baltic states, joined it.

Results of Perestroika in the USSR 1985-1991

Despite the fact that Perestroika ended disastrously, it nevertheless brought a number of important changes to the life of the USSR, and then of its individual republics.

Positive results of the restructuring:

1. The victims of Stalinism were fully rehabilitated.
2. There was such a thing as freedom of speech and views, and censorship became not so tough.
3. The one-party system was abolished.
4. There was a possibility of unhindered entry / exit to / from the country.
5. Military service for undergraduate students has been cancelled.
6. Women are no longer jailed for adultery.
7. Rock was allowed.
8. The cold war has formally ended.

Of course, Perestroika in the USSR in 1985-1991 also had negative consequences.

Here are just the main ones:

1. The country's gold and foreign exchange reserves decreased by 10 times, which caused hyperinflation.
2. The country's international debt has at least tripled.
3. Pace economic growth countries fell almost to zero - the state simply froze.

Well, the main negative outcome of Perestroika in the USSR in 1985-1991. - the collapse of the USSR.

The course towards accelerating the social economic development countries.

In March 1985 Chernenko, General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU, Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, died. General Secretary was elected 54-year-old Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev. In the struggle for this post, Gorbachev was supported by the patriarch of Soviet diplomacy Gromyko. Soon Gromyko took over as chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR.

AT April 1985 took place plenum Central Committee of the CPSU. Gorbachev delivered a keynote speech there. The state of society was assessed as pre-crisis. proclaimed a course towards accelerating socio-economic development countries. This course was specified at the 26th Congress of the CPSU in early 1986. The main directions of the course:

1. acceleration scientific and technological progress;

2. activation of the human factor;

3. rejection of the residual principle in the social sphere;

4. course rod - new investment and structural policy- not the construction of new, but the modernization of existing enterprises; accelerated development of mechanical engineering as the basis for the re-equipment of the national economy. (The idea of ​​Academician Aganbegyan.)

It was supposed: increase the rate of economic growth and double the industrial potential by the year 2000; increase labor productivity by 2.5 times; provide each family with a separate apartment or house; carry out general computerization.

As measures designed to help accelerate socio-economic development, the following were carried out: anti-alcohol campaign; introduced state acceptance. Has changed personnel policy: by the beginning of 1987, more than half of the party leaders of the "Brezhnev call" at the union and regional levels were replaced.

The results of the acceleration course turned out to be deplorable: in 1985 budget deficit amounted to 17-18 billion rubles, in 1986 - three times more.

Reasons for failure acceleration rate:

1. Receipts from oil exports decreased by a third due to the fall in world prices;

2. Due to the massive anti-alcohol campaign, the country received less than 37 billion rubles in 3 years.

3. mistake in choosing an economic strategy- there was no return on investment in engineering; these funds could be more usefully spent on the development of the light and food industries, where the return is faster and people feel a positive result for themselves; the so-called state acceptance process distracted qualified specialists.

Apparently unfulfilled promises, squandered against the backdrop of a deteriorating economic situation, only irritated people.

Economic management reform and the reasons for its failure.

At the January (1987) Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU, the failures of the course of acceleration were explained by the action of the “braking mechanism” and the underestimation of the depth of the crisis. Instead of the old course, a new one was proclaimed: perestroika. The essence of the restructuring: destruction of the command-administrative system, restructuring the mechanism of economic management. It was supposed to democratize all spheres of state and public life. They started talking about a new model of socialism - socialism "with human face". The most important instrument of restructuring was to be publicity.

A new economic strategy was proclaimed - market socialism(or self-supporting socialism). The possibility of market socialism was defended by such economists as Abalkin, Bunich, Shmelev, Bogomolov, Popov. Their opponents - Piyasheva, Pinsker - said that the market and socialism are incompatible, but their voice was not heeded.

In June 1987 was adopted State Enterprise Law which came into force on 1 January of the following year. Enterprises received a certain independence: the state order plan was brought to them. The state guaranteed the purchase of products manufactured under the state order. Everything that the enterprise produced in excess of the state order, it could sell at free prices on the market. Enterprises themselves determined the number of employees, set salaries, chose business partners, elected managers, and so on.

The course towards market socialism also turned out to be bankrupt. The reasons:

1. There was no market infrastructure: commodity exchanges, intermediary organizations. A significant part of the enterprises sought to receive the state order to the maximum, while it was supposed to be gradually reduced and to achieve the transfer of enterprises to market economic conditions.

2. Only a quarter of all enterprises brought a small profit. A third of the enterprises were unprofitable. Their transfer to market economic conditions meant bankruptcy. Bankruptcy, unemployment, price increases - all this was not accepted by society and the authorities.

3. In those enterprises that were able to adapt to market conditions, the so-called collective selfishness of labor collectives triumphed. They "ate profits" (increased salaries) instead of spending it on the development of production. The production of cheap goods was reduced and the production of expensive goods increased (“washout of the cheap assortment”). The leaders often chose convenient people who were not always capable of management.

In addition to the above reasons, there were underlying causes, which predetermined the failure of the economic strategy of both acceleration and market socialism:

1. The priority of ideology and politics over the economy. Hence the incompleteness of reforms. Power maneuvered between the so-called conservatives and democrats.

2. Political instability - the strike movement, the confrontation between the center and the union republics, their desire for independence led to the rupture of traditional economic ties.

3. Spending, at least initially, on maintaining friendly socialist regimes.

Reform of the political system: completion of the de-Stalinization of society.

Failures in the economy prompted Gorbachev to political system reforms. Its imperfection was discussed at the January (1987) Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU. !9 All-Union Party Conference, held in the summer of 1988, decided to reform the political system.

Two main directions reforms: transition to alternative elections; empowerment advice. became the supreme authority Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR. 2/3 of the deputies were elected on an alternative basis in districts, 1/3 - by party and public organizations, trade unions, etc. The term of office is 5 years. Between congresses, the supreme legislative body was The Supreme Council.

At the first Congress of People's Deputies in 1989, the Chairman of the Supreme Council was elected on an alternative basis Gorbachev. (The competitor was Deputy Obolensky.)

On the 3rd congress(1990) was established presidency of the USSR. Gorbachev understood that the authority of the party, and, accordingly, of him as general secretary, was declining. To strengthen his position, Gorbachev initiated the establishment of the presidency. He was also elected president of the USSR at the congress, however, on a non-alternative basis. 3rd congress canceled Article 6 of the Constitution of the USSR which secured for the CPSU the role of the leading and guiding force of society. Thus, it was opened road to pluralism in the USSR. Already existing parties acquired legal status, new ones began to appear. The most active were: democratic, constitutional-democratic, republican, socialist, social-democratic parties, democratic union, etc.

Thanks to the restructuring the de-Stalinization process resumed society, stopped during the years of stagnation. Was formed commission of the Politburo Central Committee of the CPSU for the study of repressions of the 1930-1950s. (headed by Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU Yakovlev). Those who were not rehabilitated under Khrushchev were rehabilitated. The symbols of the time have become publication of works: Solzhenitsyn A. “The Gulag Archipelago”, Dudintsev V. “White Clothes”, Rybakov A. “Children of the Arbat”, Pasternak B. “Doctor Zhivago”, Platonov A. “The Pit”, Pristavkin A. “A Golden Cloud Spent the Night”, etc. . On the magazine pages, especially the magazine "Spark", published materials about the crimes of the Stalinist regime.

A serious test for the policy of glasnost was an article by a chemistry teacher from one of the Leningrad universities N.Andreeva“I can’t compromise my principles,” which appeared in early March 1988 in the newspaper Sovetskaya Rossiya. The author accused the leadership of the CPSU of forgetting communist principles and planting an alien ideology. Only a month later, at the beginning of April, an editorial appeared in Pravda, written by Yakovlev. Nina Andreeva's Stalinism was opposed to Leninism, understood as democracy, social justice, self-financing.

Foreign policy of the USSR.

There have also been changes in foreign policy. The arms race was beyond the power of the USSR. The Soviet leadership began to think about Western loans, which naturally presupposed a rejection of confrontation. It was proclaimed new political thinking. It meant, in particular, priority of universal human values ​​over class ones. The main foreign policy actions of the USSR:

After a series of summit meetings, the USSR and the USA signed missile elimination agreement medium and short range (1987).

Withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan(1989).

Rejection support for socialist regimes in a number of countries and their collapse (Bulgaria, Hungary, East Germany, Poland, Romania, 1987-1990).

Consent to German reunification(1990).

As a result of the improvement in the international situation, end of the Cold War.(Gorbachev won the Nobel Peace Prize.)

Growing economic and political crisis.

Gorbachev's foreign policy successes could not compensate for his domestic political difficulties. Economic situation in the country quickly worsened. In 1989, the growth industrial production was null. In the first half of 1990, it decreased by 10%. In 1988-1989 the budget deficit exceeded 100 billion rubles. Inflation was 10% per year, which was unprecedented for the Soviet economy.

The economic crisis was compounded and aggravated political crisis. Its components were:

1. The surge of national radicalism- the Armenian-Azerbaijani conflict over Nagorno-Karabakh, the activities of the popular fronts, especially active in Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Georgia, Armenia. Radical members of the popular fronts demanded secession from the USSR.

2. Gain pressure on Gorbachev from democratic and conservative forces. Democrats, which were led by public politicians Sakharov, Yeltsin, Afanasiev, Stankevich, Popov, Sobchak advocated deepening reforms. They believed that the three main foundations of the totalitarian system should be dismantled: the USSR as an imperial state; state socialism with a non-market economy; party monopoly (the latter was actually carried out after the abolition of Article 6 of the Constitution). Conservatives were represented by Vice-President Yanaev, Head of Government Pavlov, Minister of Defense Yazov, Minister of Internal Affairs Pugo, KGB Chairman Kryuchkov, party functionaries Ligachev and Polozkov, People's Deputies Alksnis, Petrushenko. They accused Gorbachev of abandoning socialist values ​​and striving to destroy the USSR.

Gorbachev maneuvered between Democrats and Conservatives. His position became much more complicated after a number of union republics, including Russian Federation declared state sovereignty. Gorbachev saw a way out in stopping the collapse of the USSR by signing a new union treaty. Its signing was scheduled for August 20, 1991. But the conservatives did not wait. They needed Gorbachev as long as he could rein in the Democrats. When it became clear that he was unable to do so, his era ended.

In early August 1991, Gorbachev went to the Crimea on vacation. This was taken advantage of by his opponents. August 19, 1991 they attempted to carry out a coup d'état. The State Committee for the State of Emergency was established ( GKChP). It included, in particular, the mentioned Kryuchkov, Pavlov, Pugo, Yanaev, and some other persons.

GKChP announced about Gorbachev's illness, Yanaev undertook to perform the duties of the president. The collapse of perestroika was announced. The activities of all structures not legalized by the Constitution of the USSR were prohibited, the activities of political parties and associations, opposition to the CPSU, and the publication of newspapers disloyal to the State Emergency Committee were suspended. It was promised to freeze prices with their subsequent reduction, increase salaries and pensions, scholarships, support for private entrepreneurship.

However, members of the State Emergency Committee acted hesitantly. Russian leadership- President Yeltsin, Vice President Rutskoi, Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR Khasbulatov, Mayors of Moscow and Leningrad Popov and Sobchak - behaved, on the contrary, quite confidently and decisively. As a result, on August 21, 1991, members of the State Emergency Committee were arrested (Pugo shot himself).

The collapse of the USSR.

The events of August 19-21, 1991 led to the final weakening of the allied center. The collapse of the USSR became inevitable. December 8, 1991 leaders of Russia, Ukraine, Belarus gathered in Belovezhskaya Pushcha - Yeltsin, Kravchuk, Shushkevich. They announced the termination of the union treaty of 1922 and the formation of the Commonwealth of Independent States ( CIS).

December 21, 1991 A meeting of the leaders of a number of former Soviet republics took place in Alma-Ata. The CIS included 8 more union republics. Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Georgia are not included. They believed that their incorporation into the USSR was forced and did not want a new alliance. True, later Georgia joined the CIS.

The Soviet Union both formally and actually ceased to exist.

The main results of the restructuring:

The collapse of the USSR;

Dismantling the totalitarian system;

Creation of prerequisites for building a truly democratic society in Russia.

On March 11, 1985, the Plenum of the Central Committee of the Party elected General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU Mikhail Sergeevich Gorbachev.

M. S. Gorbachev

The Council of Ministers of the USSR was headed by N. I. Ryzhkov. The new leadership, which left the team of Yu. V. Andropov, inherited the ongoing arms race and afghan war, international isolation of the country, the growing economic crisis. Gorbachev saw the way out in the "renewal of socialism", i.e. in the combination of socialism and democracy, the establishment of a "better socialism".

Perestroika was initiated at the April (1985) Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU, where the need for a qualitative transformation of society was discussed. At the plenum, Gorbachev put forward the main slogan of transformation: "glasnost-perestroika-acceleration." The main lever of change was to be accelerating socio-economic development country, which in fact was a new version of the old slogan "Catch up and overtake America!". A more active use of the achievements of science and technology, the decentralization of the management of the national economy, the expansion of the rights of enterprises, the introduction of cost accounting, and the strengthening of production order and discipline were supposed. Socialist modernization implied the priority development of mechanical engineering, with the rise of which it was possible to achieve the technical reconstruction of the entire national economic complex. The personnel base of scientific and technological progress was to be prepared by the school reform, during which universal computerization was supposed. Based on the reformed economy, it was planned to solve housing and food issues. Other reforms of the first stage of perestroika were the anti-alcohol campaign, the law on state acceptance, and measures to strengthen labor discipline. In 1985-1986 the fight against violations of industrial discipline and corruption began. A number of former statesmen were punished for bribery and embezzlement.

Perestroika era poster

The XXVII Congress of the CPSU (February 1986) adopted the program of the CPSU in a new edition, confirmed the correctness of the course chosen by the country's leadership to accelerate the economic and social development for 1986-1990 and for the period up to 2000. At the congress, the country's leadership promised to solve the housing problem by 2000 and for the first time spoke about publicity in order to eliminate certain shortcomings and deformations inherent in the economic system.

However, politics soon publicity out of bounds for it. Censorship was lifted and the publication of new newspapers was allowed. On the pages of periodicals, a discussion broke out about the choice of the path of social development, which caused a surge in the social activity of the population. The discussion of the new government course took place at mass meetings of citizens. He found both supporters and opponents in different segments of the population.

Perestroika era poster

Under the Politburo of the Central Committee of the CPSU, a commission headed by A.N. Yakovlev was created to study the documents of those repressed in the 1930s and early 50s. citizens. The result of the work of the commission was the rehabilitation of many people innocently convicted by the Stalinist regime.

The new leadership did not have a clear reform program, so one of the main areas of change was the "personnel revolution" - the change of part of the party and Soviet leaders. In January 1987, the Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU, at which Gorbachev made a report "On perestroika and personnel policy," recognized the need to select personnel on the basis of such a criterion as their support for the goals and ideas of perestroika. Opponents of the reforms, members of L. I. Brezhnev's "team" were eliminated: V. V. Grishin, D. A. Kunaev, G. V. Romanov, N. A. Tikhonov, V. V. Shcherbitsky. The ideas of the General Secretary were shared by members of the Politburo of the Central Committee of the party: E. K. Ligachev, V. M. Chebrikov, E. A. Shevardnadze, secretaries of the Central Committee: B. N. Yeltsin and A. N. Yakovlev. The following scientists were involved in the search for constructive ideas: A. Aganbegyan, L. Abalkin, A. Grinberg, P. Bunich, S. Shatalin, T. Zaslavskaya. Under the pretext of fighting conservatism, there was a massive replacement and "rejuvenation" of party and state cadres both at the central and local levels.

M. S. Gorbachev and A. N. Yakovlev, one of the main ideologists, "architects" of perestroika

Constitutional reform 1988–1990

The first failures of perestroika (the failure of acceleration, the growth of the budget deficit as a result of the anti-alcohol reform) showed that radical changes cannot be achieved without deep transformations of the economy and the political system. In January 1987, the Central Committee of the CPSU recognized the need for measures to develop the elements of democracy. The democratization of social and political life was facilitated by the introduction of alternative elections of party secretaries, the election of heads of enterprises and institutions.

Questions of the reform of the political system were discussed during the XIX All-Union Party Conference (June-July 1988). Its decisions provided for the creation of such attributes of democratic socialism as a system of separation of powers, parliamentarism within the Soviets, and civil society. The conference discussed the need to stop the substitution of the CPSU for economic and state bodies, the importance of redistributing power functions from party structures to Soviet ones.

From the document (Report by M. S. Gorbachev at the XIX All-Union Party Conference):

The existing political system turned out to be unable to protect us from the growth of stagnation in economic and social life in recent decades and doomed the reforms undertaken at that time to failure. A growing concentration of economic and managerial functions in the hands of the party political leadership has become characteristic. At the same time, the role of the executive apparatus was hypertrophied. The number of persons elected to various state and public bodies reached a third of the adult population of the country, but at the same time, their bulk was excluded from real participation in solving state and public affairs.

Gorbachev proposed to form a new supreme body of power - the Congress of People's Deputies, to turn the Supreme Soviet into a permanent parliament. Based on the decisions of the conference, amendments were made to the Constitution of the USSR. Changes in the electoral legislation boiled down to the following: the elections were supposed to be held on an alternative basis, to make them two-stage, a third of the deputy corps to be formed from public organizations.

In the spring of 1989, elections were held for people's deputies of the USSR under a new electoral law. For the first time there was a public discussion of various election programs. The composition of the deputies included many supporters of the continuation of radical reforms: B. N. Yeltsin, G. Kh. Popov, A. D. Sakharov, A. A. Sobchak, Yu. N. Afanasiev. At the same time, the elections of deputies revealed a fall in the popularity of Gorbachev's supporters and an increase in the influence of his opponents.

From the document (Election platform of A. D. Sakharov. 1989)

1. Elimination of the administrative-command system and its replacement with a pluralistic one with market regulators and competition. The elimination of the omnipotence of ministries and departments ...

2. Social and national justice. Protection of the rights of the individual. The openness of society. Freedom of belief...

3. Eradication of the consequences of Stalinism, the rule of law. Open the archives of the NKVD - MGB, publish data on the crimes of Stalinism and all unjustified repressions ...

5. Support disarmament policy and resolution regional conflicts. Transition to a fully defensive strategic doctrine.

On the first day of work, the First Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR (May-June 1989) elected Gorbachev Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. The meetings of the congress were broadcast live on television. On the last day of the Congress, an Interregional Group of People's Deputies was formed (co-chairs of the group: A. D. Sakharov, B. N. Yeltsin, Yu. N. Afanasyev, G. Kh. society.

Congress session

At the second stage of the constitutional reform (1990-1991), the task of introducing the post of President of the USSR was put forward. III Congress of People's Deputies in March 1990 elected M. S. Gorbachev. After becoming president, Gorbachev retained the post of General Secretary of the Party Central Committee. A. I. Lukyanov was elected Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. The congress made changes to the Constitution that abolished the one-party system in the USSR, Article 6, which consolidated the leading position of the CPSU in society. The decisions of the congress opened the possibility for the formation of a multi-party system in the country.

Reform of the political system of the USSR during the period of perestroika

a radical change in the electoral system and the introduction of democratic principles into it;

the establishment of a two-tier system of the highest legislative power in the country (the Congress of People's Deputies and the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, elected from the deputies of the congress);

direct representation of public organizations. Of the 2,250 deputies of the Congress - 750 from the CPSU, trade unions, etc.;

the transformation of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR into a permanent parliament;

introduction of legal control - the Committee of Constitutional Supervision;

liquidation of the monopoly right of the CPSU by abolishing Art. 6 of the Constitution of the USSR;

the formation of a multi-party system;

approval of the post of President of the USSR and the election by the III Congress of People's Deputies in March 1990 to this position M.S. Gorbachev;

change in the structures of the highest executive power, reorganization of the government and the creation of the Cabinet of Ministers, subordinate to the President.

Formation of a multi-party system

The abolition of the 6th article of the Constitution created the conditions for the formation of a multi-party system. Back in May 1988, the Democratic Union, headed by E. Debryanskaya and V. Novodvorskaya, proclaimed itself the first "opposition" party of the CPSU. The goal of the party was proclaimed to be a peaceful, non-violent change in the political system in order to establish a representative parliamentary democracy in the country.

V. Novodvorskaya, 1988 Sąjūdis logo

In April of the same year, political movements emerged in the Baltics: Sąjūdis in Lithuania, Popular Fronts in Estonia and Latvia, which became the first real independent mass organizations.

The parties formed in the USSR reflected all the main directions of political thought. The liberal trend included the Democratic Union, Christian Democrats, Constitutional Democrats, and Liberal Democrats. The largest of the liberal parties was the Democratic Party of Russia, founded in May 1990 by N. Travkin. In November 1990, V. Lysenko, S. Sulakshin, V. Shostakovsky created the Republican Party of the Russian Federation.

N. I. Travkin, founder Democratic Party Russia

The socialist and social democratic trends were represented by the Social Democratic Association, the Social Democratic Party of Russia, and the Socialist Party.

In June 1990, the Communist Party of the RSFSR was formed, led by I.K. Polozkov. The party leadership adhered to the traditional Marxist-Leninist ideology.

From the document (Speech by I. K. Polozkov, First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the RSFSR, 1991):

It is now clear to everyone that perestroika, conceived in 1985 and launched by the party and the people as a renewal of socialism... did not take place.

The so-called democrats succeeded in substituting the goals of perestroika and seized the initiative from our party. Society is at a crossroads. The people are being deprived of their past, their present is being destroyed, and so far no one has intelligibly said what awaits them in the future.

It must be admitted that the CPSU was not able to discern the beginning of the degeneration of perestroika in time, and allowed this process to gain momentum...

There can be no talk of any multi-party system in our country now. There is the CPSU, which advocates socialist perestroika, and there are leaders of a few political groups that ultimately have one political face - anti-communism.

By the XXVIII Congress of the CPSU, a number of trends had developed in the party: radical reformist, reformist-renovationist, traditionalist. The congress failed to overcome the crisis of the party. A mass exit from the CPSU of ordinary members began. By the summer of 1991, the membership of the party was reduced to 15 million people. Attacks on Gorbachev and the perestroika course became more frequent in the leadership of the CPSU.

Two trends turned out to be at the center of the emerging political struggle - communist and liberal. The communists advocated the development of public property, collectivist forms public relations and self-government.

The liberals insisted on the privatization of property, individual freedom, a system of full-fledged parliamentary democracy, and a transition to a market economy.

The time of existence of many parties turned out to be short, they disintegrated, uniting with other organizations. In the context of the growing political crisis, Gorbachev pursued the tactics of maneuvering between conservatives and reformists, trying to contain the extremes. However, the lack of firmness and determination in the implementation of reforms had a heavy impact on the economy. The rejection of party leadership of the economy had grave consequences: it had not yet become self-regulating, and the old mechanism was destroyed. In the conditions of rising inflation, falling production, declining living standards, and a shortage of goods, it became obvious that the idea of ​​perestroika had practically exhausted itself.

exacerbation of interethnic relations

Against the backdrop of the democratization of society, pluralism and openness, the national question has escalated. The growth of interethnic tension was facilitated by economic difficulties, the deterioration of the environmental situation due to the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant. inconsistency and inconsistency of national policy. In November 1987, Gorbachev stated that "the national question has been resolved in our country" and that the actual leveling of the republics in terms of the level of political, socio-economic and cultural development has been achieved.

Reasons for the aggravation of interethnic relations

Meanwhile, back in December 1986, in response to the appointment of G. Kolbin as the first secretary of the Communist Party of Kazakhstan instead of the dismissed D. Kunaev, Kazakh youth staged mass protests in Alma-Ata under the slogan “Give Leninist national policy!”, “We demand self-determination!”, “Each nation has its own leader!”, “No 1937!”, “Put an end to great-power madness!”. The demonstrators were dispersed by the authorities.

Zheltoksan-86

From the document (N. Kenzheev. Mukhtar Ablyazov about the Decembrists, repressions and Nazarbayev):

... The question was not that he (Kolbin) was Russian. He was not from Kazakhstan, a protege of Moscow. That is, he could afford not to focus on the Kazakhstani political elite, not to collude with them and not particularly consider their interests. Therefore, the local political elite was interested in squeezing him out so that they would have their own functionary in power, with whom they could resolve their issues, influence him.

Armed clashes on the basis of interethnic conflicts have become more frequent. On February 20, 1988, an extraordinary session of the Regional Council of Nagorno-Karabakh (NKAO) decided to petition the Supreme Soviets of Azerbaijan and Armenia to withdraw the region from Azerbaijan and include it in Armenia. The problem of Nagorno-Karabakh, a territory with a predominantly Armenian population, included in Azerbaijan in 1923, out of a desire to please Turkey, became the cause of bloody clashes between the two Soviet republics. On February 27-29, 1988, pogroms and extermination of Armenians took place in the suburbs of Baku - the city of Sumgayit. Troops were brought in to rescue the people.

From the document (V. Krivopuskov. Rebellious Karabakh):

... By the evening of February 27, the tribune speeches turned into violent actions. Hundreds of Sumgayit Azerbaijanis, inflamed by rallies, warmed up by alcoholic drinks distributed free of charge from trucks (these facts were established by the investigation), freely proceeded to pogrom the apartments of Armenians, their mass beatings, and murders, which lasted until late at night. The state, party and law enforcement agencies of the city and the republic did not react to the unprecedented unrest in the city. Sumgayit completely passed into the power of the rioters.

Victims of the massacre of Armenians in Sumgayit

In 1989, Novy Uzen (Kazakhstan), Transnistria became the focus of interethnic clashes in 1989. In the same year, there were bloody clashes between Uzbeks and Meskhetian Turks in the Ferghana Valley in Uzbekistan. The resulting conflicts have resulted in the emergence of thousands of refugees.

Meskhetian Turks who suffered in the Ferghana Valley

From the document (A. Osipov. "Ferghana Events" twenty years later. History without a lesson?):

But why exactly Fergana? Why did thousands of people who yesterday, without the permission of the authorities, were afraid to speak at a collective-farm meeting, rushed to the rally and to the pogrom? The answers, alas, are in the realm of conjecture. It is plausible to suggest that the root cause of the riots, or rather the atmosphere that made the riots possible, was the "cotton business". First, the depressing impression of the “fight against corruption” and mass repressions. Then came the shock of a sharp change in Moscow's policy and the struggle around the "Gdlyan-Ivanov case." Perplexity from the new leadership of the Uzbek SSR, which at times showed weakness and confusion. And during the First Congress of Deputies of the USSR, the usual picture of the world generally shook and began to crumble. People's hands itched and they wanted to speak out, but they didn't know how. A local incident became a valve through which the accumulated steam rushed out. The presence of organizers and behind-the-scenes manipulators raises serious doubts, but a provocation could well have taken place. Perhaps her goal was to disrupt the establishment of the Birlik branch in the Fergana region. It was not difficult to turn the rally into riots and take away part of the crowd to beat the Turks. Enough of a dozen, as it is now customary to say, "gopniks" sitting on the hook at the "organs", especially when the region was disturbed by rumors of fights with the Turks in Kuvasay.

In April 1989, protest rallies took place in Tbilisi for several days. The demonstrators demanded democratic reforms and the independence of Georgia. The forces of the Soviet army and internal troops a demonstration of supporters of Georgia's secession from the USSR was dispersed. The Abkhaz population came out for revising the status of the Abkhaz ASSR and separating it from the Georgian SSR.

In 1990, an interethnic conflict broke out on the territory of the Kyrgyz SSR between the Kyrgyz and Uzbeks, known as the Osh massacre.

The country's leadership was not ready to solve the problems caused by interethnic conflicts.

"PARADE OF SOVEREIGNTY"

The inability of the Gorbachev government to suppress the separatist sentiments of the national regions led to the intensification of the desire of individual republics to secede from the USSR. Especially strong was the desire to form sovereign states in the Baltic republics. If at first the activists of national movements insisted on recognizing the native language as official and ensuring the real independence of local authorities, then in the late 1980s. the demand for the separation of the economy from the all-Union national economic complex came to the fore in their programs.

In the fall of 1988, representatives of the popular fronts won the elections to the central and local authorities of the Baltic republics. In November 1988, the Declaration of State Sovereignty was adopted by the Supreme Soviet of the Estonian SSR. Similar documents were approved in Lithuania, Latvia, the Azerbaijan SSR (1989) and the Moldavian SSR (1990). Presidents of the new sovereign republics were elected.

On June 12, 1990, the First Congress of People's Deputies of the RSFSR adopted the Declaration on the State Sovereignty of Russia, which confirmed the priority of republican laws over union laws. B. N. Yeltsin was elected the first president of the Russian Federation, and A. V. Rutskoi was elected vice-president.

B. N. Yeltsin

From the document (Declaration on State Sovereignty of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic of June 12, 1990):

First Congress of People's Deputies of the RSFSR,

Conscious of the historical responsibility for the fate of Russia,

Testifying respect for the sovereign rights of all the peoples that make up the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics,

Expressing the will of the peoples of the RSFSR,

solemnly proclaims the state sovereignty of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic throughout its entire territory and declares its determination to create a democratic constitutional state within the renewed USSR.

1. The Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic is a sovereign state created by the peoples historically united in it.

2. The sovereignty of the RSFSR is natural and necessary condition the existence of the statehood of Russia, which has a long history, culture and established traditions.

3. The bearer of sovereignty and the source of state power in the RSFSR is its multinational people. The people exercise state power directly and through representative bodies on the basis of the Constitution of the RSFSR.

4. The state sovereignty of the RSFSR is proclaimed in the name of higher goals - to ensure to every person the inalienable right to a decent life, free development and use of their native language, and to every people - to self-determination in their chosen national-state and national-cultural forms ...

Power gradually passed from the center to the republics. The country entered a period of disintegration, aggravated by interethnic conflicts. On the agenda was the question of the continued existence of the Soviet Union. The country's leadership hastily tried to take steps to formalize a new Union Treaty, the first draft of which was published on July 24, 1990. Attempts were made to preserve the Soviet Union by traditional (forceful) measures. In April 1990, the economic blockade of Lithuania began. In January 1991, events took place in Vilnius and Riga, accompanied by the use of military force. On the night of January 12-13, 1991, the troops brought into Vilnius occupied the Press House, the buildings of the Committee on Television and Radio Broadcasting, and other public buildings.

The entry of tanks into Vilnius in January 1991. The funeral of the dead in Vilnius

The IV Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR in December 1990 spoke in favor of preserving the USSR and transforming it into a democratic federal state. A resolution was adopted "On the general concept of the union treaty and the procedure for its conclusion", which noted that the basis of the renewed Union would be the principles set forth in the republican declarations: the equality of all citizens and peoples, the right to self-determination and democratic development, territorial integrity. On March 17, 1991, an all-Union referendum was held to resolve the issue of maintaining the renewed Union as a federation of sovereign republics. 76.4% supported the preservation of the USSR total number persons participating in the vote. The referendum was not supported by Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Georgia, Moldova, Armenia.

Prerequisites for the collapse of the USSR

August 1991 political crisis

In April May 1991, in Novo-Ogarevo, the residence of the President of the USSR near Moscow, MS Gorbachev met with the leaders of nine union republics, during which the issue of a new union treaty was discussed. The negotiators supported the idea of ​​signing an agreement on the creation of the Union of Sovereign States (USG) as a democratic federation of equal Soviet sovereign republics. August 20, 1991 was set as the date for the signing of the treaty.

On the eve of the signing of the treaty, there was a split in society. Gorbachev's supporters hoped for a decrease in the level of confrontation in the country. A group of social scientists criticized the draft treaty, regarding it as the result of the capitulation of the center to the demands of the separatist forces in the republics. Opponents of the new treaty warned that the dismantling of the USSR would cause the collapse of national economic ties and deepen the economic crisis.

Conservative forces in the country's leadership attempted to disrupt the signing of the treaty. In the absence of President Gorbachev, on the night of August 19, 1991, the State Committee for the State of Emergency (GKChP) was created, consisting of Vice President G. Yanaev, Prime Minister V. Pavlov, Defense Minister D. Yazov, KGB Chairman V. Kryuchkov, Minister Internal Affairs B. Pugo, Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU O. Baklanov, President of the Association of State Enterprises A. Tizyakov and Chairman of the Peasants' Union V. Starodubtsev. Declaring the impossibility of Gorbachev to perform presidential duties due to his state of health, the GKChP assumed full power. The putschists saw their tasks in overcoming the economic and political crisis, interethnic and civil confrontation and anarchy. A state of emergency was introduced in the country for a period of 6 months, rallies and strikes were prohibited. The GKChP suspended the activities of opposition parties and movements and established control over the media. Troops were sent to Moscow and a curfew was set.

Members of the State Emergency Committee: G. I. Yanaev - Vice President of the USSR, V. S. Pavlov - Prime Minister of the USSR, V. A. Kryuchkov - Chairman of the KGB of the USSR, A. I. Tizyakov - President of the Association of State Enterprises of the USSR, O. D. Baklanov - Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU, First Deputy Chairman of the Defense Council, V. A. Starodubtsev - Chairman of the Peasant Union of the USSR, B. K. Pugo - Minister of Internal Affairs of the USSR, D. T. Yazov - Minister of Defense of the USSR.

The leadership of the RSFSR, headed by President B. N. Yeltsin, addressed the citizens, condemning the actions of the State Emergency Committee as an unconstitutional coup. The appeal announced the transfer to the jurisdiction of the Russian president of all all-union executive bodies located on the territory of the republic.At the call of Yeltsin, tens of thousands of Muscovites took up defensive positions around the White House. An active role in organizing the rebuff to the putsch was played by new entrepreneurs who provided financial and technical assistance to the leaders of Russia. On August 21, 1991, an emergency session of the Supreme Soviet of Russia was convened, which supported the leadership of the republic. On the same day, Soviet President Gorbachev returned to Moscow. On August 22, members of the GKChP were arrested. August 23 Yeltsin signed a decree on the termination of the activities of the CPSU.

White House defenders, August 1991

collapse of the USSR

The consequence of the events of August 1991 was the refusal of most of the republics to sign the Union Treaty. The collapse of the USSR became irreversible. At the end of August, Ukraine announced the creation of an independent state, followed by other republics.

In December 1991, a meeting of the leaders of the three sovereign states of Russia (B. Yeltsin), Ukraine (L. Kravchuk) and Belarus (S. Shushkevich) took place in Belovezhskaya Pushcha (BSSR). On December 8, they announced the termination of the union treaty of 1922. An agreement was reached on the creation of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics ceased to exist. On December 21, at a meeting in Alma-Ata, eight more former republics joined the CIS.

Signing of an agreement on the creation of the CIS, 1991

From the document (To Soviet citizens. Speech on television by the President of the USSR on December 25, 1991):

... I understood that starting reforms on such a scale and in such a society as ours is the most difficult and even risky business. But even today I am convinced of the historical correctness of the democratic reforms that began in the spring of 1985.

The process of renewal of the country and fundamental changes in the world community turned out to be much more complicated than one might have imagined. However, what has been done should be appreciated:

Society received freedom, liberated politically and spiritually. And this is the most important achievement, which we have not yet fully realized, and because we have not yet learned how to use freedom. Nevertheless, work of historical significance has been done:

The totalitarian system, which deprived the country of the opportunity to become prosperous and prosperous, has been liquidated.

A breakthrough has been made on the path of democratic reforms. Free elections, freedom of the press, religious freedoms, representative bodies of power, and a multi-party system have become real. Human rights were recognized as the highest principle.

A movement towards a multi-structural economy has begun, the equality of all forms of ownership is being affirmed. As part of the land reform, the peasantry began to revive, farming appeared, millions of hectares of land were given to rural residents and townspeople. The economic freedom of the producer was legalized, and entrepreneurship, corporatization, and privatization began to gain momentum.

Turning the economy to the market, it is important to remember that this is done for the sake of the person. In it hard time everything must be done for his social protection, especially for the elderly and children ...

The restructuring is over. Its main result was the collapse of the USSR, the completion of the Soviet period of development in the history of the Fatherland.

Goals, implementation, results of perestroika

Dates	Developments
	M. S. Gorbachev - General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU
	Protests in Almaty
	Aggravation of the interethnic situation in Nagorno-Karabakh
	XIX All-Union Party Conference
	Elections of the First Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR
	Protests in Georgia
	Declaration of Sovereignty of Lithuania
	I Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR
	Interethnic clashes in the Ferghana Valley
	Declaration of State Sovereignty of Russia
	Failure of the State Emergency Committee
	The collapse of the USSR. CIS education

Perestroika in the USSR in 1985-1991 became a large-scale period in history, covering the social, political and economic life in the state. Many consider perestroika to be the stage that led to the collapse of the Soviet Union.

Prerequisites and main reasons for perestroika

The period of L. I. Brezhnev's rule with the light hand of M. S. Gorbachev was called the era of stagnation.

Rice. 1. Portrait of M. S. Gorbachev.

Despite the growth in the well-being of the population, a recession was observed in the economy. There was a constant shortage of goods on the market. Only the sale of oil helped the USSR financially stay afloat, thanks to the embargo of the Arab countries. However, after the lifting of this embargo, oil prices began to fall rapidly. The Brezhnev government did not want or could not solve the accumulated economic problems that could affect any change in the situation in the world. This showed the imperfection of the control system. In addition, the war in Afghanistan was also economically unprofitable for the Soviet Union. The capitalist world imposed sanctions against the USSR to stop hostilities, which reduced the amount of exports and affected the country's income.

It was these phenomena that showed the weakness of the Soviet economy.

perestroika

March 1985 marked the beginning of the transition to new policy M. S. Gorbachev, who immediately made it clear that he would carry out a number of changes. The goals of perestroika were to reform the socio-economic development of the country, rejuvenate personnel in political system, mitigation of foreign policy and the rise of industry.

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In April 1985, Gorbachev first used the term "acceleration" of economic development. His tasks were administrative reforms, modernization of engineering and heavy industry. However, attempts to reform the economy did not give the desired results, and it was decided to move from acceleration to global restructuring.

Perestroika was proposed to be divided into several stages.

Table “Events during the period of perestroika of the USSR”

The activities carried out in the second stage split the society into democrats and communists. This created some tension in social environment that gave rise to the uncontrollability of perestroika processes.

Glasnost was proclaimed by Gorbachev in 1985. Many victims of Stalinist repressions were acquitted, the literary works of Solzhenitsyn and other dissidents began to be published, the Vzglyad program began to work on TV, the Argumenty i Fakty newspaper was printed, many previously banned films (for example, Heart of a Dog) appeared on television screens. The authorities allowed themselves to be criticized and did not take reactionary measures against harsh criticism.

Rice. 2. Portrait of Solzhenitsyn.

Perestroika began in foreign policy. The Soviet Union took a course on "warming" relations with the West. The Cold War was effectively lost when Gorbachev made substantial concessions to the United States, hoping for the lifting of sanctions. During negotiations with US President Reagan, a disarmament agreement was concluded, and in 1989 all Soviet troops were withdrawn from Afghanistan.

Rice. 3. The withdrawal of troops from Afghanistan.

At the second stage of perestroika, the tasks set for the country's transition to democratic socialism were not achieved. The third stage was completely outside state control and was left to chance.

The growth of political contradictions in the second stage of perestroika led to a national confrontation. Peripheral republics increasingly began to declare their disobedience to Moscow. Starting from the second half of 1989, a parade of sovereignties took place in the country. Local authorities declared the priority of local laws over all-Union ones if they conflicted with each other. In March 1990, Lithuania announced its withdrawal from the USSR. In the same year, the post of President of the USSR was approved, who was elected by general direct popular vote. This reform failed to achieve positive results.

The consequences of the third stage of the perestroika process was the putsch of 1991, which also led to the collapse of the USSR for political, social and economic reasons.

What have we learned?

Speaking briefly about perestroika in the USSR, it should be noted that in order to bring the country to a new level, gross miscalculations were made that led to the disintegration of the whole country, which changed the fate of tens of millions of people.

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After Chernenko's death in 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev came to power. By that time, the USSR was already on the verge of a deep crisis, both in the economy and in the social sphere. The efficiency of social production was steadily declining, and the arms race was a heavy burden on the country's economy. In fact, all spheres of society needed to be updated. The difficult situation of the USSR was the reason for perestroika, as well as changes in the country's foreign policy. Modern historians distinguish the following stages of perestroika:

• 1985 - 1986
• 1987 - 1988
• 1989 - 1991

During the beginning of perestroika from 1985 to 1986. there were no significant changes in the organization of government of the country. In the regions, power, at least formally, belonged to the Soviets, and at the highest level, to the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. But, during this period, statements about publicity and the fight against bureaucracy were already heard. Gradually began the process of rethinking international relations. The tension in relations between the USSR and the USA has significantly decreased.

Large-scale changes began somewhat later - from the end of 1987. This period is characterized by unprecedented freedom of creativity, the development of art. Authorial journalistic programs are broadcast on television, magazines publish materials promoting the ideas of reforms. At the same time, the political struggle is clearly intensifying. Serious transformations in the sphere of state power begin. So, in December 1988, at the 11th extraordinary session of the Supreme Council, the law “On Amendments and Additions to the Constitution” was adopted. The law made changes to the electoral system by introducing the principle of alternativeness.

However, the most turbulent was the third period of perestroika in the USSR. In 1989, Soviet troops were completely withdrawn from Afghanistan. In fact, the USSR ceases to support socialist regimes on the territory of other states. The camp of the socialist countries is collapsing. The most important, significant, event of that period is the fall of the Berlin Wall and the unification of Germany.

The party is gradually losing real power and its unity. A fierce battle between the factions begins. Not only the situation that has developed in the USSR is being criticized, but also the very foundations of the ideology of Marxism, as well as October Revolution 1917 Many opposition parties and movements are formed.

Against the backdrop of a tough political struggle during this period of Gorbachev's perestroika, a split begins in the sphere of the intelligentsia, among artists. If some of them were critical of the processes taking place in the country, then the other part provides comprehensive support to Gorbachev. Against the backdrop of political and social freedom unprecedented at that time, the volume of financing, both art and science, education, and many industries, is significantly reduced. Talented scientists in such conditions leave to work abroad, or turn into businessmen. Many research institutes and design bureaus cease to exist. The development of knowledge-intensive industries slows down, and later stops altogether. Perhaps the most striking example of this can be the Energiya-Buran project, within the framework of which a unique reusable space shuttle Buran was created, which made a single flight.

The financial situation of the majority of citizens is gradually deteriorating. Also, there is an aggravation of interethnic relations. Many cultural and political figures are beginning to say that perestroika has become obsolete.

The consequences of perestroika are extremely ambiguous and multifaceted. Undoubtedly, the receipt by society of social and political freedoms, publicity and the reform of the planned distribution economy are positive aspects. However, the processes that took place during the period of perestroika in the USSR in 1985-1991 led to the collapse of the USSR and the aggravation of interethnic conflicts that had been smoldering for a long time. The weakening of power, both in the center and in the regions, a sharp decline in the standard of living of the population, undermining the scientific base, and so on. Undoubtedly, the results of perestroika and its significance will be rethought by future generations more than once.