Lung functions. Human lungs: structure, functions. Lungs What are lungs definition

Abasia- Loss of the ability to walk, usually as a result of a disease of the nervous system.

Abbreviation- Loss by a species during evolution or by an individual in the process of ontogenesis of characteristics or phases of development that were present in its ancestors.

Abiogenesis- The emergence of living things from non-living things in the process of evolution.

Aborigine- An indigenous inhabitant of a certain area, who has lived in it since ancient times.

Avitaminosis- A disease caused by a long-term lack of vital vitamins in food.

Autogamy- Self-pollination and self-fertilization in flowering plants.

Autoduplication- The process of synthesis by living organisms or their parts of substances and structures that are completely identical to the original formations.

Autolysis- Self-dissolution, the breakdown of body tissues under the influence of enzymes contained in the same tissues.

Automixis- Fusion of germ cells belonging to the same individual; widely distributed among protozoa, fungi, and diatoms.

Autotomy- The ability of some animals to discard parts of their body; protective device.

Autotroph- An organism that synthesizes organic matter from inorganic compounds using the energy of the Sun or energy released during chemical reactions.

Agglutination- 1) Gluing and precipitation from a homogeneous suspension of bacteria, red blood cells and other cells. 2) Protein coagulation in a living cell, which occurs when exposed to high temperatures, toxic substances and other similar agents.

Agglutinins- Substances formed in the blood serum, under the influence of which proteins coagulate, microbes and blood cells stick together.

Agony- The final moment of life preceding clinical death.

Agranulocyte- Leukocyte that does not contain grains (granules) in the cytoplasm; in vertebrates these are lymphocytes and monocytes.

Agrocenosis- A biotic community of plants, animals, fungi and microorganisms created to produce agricultural products and regularly maintained by humans.

Adaptation- A complex of morphophysiological and behavioral characteristics of an individual, population or species, ensuring success in competition with other species, populations and individuals, and resistance to the influence of abiotic environmental factors.

Adynamia- Muscle weakness, impotence.

Azotobacteria- A group of aerobic bacteria capable of fixing nitrogen from the air and thereby enriching the soil with it.

Acclimatization- A set of measures to introduce a species into new habitats, carried out in order to enrich natural or artificial communities with organisms useful to humans.

Accommodation- Adaptation to something. 1) Accommodation of the eye - adaptation to viewing objects at different distances. 2) Physiological accommodation - adaptation of muscle and nervous tissue to the action of a stimulus that slowly increases in strength.

Accumulation- Accumulation in organisms of chemicals found in the environment in lower concentrations.

Acromegaly- Excessive, disproportionate growth of the limbs and facial bones due to dysfunction of the pituitary gland.

Alkalosis- Increased content of alkalis in the blood and other tissues of the body.

Allele- Different forms of the same gene located in the same loci of homologous chromosomes.

Allogenesis

Albinism- Congenital absence of pigmentation that is normal for this type of organism.

Algology- The scientific branch of botany that studies algae.

Amensalism- Suppression of one organism by another without a reverse negative impact from the suppressed.

Amitosis- Direct cell division.

Anabiosis- A temporary state of the body in which life processes are so slow that all visible manifestations of life are almost completely absent.

Anabolism- Plastic exchange.

Analysis cross- Crossing the test organism with another, which is a recessive homozygote for a given trait, which makes it possible to establish the genotype of the test subject.

Similar bodies- Organs that perform the same functions, but have different structures and origins, the result convergence.

Anatomy- A group of scientific branches that study the shape and structure of individual organs, their systems and the entire organism as a whole.

Anaerobe- An organism capable of living in an oxygen-free environment.

Angiology- Section of anatomy that studies the circulatory and lymphatic systems.

Anemia- A group of diseases characterized by a decrease in the number of red blood cells, their hemoglobin content or total blood mass.

Aneuploidy- Multiple changes in the number of chromosomes; an altered set of chromosomes in which one or more chromosomes from the normal set are either missing or are represented by additional copies.

Antheridium- Male reproductive organ.

Antigen- A complex organic substance capable of causing an immune response when entering the body of animals and humans - formation antibodies.

Anticodon- A section of a tRNA molecule consisting of 3 nucleotides that specifically binds to an mRNA codon.

Antibody- Immunoglobulin in the blood plasma of humans and warm-blooded animals, synthesized by lymphoid tissue cells under the influence of various antigens.

Anthropogenesis- The process of human origin.

Anthropology- An interdisciplinary discipline that studies the origin and evolution of man as a special sociobiological species.

Apomixis- Formation of an embryo from an unfertilized female reproductive cell or from cells of the germ or embryo sac; asexual reproduction.

Arachnology- Branch of zoology that studies arachnids.

Area- Area of ​​distribution of the species.

Arogenesis

Aromorphosis- Evolutionary direction, accompanied by the acquisition of major structural changes; complication of organization, rise to a higher level, morphophysiological progress.

Arrhenotokia- Parthenogenetic birth of offspring consisting exclusively of males, for example, the development of drones from unfertilized eggs laid by the queen bee.

Archegonium - Female organ reproduction in mosses, ferns, horsetails, mosses, some gymnosperms, algae and fungi, containing an egg.

Assimilation- One of the aspects of metabolism, the consumption and transformation of substances entering the body or the deposition of reserves, due to which energy is accumulated.

Astasia- Loss of the ability to stand, usually as a result of a disease of the nervous system.

Astrobiology- A scientific branch that deals with the detection and study of signs of life in the Universe, in space and on planets.

Asphyxia- Cessation of breathing, suffocation, oxygen starvation. Occurs when there is a lack of aeration, including when plants get wet.

Atavism- The appearance in some individuals of a given species of characteristics that existed in distant ancestors, but were then lost in the process of evolution.

Atony- Intravital reduction in the size of organs and tissues, replacement of their functioning cells with connective tissue, fat, etc. Accompanied by disruption or even cessation of their functions.

Outbreeding- Crossing of individuals of the same species that are not directly related leads to the phenomenon of heterosis.

Autosome- Any non-sex chromosome; humans have 22 pairs of autosomes.

Acidosis- Accumulation of negatively charged ions (anions) of acids in the blood and other tissues of the body.

Aerobe- An organism capable of living only in an environment containing free molecular oxygen.

Aeroponics- Growing plants without soil in moist air thanks to periodic spraying of the roots with nutrient solutions. It is used in greenhouses, conservatories, on spaceships, etc.

Aerotaxis- Movement of unicellular and some multicellular lower organisms to a source of oxygen or, conversely, from it.

Aerotropism- The growth of plant stems or roots in the direction from which oxygen-rich air comes, for example, the growth of roots in mangroves towards the soil surface.

Bacteriology- The branch of microbiology that studies bacteria.

Bacterial carriage

Bacteriophage- A bacterial virus that can infect a bacterial cell, multiply in it and cause its dissolution.

Bacteriocide- Antibacterial substance (proteins) produced by bacteria of a certain type and suppressing the vital activity of bacteria of other types.

Baroreceptors- Sensitive nerve endings in the walls of blood vessels that sense changes in blood pressure and reflexively regulate its level.

Bacillus- Any bacteria that is rod-shaped.

Bivalent- Two homologous chromosomes formed during division of the cell nucleus.

Bilaterality- Bilateral symmetry in organisms.

Biogeography- A scientific branch that studies the general geographical patterns of the organic world of the Earth: the distribution of plant cover and animal populations of various parts of the globe, their combinations, floristic and faunal divisions of land and ocean, as well as the distribution of biocenoses and their species of plants, animals, fungi and microorganisms .

Biogeochemistry- A scientific discipline that studies the role of living organisms in the destruction of rocks and minerals, circulation, migration, distribution and concentration of chemical elements in the biosphere.

Biogeocenosis- An evolutionarily established, spatially limited, long-term self-sustaining homogeneous natural system in which living organisms and their surrounding abiotic environment are functionally interconnected, characterized by relatively independent metabolism and a special type of use of the energy flow coming from the Sun.

Biology- A complex of knowledge about life and a set of scientific disciplines that study living nature.

Biometrics- A set of techniques for planning and processing biological research data using mathematical statistics methods.

Biomechanics- A branch of biophysics that studies the mechanical properties of living tissues, organs and the body as a whole, as well as the mechanical processes occurring in them.

Bionics- One of the areas of cybernetics that studies the structure and vital activity of organisms in order to use the identified patterns in solving engineering problems and construction technical systems, similar in characteristics to living organisms and their parts.

Biorhythm- Rhythmic-cyclic fluctuations in the intensity and nature of biological processes and phenomena, giving organisms the opportunity to adapt to environmental changes.

Biosphere- The shell of the Earth populated by living organisms.

Biotechnology- A section of game science that studies ways to increase the biological productivity and economic productivity of hunting lands.

Biotechnology- A scientific discipline and field of practice bordering biology and technology that studies ways and methods of changing the natural environment around humans in accordance with their needs.

Biophysics- A scientific discipline that studies physical and physicochemical processes in living organisms, as well as the physical structure of biological systems at all levels of their organization - from molecular and subcellular to cells, organs and the organism as a whole.

Biochemistry- Scientific discipline that studies chemical composition living beings, chemical reactions in them and the natural order of these reactions, ensuring metabolism.

Biocenosis- An interconnected collection of microorganisms, plants, fungi and animals inhabiting a more or less homogeneous area of ​​land or body of water.

Bifurcation- Dividing something into two branches.

Blastula- Single-layer embryo.

Botany- A complex of scientific disciplines exploring the kingdom of Plants.

Bryology- Scientific branch that studies mosses.

Vaccine- A preparation made from living or dead microorganisms used for immunization of humans and animals for prophylactic or therapeutic purposes.

Virology- Scientific discipline that studies viruses.

Virus carriage- Residence and reproduction of pathogens of infectious or invasive diseases in the body of humans and animals in the absence of signs of disease.

Gamete- Sexual, or reproductive, cell with a haploid set of chromosomes.

Gametogenesis- The process of formation and development of sex cells - gametes.

Gametophyte- Representative of the sexual generation or stage of the plant life cycle from spore to zygote.

Haploid- A cell or individual with a single set of unpaired chromosomes, formed as a result of reduction division.

Gastrula- Phase of embryonic development of multicellular animals, two-layer embryo.

Gastrulation- The process of gastrula formation.

Heliobiology- A branch of biophysics that studies the influence of solar activity on terrestrial organisms and their communities.

Hemizygote- A diploid organism that has only one allele of a given gene or one chromosome segment instead of the usual two. For organisms in which the heterogametic sex is male (as in humans and all other mammals), almost all genes associated with the X chromosome are hemizygous, since males normally have only one X chromosome. The hemizygous state of alleles or chromosomes is used in genetic analysis to find the location of genes responsible for a particular trait.

Hemolysis- Destruction of red blood cells with the release of hemoglobin into the environment.

Hemophilia- A hereditary disease characterized by increased bleeding, which is explained by a lack of blood clotting factors.

Hemocyanin- The respiratory pigment of the hemolymph of some invertebrate animals, which ensures the transport of oxygen in their bodies, is a copper-containing protein that gives the blood a blue color.

Hemerythrin- The respiratory pigment of the hemolymph of a number of invertebrate animals, this is an iron-containing protein that gives the blood a pink tint.

Genetics- A discipline that studies the mechanisms and patterns of heredity and variability of organisms, methods of controlling these processes.

Genome- A set of genes contained in a haploid (single) set of chromosomes.

Genotype- The totality of all genes received from parents.

Gene pool- A set of genes of a group of individuals of a population, a group of populations or a species, within which they are characterized by a certain frequency of occurrence.

Geobotany- A scientific branch that studies plant communities, their composition, development, classification, dependence on the environment and influence on it, features of the phynocoenotic environment.

Geotaxis- Directed movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of gravity.

Geotropism- Directed growth movement of plant organs caused by the unilateral action of gravity.

Geophilia- The ability of shoots or roots of some perennial plants retract or grow into the soil to overwinter.

Hermaphroditism- The presence of male and female reproductive systems in one animal.

Herpetology- Branch of zoology that studies amphibians and reptiles.

Heterozygote- The person who gives different types gametes.

Heterosis- “hybrid vigor”, accelerated growth, increased size, increased vitality and fertility of first-generation hybrids compared to the parental forms of plants or animals.

Heteroploidy- Multiple changes in the number of chromosomes.

Gibberellin- A substance that stimulates plant growth.

Hybrid- An organism resulting from crossing.

Gigantism- The phenomenon of abnormal growth of a person, animal, plant, exceeding the norm characteristic of the species.

Hygiene- Science that studies the impact of living and working conditions on human health and develops disease prevention measures.

Hygrophiles- Terrestrial animals adapted to living in conditions of high humidity.

Hygrophytes- Terrestrial plants adapted to living in conditions of excess humidity.

Hygrophobes- Terrestrial animals that avoid excess moisture in specific habitats.

Hydrolysis- The third stage of energy metabolism, cellular respiration.

Hydroponics- Growing plants without soil in aqueous solutions of minerals.

Hydrotaxis- Directed movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of humidity.

Hypertension- A disease caused by high blood pressure.

Physical inactivity- Lack of physical activity.

Hypoxia- Reduced oxygen content in the tissues of the body, observed with a lack of oxygen in the air, certain diseases and poisoning.

Hypotension- A disease caused by low blood pressure.

Histology- Section of morphology that studies tissues multicellular organisms.

Glycolysis- An oxygen-free process of carbohydrate breakdown.

Holandric trait- A trait found only in men (XY).

Homozygote- An individual that produces one type of gametes.

Homeotherm- Animal with constant temperature body, practically independent of the ambient temperature (warm-blooded animal).

Homologous organs- Organs that are similar to each other in structure and origin, but perform different functions, the result divergence.

Hormone- A biologically active substance produced in the body by specialized cells or organs and having a targeted effect on the activity of other organs and tissues.

Granulocyte- A leukocyte containing grains (granules) in the cytoplasm protects the body from bacteria.

Colorblindness- Hereditary inability to distinguish between certain colors, most often red and green.

Degeneration

Deletion- Chromosomal mutation, as a result of which a section of the chromosome in its middle part is lost; a gene mutation that results in the loss of a section of the DNA molecule.

Demecology- A branch of ecology that studies the relationship of populations with their environment.

Dendrology- A branch of botany that studies woody and shrubby plants.

Depression- Decrease in the number of individuals of a population, species or group of species caused by intrapopulation, biocenotic or abiotic reasons associated with human activity; depressed, painful state of the individual; general decrease in vitality.

Definition- Chromosomal mutation, which results in the loss of the end sections of chromosomes (lack).

Divergence- Divergence of signs.

Dihybrid cross- Crossing individuals according to two pairs of traits.

Dissimilation

Dominant trait- Predominant sign.

Donor- A person who donates blood for transfusion or organs for transplantation.

Genetic drift- Change in the genetic structure of the population as a result of any random reasons; genetic-automatic process in a population.

Splitting up- The process of division of the zygote without the growth of blastomeres.

Duplication- Chromosomal mutation in which any part of the chromosome is repeated.

Eugenics- The doctrine of human hereditary health and ways of its preservation and improvement. The basic principles of the doctrine were formulated in 1869 by the English anthropologist and psychologist F. Galton. F. Galton proposed studying factors that improve the hereditary qualities of future generations (genetic prerequisites for mental and physiological health, mental abilities, talent). But some ideas of eugenics were distorted and used to justify racism, genocide; the presence of social inequality, mental and physiological inequality of people. In modern science, the problems of eugenics are considered within the framework of human genetics and ecology, especially the fight against hereditary diseases.

Reserve- A section of territory or water area within which certain forms of human economic activity are permanently or temporarily prohibited to ensure the protection of certain types of living beings.

Reserve- A specially protected area, completely excluded from any economic activity in order to preserve natural complexes intact, protect living species and monitor natural processes.

Zygote- Fertilized egg.

Zoogeography- A scientific branch that studies the patterns of geographical distribution of animals and their communities on the globe.

Zoology- A scientific discipline that studies the animal world.

Idiomatic adaptation- The path of evolution without increasing the general level of organization, the emergence of adaptations to specific environmental conditions.

Insulation- A process that prevents individuals of different species from interbreeding and leads to divergence of characteristics within the same species.

Immunity- Immunity, resistance of the body to infectious agents and foreign substances. There are natural (congenital) or artificial (acquired), active or passive immunity.

Imprinting- Strong and quick fixation in the animal’s memory of the signs of an object.

Inbreeding- Inbreeding.

Inversion- Chromosomal mutation, as a result of which its part rotates 180°.

Insertion- A gene mutation that results in the insertion of a segment of a DNA molecule into the gene structure.

Interferon- A protective protein produced by the cells of mammals and birds in response to infection by viruses.

Intoxication- Poisoning of the body.

Ichthyology- Branch of zoology that studies fish.

Carcinogen- A substance or physical agent capable of causing or contributing to the development of malignant neoplasms.

Karyotype- A diploid set of chromosomes in the somatic (non-reproductive) cells of the body, a typical set of their characteristics for a species: a certain number, size, shape and structural features, constant for each species.

Carotenoids- Red, yellow and orange pigments found in plant and some animal tissues.

Catabolism- Energy metabolism, breakdown of substances, ATP synthesis.

Catagenesis- The path of evolution associated with the transition to a simpler habitat and leading to a simplification of the structure and lifestyle, morphophysiological regression, the disappearance of active life organs.

Tenancy- Close coexistence (coexistence) of organisms of different species, in which one of the organisms benefits for itself (uses the organism as an “apartment”) without causing harm to the other.

Kyphosis- Curvature of the spine, convexity facing backwards.

Clone- Genetically homogeneous offspring of one cell.

Commensalism- Permanent or temporary cohabitation of individuals of different species, in which one of the partners derives unilateral benefit from the other without causing harm to the owner.

Complementarity- Spatial complementarity of molecules or their parts, leading to the formation of hydrogen bonds.

Convergence- Convergence of signs.

Competition- Rivalry, any antagonistic relationship determined by the desire to achieve a goal better and faster than other members of the community.

Consumer- Organism-consumer of ready-made organic matter.

Conjugation- Bringing chromosomes together during meiosis; a sexual process consisting of a partial exchange of hereditary information, for example, in ciliates.

Copulation- The process of fusion of sex cells (gametes) into a zygote; the union of individuals of the opposite sex during sexual intercourse.

Crossbreeding- Interbreeding of domestic animals.

Crossing over- Exchange of sections of homologous chromosomes.

Xanthophylls- A group of yellow coloring pigments contained in the buds, leaves, flowers and fruits of higher plants, as well as in many algae and microorganisms; in animals - in the liver of mammals, chicken yolk.

Xerophile- An organism adapted to life in dry habitats, in conditions of moisture deficiency.

Xerophyte- A plant of arid habitats, common in steppes, semi-deserts, and deserts.

Lability- Instability, variability, functional mobility; high adaptability or, conversely, instability of the body to environmental conditions.

Latent- Hidden, invisible.

Leukoplasts- Colorless plastids.

Lysis- Destruction of cells through their complete or partial dissolution, both under normal conditions and during the penetration of pathogenic organisms.

Lichenology- Branch of botany that studies lichens.

Locus- The region of the chromosome in which the gene is localized.

Lordosis- Curvature of the spine, convexity facing forward.

Macroevolution- Evolutionary transformations that occur at the supraspecific level and determine the formation of increasingly larger taxa (from genera to types and kingdoms of nature).

Mediator- A substance whose molecules are capable of reacting with specific receptors of the cell membrane and changing its permeability to certain ions, causing the occurrence of an action potential - an active electrical signal.

Mesoderm- Middle germ layer.

Metabolism- Metabolism and energy.

Metamorphosis- The process of transformation of a larva into an adult animal.

Mycology- Scientific branch that studies mushrooms.

Mycorrhiza- Mushroom root; symbiotic habitation of fungi on (or in) the roots of higher plants.

Microbiology- Biological discipline that studies microorganisms - their systematics, morphology, physiology, biochemistry, etc.

Microevolution- Evolutionary transformations within a species at the population level, leading to speciation.

Mimicry- Imitation of non-poisonous, edible and unprotected species by poisonous and well-protected animals from attack by predators.

Modeling- Research and demonstration method various structures, physiological and other functions, evolutionary, ecological processes through their simplified imitation.

Modification- Non-hereditary change in the characteristics of an organism that occurs under the influence of environmental conditions.

Monitoring- Tracking any objects or phenomena, including those of a biological nature; a multi-purpose information system, the main tasks of which are observation, assessment and forecast of the state of the natural environment under the influence of anthropogenic influence in order to warn about emerging critical situations that are harmful or dangerous to human health, the well-being of other living beings, their communities, natural and man-made objects, etc. d.

Monogamy- Monogamy, the mating of a male with one female for one or more seasons.

Monohybrid cross- Crossing individuals based on one pair of traits.

Monospermia- Penetration of only one sperm into the egg.

Morganida- A unit of distance between two genes in the same linkage group, characterized by the crossover frequency in %.

Morula - Early stage development of the embryo, which is an accumulation of a large number of blastomere cells without a separate cavity; In most animals, the morula stage is followed by the blastula stage.

Morphology- A complex of scientific branches and their sections that studies the form and structure of animals and plants.

Mutagenesis- The process of mutation occurrence.

Mutation- Abrupt changes in genes under the influence of physical, chemical and biological factors.

Mutualism- A form of symbiosis in which one partner cannot exist without the other.

Heredity- The property of organisms to repeat similar characteristics and properties over a series of generations.

Freeloading- One of the forms of beneficial-neutral relationships between organisms, when one organism receives nutrients from another without harming him.

Neyrula- Stage of development of the embryo of chordates, at which the formation of the neural tube plate (from the ectoderm) and axial organs occurs.

Neutralism- Lack of mutual influence of organisms.

Noosphere- Part of the biosphere in which human activity manifests itself, both positive and negative, the sphere of “mind”.

Nucleoprotein- Complex of proteins with nucleic acids.

Obligate- Required.

Metabolism- Consistent consumption, transformation, use, accumulation and loss of substances and energy in living organisms during life, allowing them to self-preserve, grow, develop and self-reproduce in environmental conditions, as well as adapt to it.

Ovulation- Release of eggs from the ovary into the body cavity.

Ontogenesis - Individual development body.

Fertilization- Fusion of germ cells.

Organogenesis- The process of formation and development of organs during ontogenesis.

Ornithology- Branch of zoology that studies birds.

Paleontology- A scientific discipline that studies fossil organisms, their living conditions and burial conditions.

Natural monument- A separate rare or remarkable object of animate or inanimate nature, worthy of protection due to scientific, cultural, educational and historical memorial significance.

Parallelism- Independent acquisition by organisms during evolution of similar structural features based on features (genome) inherited from common ancestors.

Parthenogenesis- Development of an embryo from an unfertilized egg, virgin reproduction.

Pedosphere- The shell of the Earth formed by the soil cover.

Pinocytosis- Absorption of substances in dissolved form.

Pleiotropy- Dependence of several traits on one gene.

Poikilotherm- An organism unable to maintain internal temperature body, and therefore changing it depending on the temperature of the environment, for example, fish, amphibians.

Polygamy- Polygamy; mating of a male with many females during the breeding season.

Polymerism- Dependence of the development of one and the same trait or property of an organism on several genes independent in action.

Polyploidy- Multiple increase in the number of chromosomes.

Breed- A set of domestic animals of the same species, artificially created by man and characterized by certain hereditary characteristics, productivity and appearance.

Protistology- The branch of biology that studies protozoa.

Processing- Chemical modification of substances (fermins and hormones) that are synthesized in the EPS channels in an inactive form.

Radiobiology- A branch of biology that studies the effects of all types of radiation on organisms and ways to protect them from radiation.

Regeneration- Restoration by the body of lost or damaged organs and tissues, as well as restoration of the whole organism from its parts.

Decomposer- An organism that converts organic substances into inorganic ones in the course of its life.

Rheotaxis- The movement of some lower plants, protozoa and individual cells towards the flow of liquid or the position of the body parallel to it.

Rheotropism- The property of the roots of multicellular plants, when they grow in a flow of water, to bend in the direction of this current or towards it.

Retrovirus- A virus whose genetic material is RNA. When a retrovirus enters a host cell, the process of reverse transcription occurs. As a result of this process, DNA is synthesized from viral RNA, which is then integrated into the host DNA.

Reflex- The body's response to external irritation through the nervous system.

Receptor- Sensitive nerve cell that perceives external stimuli.

Recipient- An organism that receives a blood transfusion or organ transplant.

Rudiments- Underdeveloped organs, tissues and characteristics that were present in a developed form among the evolutionary ancestors of a species, but lost their significance in the process phylogeny.

Selection- Breeding new and improving existing varieties of plants, animal breeds, strains of microorganisms through artificial mutagenesis and selection, hybridization, genetic and cellular engineering.

Symbiosis- Type of relationship between organisms of different systematic groups: coexistence, mutually beneficial, often obligatory, cohabitation of individuals of two or more species.

Synapse- The place where nerve cells come into contact with each other.

Synecology- A branch of ecology that studies biological communities and their relationships with their environment.

Taxonomy- A section of biology devoted to the description, designation and classification into groups of all existing and extinct organisms, establishing related relationships between individual species and groups of species.

Scoliosis- Curves of the spine, facing to the right or left.

Variety- A set of cultivated plants of the same species, artificially created by man and characterized by certain hereditary characteristics, productivity and structural characteristics.

Spermatogenesis- Formation of male reproductive cells.

Splicing- The process of editing mRNA, in which some labeled sections of mRNA are cut out, and the remaining ones are read into one strand; occurs in the nucleoli during transcription.

Succulent- A plant with succulent fleshy leaves or stems, easily tolerated high temperatures, but does not withstand dehydration.

succession- Consistent change of biocenoses (ecosystems), expressed in changes species composition and community structures.

Serum- The liquid part of the blood without formed elements and fibrin, formed during the process of their separation during blood clotting outside the body.

Taxis- Directed movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of a unilaterally acting stimulus.

Teratogen- Biological effects, chemicals and physical factors that cause the development of deformities in organisms during the process of ontogenesis.

Thermoregulation- A set of physiological and biochemical processes that ensure the constancy of body temperature in warm-blooded animals and humans.

Thermotaxis- Directed movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of temperature.

Thermotropism- Directed growth movement of plant organs caused by the unilateral action of heat.

Textile- A collection of cells and intercellular substance that performs a specific role in the body.

Tolerance- The ability of organisms to tolerate deviations environmental factors from optimal.

Transcription- Biosynthesis of mRNA on a DNA matrix is ​​carried out in the cell nucleus.

Translocation- Chromosomal mutation, which results in the exchange of sections of non-homologous chromosomes or the transfer of a section of a chromosome to the other end of the same chromosome.

Broadcast- Synthesis of the polypeptide chain of protein is carried out in the cytoplasm on ribosomes.

Transpiration- Evaporation of water by the plant.

Tropism- Directed growth movement of plant organs caused by the unilateral action of some stimulus.

Turgor- Elasticity of plant cells, tissues and organs due to the pressure of the cell contents on their elastic walls.

Phagocyte- A cell of multicellular animals (humans), capable of capturing and digesting foreign bodies, in particular microbes.

Phagocytosis- Active capture and absorption of living cells and non-living particles by unicellular organisms or special cells of multicellular organisms - phagocytes. The phenomenon was discovered by I. I. Mechnikov.

Phenology- A body of knowledge about seasonal natural phenomena, the timing of their occurrence and the reasons that determine these timings.

Phenotype- The totality of all internal and external signs and properties of an individual.

Enzyme- Biological catalyst, according to chemical nature- a protein that is necessarily present in all cells of a living organism.

Physiology- Biological discipline that studies the functions of a living organism, the processes occurring in it, metabolism, adaptation to the environment, etc.

Phylogenesis- Historical development of the species.

Photoperiodism- Reactions of organisms to the change of day and night, manifested in fluctuations in the intensity of physiological processes.

Phototaxis- Directed movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of light.

Phototropism- Directed growth movement of plant organs caused by the unilateral action of light.

Chemosynthesis- The process of formation by some microorganisms of organic substances from inorganic ones due to the energy of chemical bonds.

Chemotaxis- Directed movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of chemicals.

Predation- Feeding on animals that were alive up to the moment of their transformation into a food object (with their capture and killing).

Chromatid- One of two nucleoprotein strands formed during the doubling of chromosomes during cell division.

Chromatin- A nucleoprotein that forms the basis of a chromosome.

Cellulose- A carbohydrate from the group of polysaccharides, consisting of residues of glucose molecules.

Centromere- A section of a chromosome that holds its two strands (chromatids) together.

Cyst- A form of existence of unicellular and some multicellular organisms, temporarily covered with a dense shell, which allows these organisms to survive unfavorable environmental conditions.

Cytology- Cell science.

Schizogony- Asexual reproduction by dividing the body into a large number of daughter individuals; characteristic of sporozoans.

Strain- A pure single-species culture of microorganisms, isolated from a specific source and possessing specific physiological and biochemical characteristics.

Exocytosis- The release of substances from the cell by surrounding them with outgrowths of the plasma membrane with the formation of membrane-surrounded vesicles.

Ecology- A field of knowledge that studies the relationships of organisms and their communities with the environment.

Ectoderm- Outer germ layer.

Embryology- A scientific discipline that studies the embryonic development of an organism.

Endocytosis- Absorption of substances by surrounding them with outgrowths of the plasma membrane with the formation of membrane-surrounded vesicles.

Endoderm- Inner germ layer.

Ethology- The science of animal behavior in natural conditions.

1.3. Lungs.

The lungs are located in the chest cavity. They consist of lobes - there are three lobes in the right lung, two in the left. The basis of the lungs is formed by bronchi and bronchioles, which pass into the alveolar ducts with alveoli. The diameter of the air tubes gradually decreases. The ends of the smallest bronchial tubes end in clusters of thin-walled pulmonary vesicles filled with air. (Figure 4)

Fig 4. Pulmonary vesicles. (Scheme).

Their walls are formed by a single layer of epithelial cells and are densely intertwined with a network of capillaries. The epithelial cells of the vesicles secrete biologically active substances, which line their inner surface in the form of a thin film. This film maintains a constant volume of bubbles and prevents them from closing. In addition, the substances in the film neutralize microorganisms that enter the lungs with air. The “waste” film is excreted through the airways in the form of sputum or “digested” by pulmonary phagocytes.

With pneumonia, tuberculosis and other pulmonary infectious diseases, the film can be damaged, the pulmonary vesicles stick together and cannot participate in gas exchange. In smokers, the bubbles lose their elasticity and ability to be cleaned, the film hardens from the poisons of cigarettes. Fresh air, intense breathing during physical work and sports help renew the film lining the lung vesicles. The pulmonary vesicles form a spongy mass that forms the lungs. The lungs fill the entire chest cavity, except for the space occupied by the heart, blood vessels, airways and esophagus. Each lung contains 300 - 350 million pulmonary vesicles, their total surface exceeds 100 m2, which is approximately 75 times the surface of the body.

On the outside, each lung is covered with a smooth, shiny membrane made of connective tissue- pulmonary pleura. The inner wall of the chest cavity is lined with parietal pleura. The sealed pleural cavity located between them is moistened and does not contain air at all. Therefore, the lungs are closely pressed to the wall of the chest cavity and their volume always changes with changes in the volume of the chest cavity.

II. Gas exchange in the lungs and tissues.

2.1. Breathing movements.

Inhalation and exhalation rhythmically replace each other, ensuring the passage of air through the lungs and their ventilation. (Figure 5) The change between inhalation and exhalation is regulated by the respiratory center located in the medulla oblongata. In the respiratory center, impulses arise rhythmically, which are transmitted through the nerves to the intercostal muscles and the diaphragm, causing them to contract. The ribs rise, the diaphragm due to its contraction

Fig 5. Inhale and exhale.

the muscles become almost flat. The volume of the chest cavity increases. The lungs follow the movements of the chest. Inhalation occurs. Then the intercostal muscles and the muscles of the diaphragm relax, the volume of the chest cavity decreases, the lungs are compressed and air is expelled. Exhalation occurs.

At relative rest, an adult makes approximately 16 respiratory movements per minute. In a poorly ventilated room, the frequency of respiratory movements increases by 2 or more times. This happens because the nerve cells of the respiratory center are sensitive to carbon dioxide contained in the blood. As soon as its amount in the blood increases, excitation in the respiratory center increases and nerve impulses spread along the nerves to the respiratory muscles. As a result, the frequency and depth of breathing movements increase. Thus, respiratory movements are regulated by the nervous and humoral pathways.

A growing body needs more oxygen; in addition, working tissue absorbs oxygen. During sleep, a person absorbs 15-20 liters of oxygen in 1 hour; when he is awake but lying down, oxygen consumption increases by 1/3, and when walking - twice, during light work - three times, during heavy work - six times or more.

2.2. Vital capacity of the lungs.

Gas exchange activity affects lung capacity. For an athlete, it is usually 1 - 1.5 liters more than normal. And for swimmers it reaches 6.2 liters. The largest volume of air that a person can exhale after the deepest inhalation is about 3500 cm 3. This volume is called the vital capacity of the lungs.

Different people have different vital capacity. It is determined during medical examinations using a special device - a spirometer.

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From the first days of life, a person is inextricably linked with biology. Acquaintance with this science begins with school desk, but we have to deal with biological processes or phenomena every day. Later in the article we will look at what biology is. The definition of this term will help to better understand what is included in the range of interests of this science.

What does biology study?

The first thing considered when studying any science is the theoretical explanation of its meaning. So, there are several formulated definitions of what biology is. We'll look at a few of them. For example:

• Biology is the science of all living organisms living on Earth, their interactions with each other and with the environment. This explanation is most common in school educational literature.
• Biology is a set of teachings that deals with the consideration and knowledge of living objects of nature. Humans, animals, plants, microorganisms are all representatives of living organisms.
• And the shortest definition is: biology is the science of life.

The origin of the term has ancient Greek roots. If translated literally, then we will have another definition of what biology is. The word consists of two parts: “bio” - “life”, and “logos” - “teaching”. That is, everything that is related to life in one way or another falls within the scope of the study of biology.

Subsections of biology

The definition of biology will become more complete when listing the sections included in this science:

1. Zoology. She studies the animal world, classifies animals, their internal and external morphology, life activity, relationship with the world, and influence on human life. In addition, zoology examines rare and extinct species of animals.
2. Botany. This is a branch of biology related to the plant world. She studies plant species, their structure and physiological processes. In addition to the basic issues related to plant morphology, this category of biology studies the use of plants in industry and human life.
3. Anatomy examines the internal and external structure of the human and animal body, organ systems, and the interaction of systems.

Each biological section has a number of its own subcategories, each of which deals with the study of narrower topics of the section. In this case, there will be several definitions of biology.

What does biology study?

Since the definitions of biology state that it is the science of living things, therefore, the objects of its study are living organisms. These include:

• Human;
• plants;
• animals;
• microorganisms.

Biology deals with the study of more precise structures of the body. These include:

1. Cellular, molecular - this is the consideration of organisms at the level of cells and smaller components.
2. Tissue - a complex of cells of one direction develops into tissue structures.
3. Organ - cells and tissues that perform one function form organs.
4. Organismal - a system of cells, tissues and organs and their interaction with each other, forms a full-fledged living organism.
5. Population - the structure is aimed at studying the life of individuals of one species in a single territory, as well as their interaction within the system and with other species.
6. Biosphere.

Biology is closely related to medicine, so its teachings are also medical topics. The study of microorganisms, as well as the molecular structures of living substances, helps to obtain new medications to combat various diseases.

What sciences does biology overlap with?

Biology is a science that has close interaction with various sciences in other areas. These include:

1. Chemistry. Biology and chemistry have a close intertwining of topics and are inextricably linked with each other. After all, various biochemical processes continuously occur in biological objects. A simple example is the respiration of organisms, photosynthesis of plants, and metabolism.
2. Physics. Even in biology there is a subsection called biophysics, which studies the physical processes associated with the life of organisms.

As you can see, biology is a multifaceted science. The definition of what biology is can be paraphrased in different ways, but the meaning remains the same - it is the study of living organisms.

The lungs are a paired respiratory organ. They are located in the pleural cavities and carry out gas exchange between the air surrounding the body and the blood.

The right and left lungs are located in the chest. Each lung is surrounded by a membrane - the pleura - from neighboring anatomical structures. Between the pleura surrounding the lungs and the chest there is another layer of pleura - the parietal layer, which lines the inner surface of the chest.

Between the pulmonary pleura and the parietal pleura there is a slit-like closed space - the pleural cavity. In the pleural cavity there is a small amount of liquid that moistens the adjacent smooth layers of the parietal and pulmonary pleura, eliminating friction between them. When breathing, the volume of the lungs increases or decreases. In this case, the pulmonary pleura (VISCERAL) slides freely along the inner surface of the parietal pleura. In places where the parietal pleura transitions from the costal surface to the diaphragm and mediastinum, depressions are formed - pleural sinuses.

The lungs, located in the pleural sacs, are separated by the MEDIA, which includes the heart, aorta, inferior vena cava, esophagus and other organs. The organs of the mediastinum are also covered by pleura, which is called the mediastinal pleura. In the upper part of the chest, on the right and left sides, the parietal pleura connects with the mediastinal pleura and forms the DOME OF THE PLEURA (right and left). Below, the lungs lie on the diaphragm. The right lung is shorter and wider than the left lung because the right dome of the diaphragm is higher than the left dome of the diaphragm. The left lung is narrower and longer than the right lung, because part of the left half of the chest is occupied by the heart. In front, from the sides, from behind and above, the lungs are in contact with the chest.

The shape of the lung resembles a truncated cone. The average height of the right lung is 27.1 cm in men and 21.6 cm in women. The average height of the left lung is 29.8 cm in men and 23 cm in women. The average width of the base of the right lung in men is 13.5 cm in men and 12.2 cm in women. The average width of the base of the left lung in men is 12.9 cm and in women - 10.8 cm. The average length of the right lung in living people, measured on x-rays, is 24.46 +-2.39 cm, the weight of one lung is 374.+-14 g.

In each lung there is an apex, a base and three surfaces - costal, medial (facing the mediastinum) and diaphragmatic. The surfaces of the lung are separated by edges. The anterior margin separates the costal surface from the medial surface. The lower edge separates the costal and medial surfaces from the diaphragmatic surface.

Each lung is divided into lobes that extend deeply into lung tissue cracks. The lobes are also lined with visceral pleura. The right lung has three lobes - upper, middle and lower, while the left lung has only two lobes - upper and lower. On the medial surface of each lung, approximately in the center, there is a funnel-shaped depression - the PORTAL OF THE LUNG. The root of the lung enters the gate of each lung.

The root of the lung consists of the main bronchus, pulmonary artery, pulmonary veins (two), lymphatic vessels, nerve plexuses, bronchial arteries and veins. The hilum of the lung also contains lymph nodes. The location of vascular formations in the root (hilum) of the lung is usually such that the upper part of the hilum is occupied by the main bronchus, nerve plexuses, pulmonary artery, lymph nodes, and the lower part of the hilum is occupied by the pulmonary veins. At the gate of the right lung at the top lies the main bronchus, below it is the pulmonary artery and below it are two pulmonary veins. At the hilum of the left lung at the top there is the pulmonary artery, below it is the main bronchus and even lower are two pulmonary veins. At the hilum of the lungs, the main bronchi divide into lobar bronchi.

The lobes of the lungs are divided into bronchopulmonary SEGMENTS - pulmonary areas, more or less separated from the same neighboring areas by layers of connective tissue. The right lung has three segments in the upper lobe, two segments in the middle lobe, and five segments in the lower lobe. The left lung has five segments in the upper lobe and five segments in the lower lobe. The segmental structure of the lungs is associated with the order of branching of the bronchi in the lungs: at the hilum of the lungs, the main bronchi are divided into lobar bronchi; The lobar bronchi, in turn, enter the gates of the lung lobes and are divided into segmental bronchi - according to the number of pulmonary segments.

Segmental bronchi enter the bronchopulmonary segment and are divided into branches, numbering 9 - 10 orders of branching. The bronchopulmonary segment itself consists of pulmonary lobules. The segmental bronchus and segmental artery pass through the center of the segment. Along the border of adjacent segments, in the connective tissue septum, a segmental vein runs, draining blood from the segments. The segment with its base faces the surface of the lung, and its apex faces the root.

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While a person is alive, he breathes. What is breathing? These are processes that continuously supply all organs and tissues with oxygen and remove it from the body. carbon dioxide, formed as a result of the operation of the exchange system. Performs these vital processes which directly interact with the cardiovascular system. To understand how gas exchange occurs in the human body, you should study the structure and functions of the lungs.

Why does a person breathe?

The only way to obtain oxygen is through breathing. It is not possible to hold it for a long time, since the body requires another portion. Why do we need oxygen at all? Without it, metabolism will not occur, the brain and all other human organs will not work. With the participation of oxygen, nutrients are broken down, energy is released, and each cell is enriched with them. Breathing is commonly called gas exchange. And rightly so. After all, the peculiarities of the respiratory system are to take in oxygen from the air that enters the body and remove carbon dioxide.

What are human lungs

Their anatomy is quite complex and variable. This organ is paired. Its location is the chest cavity. The lungs are adjacent to the heart on both sides - right and left. Nature has made sure that both of these important organs are protected from compression, shock, etc. In front, the barrier to damage is the spinal column at the back, and the ribs at the sides.

The lungs are literally riddled with hundreds of branches of bronchi, with alveoli the size of a pinhead located at their ends. There are up to 300 million of them in the body of a healthy person. The alveoli play an important role: they supply blood vessels with oxygen and, having a branched system, are able to provide a large area for gas exchange. Just imagine: they can cover the entire surface of a tennis court!

In appearance, the lungs resemble semi-cones, the bases of which are adjacent to the diaphragm, and the tops with rounded ends protrude 2-3 cm above the collarbone. The human lungs are a rather unique organ. The anatomy of the right and left lobes is different. So, the first one is slightly larger in volume than the second one, while it is somewhat shorter and wider. Each half of the organ is covered with pleura, consisting of two layers: one is fused with the chest, the other with the surface of the lung. The outer pleura contains glandular cells that produce fluid into the pleural cavity.

The inner surface of each lung has a depression called the hilum. They include the bronchi, the base of which looks like a branching tree, and the pulmonary artery, and a pair of pulmonary veins emerge.

Human lungs. Their functions

Of course, there are no secondary organs in the human body. The lungs are also important in ensuring human life. What kind of work do they do?

• The main functions of the lungs are to carry out the respiratory process. A person lives while he breathes. If the supply of oxygen to the body is cut off, death will occur.
• The job of the human lungs is to remove carbon dioxide, thereby maintaining the acid-base balance in the body. Through these organs, a person gets rid of volatile substances: alcohol, ammonia, acetone, chloroform, ether.

• The functions of the human lungs do not end there. The paired organ is still involved in which comes into contact with air. As a result, an interesting thing happens chemical reaction. Oxygen molecules in the air and carbon dioxide molecules in dirty blood change places, i.e. oxygen replaces carbon dioxide.
• The various functions of the lungs allow them to participate in the water exchange occurring in the body. Up to 20% of the liquid is removed through them.
• The lungs are active participants in the process of thermoregulation. They release 10% of their heat into the atmosphere when they exhale.
• Regulation is not complete without the participation of the lungs in this process.

How do the lungs work?

The functions of the human lungs are to transport the oxygen contained in the air into the blood, use it, and remove carbon dioxide from the body. The lungs are fairly large soft organs with spongy tissue. The inhaled air enters the air sacs. They are separated from each other by thin walls with capillaries.

There are only small cells between the blood and the air. Therefore, thin walls do not create obstacles for inhaled gases, which facilitates good passage through them. IN in this case The functions of the human lungs are to use necessary and remove unnecessary gases. Lung tissue is very elastic. When you inhale, the chest expands and the lungs increase in volume.

The windpipe, represented by the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, looks like a tube 10-15 cm long, divided into two parts called bronchi. Air passing through them enters the air sacs. And when you exhale, the volume of the lungs decreases, the chest decreases in size, and the pulmonary valve partially closes, which allows air to escape again. This is how human lungs work.

Their structure and functions are such that the capacity of this organ is measured by the amount of inhaled and exhaled air. So, for men it is equal to seven pints, for women - five. The lungs are never empty. The air remaining after exhalation is called residual air. When you inhale, it mixes with fresh air. Therefore, breathing is a conscious and at the same time unconscious process that occurs constantly. A person breathes when he sleeps, but he does not think about it. In this case, if you wish, you can interrupt your breathing for a short time. For example, while underwater.

Interesting facts about lung function

They are capable of pumping 10 thousand liters of inhaled air per day. But it is not always crystal clear. Along with oxygen, dust, many microbes and foreign particles enter our body. Therefore, the lungs perform the function of protection against all unwanted impurities in the air.

The walls of the bronchi have many tiny villi. They are needed to trap germs and dust. And the mucus, which is produced by the cells of the walls of the respiratory tract, lubricates these villi, and is then expelled when coughing.

It consists of organs and tissues that fully provide ventilation and respiration. The functions of the respiratory system lie in the implementation of gas exchange - the main link in metabolism. The latter is responsible only for pulmonary (external) respiration. It includes:

1. consisting of the nose and its cavity, larynx, trachea, bronchi.

The nose and its cavity heat, humidify and filter the inhaled air. Its cleansing is achieved through numerous hard hairs and goblet cells with cilia.

The larynx is located between the root of the tongue and the trachea. Its cavity is divided by the mucous membrane in the form of two folds. They are not completely fused in the middle. The gap between them is called the glottis.

The trachea originates from the larynx. In the chest it is divided into bronchi: right and left.

2. Lungs with densely branched vessels, bronchioles and alveolar sacs. They begin the gradual division of the main bronchi into small tubes called bronchioles. They make up the smallest structural elements of the lung - lobules.

The pulmonary artery carries blood from the right ventricle of the heart. It is divided into left and right. The branching of the arteries follows the bronchi, entwining the alveoli and forming small capillaries.

3. The musculoskeletal system, thanks to which a person is not limited in breathing movements.

These are the ribs, muscles, diaphragm. They monitor the integrity of the airways and maintain them during various postures and body movements. Muscles, contracting and relaxing, contribute to changes. The diaphragm is designed to separate the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity. It is the main muscle involved in normal inhalation.

A man breathes through his nose. Next, the air passes through the airways and enters the human lungs, the structure and functions of which ensure the further functioning of the respiratory system. This is a purely physiological factor. This type of breathing is called nasal breathing. In the cavity of this organ, heating, humidification and purification of the air occurs. If the nasal mucosa is irritated, the person sneezes and protective mucus begins to be released. Nasal breathing may be difficult. Then the air enters the throat through the mouth. Such breathing is said to be oral and, in fact, pathological. In this case, the functions of the nasal cavity are disrupted, which causes various respiratory diseases.

From the pharynx, air is directed to the larynx, which performs other functions besides conducting oxygen further into the respiratory tract, in particular, reflexogenic. If this organ is irritated, a cough or spasm appears. In addition, the larynx is involved in sound production. This is important for any person, since his communication with other people occurs through speech. They continue to heat and humidify the air, but this is not their main function. By performing certain work, they regulate the volume of inhaled air.

Respiratory system. Functions

The air around us contains oxygen, which can penetrate into our body through the skin. But its quantity is not enough to support life. This is why the respiratory system exists. The circulatory system transports necessary substances and gases. The structure of the respiratory system is such that it is able to supply the body with oxygen and remove carbon dioxide from it. It performs the following functions:

• Regulates, conducts, humidifies and degreases the air, removes dust particles.
• Protects the respiratory tract from food particles.
• Carries air into the trachea from the larynx.
• Improves gas exchange between the lungs and blood.
• Transports venous blood to the lungs.
• Saturates blood with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide.
• Performs a protective function.
• Detains and resolves blood clots, particles of foreign origin, emboli.
• Performs the metabolism of necessary substances.

An interesting fact is that with age, the functionality of the respiratory system becomes limited. The level of ventilation of the lungs and the work of breathing decreases. The causes of such disorders can be various changes in the bones and muscles of a person. As a result, the shape of the chest changes and its mobility decreases. This leads to a decrease in the capabilities of the respiratory system.

Breathing phases

When you inhale, oxygen from the alveoli of the lungs enters the blood, namely the red blood cells. From here, on the contrary, carbon dioxide passes into the air, which contained oxygen. From the moment air enters until air leaves the lungs, its pressure in the organ increases, which stimulates the diffusion of gases.

When you exhale, a pressure greater than atmospheric pressure is created in the alveoli of the lungs. The diffusion of gases: carbon dioxide and oxygen begins to take place more actively.

Every time after exhalation a pause is created. This happens because there is no diffusion of gases, since the pressure of the air remaining in the lungs is insignificant, much lower than atmospheric pressure.

As long as I breathe, I live. Breathing process

• The baby in the womb receives oxygen through her blood, so the baby's lungs do not take part in the process; they are filled with fluid. When a baby is born and takes its first breath, the lungs begin to work. The structure and functions are such that they are able to provide the human body with oxygen and remove carbon dioxide.
• Signals about the amount of oxygen required in a specific period of time are given by the respiratory center, which is located in the brain. Thus, during sleep, much less oxygen is required than during working hours.
• The volume of air entering the lungs is regulated by messages sent by the brain.

• When this signal arrives, the diaphragm expands, which leads to stretching of the chest. This maximizes the volume that the lungs occupy when they expand during inhalation.
• During exhalation, the diaphragm and intercostal muscles relax, and the volume of the chest decreases. This causes air to be pushed out of the lungs.

Types of breathing

• Clavicular. When a person hunches, his shoulders are raised and his stomach is compressed. This indicates insufficient oxygen supply to the body.
• Chest breathing. It is characterized by expansion of the chest due to the intercostal muscles. Such functions help saturate the body with oxygen. This method, purely physiologically, is more suitable for pregnant women.
• Deep breathing fills the lower organs with air. Most often, athletes and men breathe this way. This method is convenient during physical activity.

It is not without reason that they say that breathing is a mirror of mental health. Thus, the psychiatrist Lowen noticed an amazing relationship between the nature and type of a person’s emotional disorder. In people prone to schizophrenia, breathing involves the upper chest. And a person with a neurotic type of character breathes more with his stomach. Typically, people use mixed breathing, which involves both the chest and the diaphragm.

Lungs of people who smoke

Smoking causes severe damage to the organs. Tobacco smoke contains tar, nicotine and hydrogen cyanide. These harmful substances have the ability to settle on the lung tissue, resulting in the death of the organ epithelium. The lungs of a healthy person are not subject to such processes.

People who smoke have dirty gray or black lungs due to the accumulation of a huge number of dead cells. But these are not all negative aspects. Lung functions are significantly reduced. Negative processes begin, leading to inflammation. As a result, a person suffers from chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases, which contribute to the development of respiratory failure. It, in turn, causes numerous disorders that occur due to a lack of oxygen in the body tissues.

Social advertising constantly shows clips and pictures with the difference between the lungs of a healthy person and a smoker. And many people who have never picked up a cigarette breathe a sigh of relief. But you shouldn’t get your hopes up too much, thinking that the terrible sight that is the lungs of a smoker has nothing to do with you. The interesting thing is that at first glance there is no particular external difference. Neither an x-ray nor conventional fluorography will show whether the person being examined smokes or not. Moreover, not a single pathologist can determine with absolute certainty whether a person had an addiction to smoking during life until he detects typical signs: the condition of the bronchi, yellowing of the fingers, and so on. Why? It turns out that harmful substances floating in the polluted air of cities, entering our body, just like tobacco smoke, enter the lungs...

The structure and functions of this organ are designed to protect the body. It is known that toxins destroy lung tissue, which subsequently, due to the accumulation of dead cells, acquires a dark color.

Interesting things about breathing and the respiratory system

• The lungs are the size of a human palm.
• The volume of the paired organ is 5 liters. But it is not fully used. To ensure normal breathing, 0.5 liters is enough. The volume of residual air is one and a half liters. If you count, then exactly three liters of air volume are always in reserve.
• The older a person is, the less frequent his breathing. In one minute, a newborn inhales and exhales thirty-five times, a teenager twenty, an adult fifteen times.
• In one hour a person takes a thousand breaths, in a day - twenty-six thousand, in a year - nine million. Moreover, men and women do not breathe the same way. In one year, the former take 670 million inhalations and exhalations, and the latter - 746.
• In one minute, it is vital for a person to receive eight and a half liters of air volume.

Based on all of the above, we conclude: you need to take care of your lungs. If you have any doubts about the health of your respiratory system, consult your doctor.