Social development of the Novgorod principality. Geographical position of the Novgorod land. Significance for Rus'
During the Middle Ages, there were 15 principalities on the territory of Rus', but their number increased to 50 as a result of feudal fragmentation. However, 3 of them, the largest, played a special role. These were Galicia-Volynsk, Vladimir-Suzdal and Novgorod. It is possible to learn something more or less reliably about the latter only from the ninth century. The date of the official founding of Novgorod is considered to be 859, but historians note that the city itself appeared much earlier, just to establish exact time does not seem possible.
The fact is that all the buildings at that time were completely wooden. Consequently, they easily burned and rotted, little was left of them. And the activities of people who lived on the same land in later centuries almost completely buried the hopes of archaeologists to reliably establish something about those times. In addition, many written references to the principality of Novgorod disappeared due to the Tatar-Mongol invasion. A huge number of documents simply perished in the fire.
However, from what has been established, it becomes clear that the Novgorod principality got acquainted with statehood quite early. And local historians even suggest that Rurik was here. But no confirmation has yet been found, only speculation.
The earliest records concern the sons of Svyatoslav, Oleg and Yaropolk. A struggle for power broke out between them. As a result of fierce battles, Yaropolk defeated his brother, became the Grand Duke, capturing Kyiv. He chose posadniks to govern Novgorod. Who were killed by the younger brother, Vladimir, who fled to the Varangians, from where he returned with a mercenary army, received power first in Novgorod, and then in Kyiv. And it was his son, Yaroslav the Wise, who refused to pay tribute to Kyiv. Vladimir, who was gathering a squad to deal with this problem, suddenly died. The power was seized by Svyatopolk the Accursed, who fought rather cruelly for power, not choosing methods. But in the end, Yaroslav won, largely with the support of the people, who were afraid of a more cruel prince. Now Yaroslav became the Grand Duke, and he began to send his sons to Novgorod.
Even brief retelling a relatively short time period relating to events from the 9th to the 11th centuries clearly shows that the Novgorod principality managed to get used to both the frequent change of princes and the constant struggle for power between them. It is noticeable that the majority sought to seize the throne, ultimately in Kyiv. Staying in Novgorod was often considered as an intermediate option. What affected a certain perception of princely power by the people: firstly, as temporary, and secondly, inextricably linked with the war, squads and campaigns.
At the same time, Novgorod was a fairly large city, where a kind of democracy gradually began to form with elements of the oligarchy. This became especially noticeable during the period of feudal fragmentation, when the prince was forced to sign a letter (agreement), on the basis of which he could legally be in the city. At the same time, his powers were severely limited. In particular, the prince could not declare war or make peace, independently trade, distribute land, grant privileges to someone. He did not even have the right to hunt in the wrong place or keep a squad in the city itself: the latter was due to the fear that power would be seized by force.
In fact, the figure of the prince was reduced to the role of a military leader, a commander who was obliged to defend the city and received certain privileges in connection with this. But his position remained often precarious. In order to gather people, except for his own squad, for example, for a military campaign, the prince could turn to the inhabitants at the people's assembly, which remained the highest authority. But he had no right to order.
Any free man could take part in the veche. The meeting was convened by the posadnik or the thousand, whom the veche appointed, having taken away this right over time from the prince. The assembly was also considered the highest judicial body. The posadnik was the highest official who, in the absence of the prince, received ambassadors and led the armed forces under the same conditions. Tysyatsky was his right hand and assistant. The exact duration of their powers was not specified, but everyone could lose their position, losing the trust of the people. The veche had the right to remove anyone whom it appointed from the corresponding position. In general, the breadth of powers is clearly demonstrated by the fact that in Novgorod even a bishop was elected at the people's assembly.
As for the Boyar Council, it, in fact, dealt with trade issues. He also served as an advisory body. He united all influential people, headed by the prince. He was engaged in the preparation of questions that should be taken out at the meeting.
Times of feudal fragmentation
The uniqueness of the Novgorod principality was fully manifested during the period of feudal fragmentation. Historically, such a division is usually assessed negatively, and it really had an extremely negative impact on the Slavs, making them vulnerable to Tatar-Mongol yoke. But for individual lands, this had its advantages. In particular, the geographical location of the Novgorod principality gave it some protection: it turned out to be quite far away even for nomads, as a result, less than all other lands suffered from the actions of the Mongols. The Russian princes were much better at defending the western borders. And thanks to the fragmentation, Novgorodians did not get involved in the problems of their neighbors.
Also, do not forget that the Novgorod land itself was quite large. It was comparable in size to the European states of the same period. A favorable geographical position allowed her to establish trade with the Hansa and with some other neighbors. In addition to Novgorod itself, the principality included Pskov, Yuriev, Ladoga, Torzhok and other territories, including even part of the Urals. Through Novgorod it was possible to get access to the Neva and the Baltic Sea. But not only the geographical location made the Principality so unique, but a combination of various factors, political, economic and cultural. And religious ones as well.
Life, religion and culture
With regard to such a state phenomenon as the Novgorod Principality, the description will not be complete if you do not pay attention to issues of religion, culture and life. The baptism of Novgorod took place shortly after Kyiv, from where the Byzantine priest Joachim Korsunian was sent for this purpose. But, like many Slavs, the Novgorodians did not immediately abandon pagan beliefs. It got to the point that the Christian religion, not wanting to constantly face the resistance of the flock, absorbed some traditions, combining them with Christmas (fortune telling and other rituals).
As for culture, a careful study of the chronicles shows that up to the capture of the Novgorod principality in the 15th century by Ivan III, a fairly good level of writing and education was preserved here. It also affected the fact that these lands suffered less than others from the invasion of the Tatar-Mongol yoke. Much knowledge was passed down from parents to children and has been preserved. Which, in turn, affected the way of life. So, Novgorodians were ardent supporters of wooden housing construction, cleanliness, certain rituals associated with nature. The revealed cultural layer is so powerful that it is still being studied.
During the period of state fragmentation of Rus', completely the city of Novgorod passed a special way. While the foundations of state power were being laid in the main territory of the former country, tendencies towards democracy were spreading in Novgorod. A different political culture that developed there, as well as other value orientations of the inhabitants, was very different from the collective values and traditions of the central government of Muscovite Rus'.
Novgorod, located in the northwest, was relatively protected from the attacks of the Tatar-Mongols in the thirteenth - fourteenth centuries. It is this, according to researchers, that allowed the city to form a special version of the development of Russian civilization.
Territory of the Novgorod Principality
Novgorod land in its scale (13-15 centuries) was a huge state that could compete in territory with any European kingdoms. In addition to Novgorod itself, the Novgorod principality included the Pskov lands, Ladoga, Yuryev, Torzhok and many other territories. Through Novgorod, access was provided along the Neva to the Baltic Sea and along the Northern Dvina to the White. In the south, the lands extended to Torzhok, Velikiye Luki and Volokolamsk. In the northeast, the Novgorod principality included the Urals. In these territories, cities such as Vyatka, Vologda, Pskov, and others arose. Novgorod differed from other principalities (central and southern) in that it was turned to face Europe, protecting Russian borders from the aggression of Swedish and German feudal lords.
In the thirteenth century, the city of Novgorod already had its own rich legal and political culture. At the beginning of the ninth century, Yaroslav the Wise, refusing to pay tribute to Kyiv, laid the foundation for the independence and isolation of Novgorod.
In 1136 Novgorod experienced a popular uprising., the purpose of which was the removal of the prince with the restriction of his rights, as well as the consolidation of power for the posadnik, who was to be elected at the veche. In addition, the people of Novgorod demanded the right to remove and appoint princes at their own will. By a special agreement, the prince was forbidden to distribute volosts, judge the people of Novgorod, trade with European countries (in addition to the Novgorodians themselves), distribute immunities (special privileges), and even hunt outside a certain urban area. The income of the princes was also limited. And finally, as happened before in Europe, the entire princely court was evicted from the city to the “Rurik's settlement”. This was done in order to limit the possibility of seizing city power by military means. The independence of the Novgorod principality came to an end in 1478, when it finally became part of the Muscovite state.
The respectful attitude in Rus' towards Veliky Novgorod was fully justified. In the 9th century, Novgorod was the center of Russian cities and sought to surpass the capital Kyiv. No matter how much Kyiv sent its princes to Novgorod, they could not take root. Novgorod owes its exceptional status, first of all, to its favorable geographical location - the famous trade route "from the Varangians to the Greeks" ran through it, which served as a rapid development of trade and handicraft production.
Relationships with neighbors
Novgorod formed its own aristocracy. It consisted of representatives of the boyars, the merchants, who, having lands, forests, fish storages in their possessions, and having united with the church authorities, and having great support from the common people, they created a single powerful apparatus that resisted the pressure of Kiev, and made serious competition to Rostov and Suzdal.
The Novgorod principality became so independent from Kyiv that it began to conduct independent political and economic activities with the Germans, Scandinavians and with its neighbors: the Polotsk, Smolensk, Rostov-Suzdal principalities. Even wars bypassed him, the city managed to avoid the raids of the Pechenegs, who barbarously robbed and ravaged the cities.
Internal contradictions
If in foreign policy the government and the people acted as a single force, then in the internal it was not so smooth. Constant clashes of interests between the working people and the aristocracy resulted in riots and uprisings. There was no unity among the nobility, merchants and boyars were constantly fighting for wealth and the redistribution of land, every now and then they tried to put their man as head of the city. The same thing happened in the cities of the principality, such as Pskov, Ladoga. To show that Novgorod is no worse than Kyiv, the Novgorod Kremlin Palace and St. Sophia Cathedral were built on the Volkhov River, following the example of Kyiv.
The veche and the Council of Lords were the supreme power in Novgorod. Veche was represented by people from the people and had the right to resolve all issues of the Novgorod Republic. Noble and influential people united in the Council of Lords. Novgorod citizens had a great spirit of independence, and did not stand on ceremony either with the Kyiv authorities or with the local ones. So during the reign of Vsevolod (son of Mstislav the Great), who began an internecine struggle with neighboring principalities to the detriment of the local population. The boyars, the merchants and the church united and overthrew the presumptuous ruler, took him into custody, then expelled him from the city.
After these events, in 1136 Novgorod became an aristocratic republic, led by the tops of the boyars, merchants and the archbishop. The city council from time to time invited various princes to the military leadership, but as soon as they ceased to suit, they were immediately expelled. For many centuries, the Novgorod principality was one of the most powerful politically and economically due to a strong aristocracy that enjoyed the support of the people. But one should not think that the people in the Novgorod principality decided something, there was never democracy in Rus', the people only took part in the elections, this was the end of their role.
End of the Grand Duchy
In the 15th century, one of the most important cities in the principality of Pskov separated from Novgorod. In 1478, Ivan III annexed Novgorod to the Muscovite state, and Tsar the Terrible finally destroyed all Novgorodian independence.
- Surprisingly, historians to this day find the remains of various documents from birch bark, proving that at that time, writing and literacy were very developed in Novgorod, both among the nobility and among the common people. On sheets of birch bark there are records of a different nature, from love letters of ordinary townspeople to state letters of Novgorod princes.
The largest political center was the Novgorod Boyar Republic. The supreme body of the republic was the veche, where the posadnik and the bishop were elected. The basis of the economy of power was Agriculture. Russian lands in the 12th-13th centuries. were independent, had various forms of management, and the economic basis was agriculture.
From the second half of the XII century. the collapse of the Kievan state ends. Kyiv finally ceased to be a capital city. The population of the Dnieper center Old Russian state goes to the outskirts, to safer and more comfortable places to live. New centers of state life are emerging: in the west and south-west of Kiev, in the region of the Dniester and the Carpathians, in the east behind the impenetrable forests, where the old cities of Rostov and Suzdal were located, where Moscow and the center of Russia are now. The principality of Novgorod was finally isolated, retaining its political system and way of life.
Novgorod land occupied a special place in history Kievan Rus. The legend about the calling of the Varangians was to prove that the first center of the Slavic statehood, where Rurik began to rule, was Novgorod. The Novgorod militia helped Yaroslav the Wise to become prince of Kyiv. Before the beginning of the strife, Novgorod, according to custom, was owned by the prince who ruled in Kyiv. He sent his governor to Novgorod. "Mr. Veliky Novgorod" was called by the Novgorodians, distinguished by pride and independence, their principality-state, spread over vast expanses and owning untold wealth.
The city of Novgorod, the center of the principality, is located on the Volkhov River at its source at Lake Ilmen. The river divided the city into two parts. On the right bank there was the Trade side, where the main market - bargaining - was located. On the left, on the Sofia side, there is the Church of St. Sophia and the detinets (Novgorod Kremlin). The trade side was divided into two parts (ends), Sofia - into three. The five ends of the city were independent districts with their own self-government. The vast Novgorod land from Lake Ladoga and Onega to the upper reaches of the Volga was divided into five regions (pyatins). In addition, vast lands outside the principality itself, the so-called Novgorod lands - along the Northern Dvina, on the White Sea, along the Pechora and Kama rivers to Perm and the Ural Mountains were subordinate to Novgorod. Detachments of Novgorodians, the so-called ushkuiniki (from the name of the boat - ushkuy), crossed over the Stone, Ural mountains. The structure of the Novgorod principality included 14 large cities at that time. The suburbs of Novgorod were Pskov (later separated into an independent principality), Izborsk, Ladoga, Staraya Russa, Novy Torg (Torzhok).
Novgorod was surrounded by strong and aggressive neighbors: in the east - the Rostov-Suzdal principality, in the west - Lithuania and the possessions of German knightly orders in the Baltic. On the territory of the vast Novgorod principality there were innumerable riches: furs, honey, wax, timber, metal. Geographical position turned Novgorod into the largest shopping mall Ancient Rus'. Trade relations united Novgorod with the Hansa (the union of the Baltic trading cities - Riga, Lübeck, Hamburg) with other German cities. In Novgorod, the Hanseatic and Gotha (German) trading yards were located. Novgorod merchants could be found in all cities of Ancient Rus'. But the Novgorod land was infertile. Novgorodians imported bread from the Rostov-Suzdal Principality.
Political structure
The Novgorod principality is often referred to in the historical literature as a "republic". N.I. Kostomarov defined the political system of Novgorod and Pskov as "people's rule". Separation of Novgorod and the formation of its state structure contributed to several objective reasons.
First. The isolation of the Novgorod land, its remoteness from other Russian principalities. Even the Tatar-Mongols could not enter the city, because in the spring the roads to the city were impassable.
Second. The vast Novgorod region went to the north and northeast, where small peoples lived and from where Novgorod drew its enormous wealth. Trade relations with the West turned it into a kind of "window" to Europe for the whole of Rus'.
Third. Thanks to their enormous wealth, the Novgorod boyars and merchants were independent and had the opportunity to pursue their own policies.
Fourth. The collapse of the Kievan state, princely strife and confusion facilitated the isolation of Novgorod and the establishment of its political system.
Administration of Novgorod
The turning point in the establishment of the Novgorod freemen was the events of 1136, when the Novgorodians expelled Prince Vsevolod and put him in prison with his entire family. Moreover, two months later the prince was released, but it was from then, according to the chronicler, that the invitation of the princes became possible to exile. In 1140, the Novgorodians expelled Svyatoslav, the brother of the Grand Duke of Kyiv Vsevolod Olgovich. In a word, if the prince did not like or violated the contract, he was "showed the way." It happened that the princes left on their own when they were convinced that they could not cope with the Novgorodians.
And yet the princely power in Novgorod was preserved. Having expelled one prince, the population called for another. In the annals, the terms “call”, “recognize”, “plant” the prince appear. Why did the Novgorodians need a prince, what were his powers? The prince and his team were needed as a fighting force. Novgorod was always threatened by enemies, and it was necessary to fight them off. It is known that even Prince Alexander Nevsky, who won major victories over the Swedes and German knights and saved the independence of Novgorod, was also expelled. The prince ruled the court. The constant strife between the inhabitants required authoritative intervention and an objective trial, so that "he loved the good and executed the evil."
Novgorodians entered into a “row” (agreement) with the prince with the kissing of the cross, in which mutual obligations were stipulated. So, the prince and his retinue did not have the right to acquire land and servants in Novgorod possessions, to independently trade with foreign merchants. The prince was supposed to live not in the city, but in the place allotted to him - the Settlement. There were other restrictions on princely power.
The head of the Novgorod administration was posadnik. At first he was appointed by the prince, and in the middle of the XII century. this position is elective. The place of the posadnik was usually occupied by the richest and noblest boyars. The elected posadnik was supposed to protect the interests of Novgorodians. The posadnik was in charge of the local administration.
Another elective office was thousand - leader of the Novgorod militia (thousands). Commanders of hundreds and tens obeyed him (cellular And tenths). The militia participated in campaigns together with the prince's retinue.
From the second half of the XII century. began to get the head of the church -bishop(later Archbishop). The Metropolitan of Kyiv only approved the elected candidate. The ruler of Novgorod had broad powers. He kept the city treasury, samples of measures and weights in the St. Sophia Cathedral, followed the order of weighing and measuring goods. The vast state land holdings of Novgorod were also subordinate to him. The city archive was also kept in the St. Sophia Cathedral, and the chronicle was compiled under the direction of the bishop. Great was the role of the bishop in foreign policy and foreign trade. Agreements with the union of the Baltic trading cities (Hanse), signed by the Novgorod lord Dolmat (third quarter of the 13th century), have been preserved. In case of violation of agreements, foreign merchants complained to the lord.
The main governing body in Novgorod was veche - a meeting of citizens who have their own homes, heads of families. The veche met at the so-called Yaroslav's Yard, near the market square. Here stood a tower with a veche bell, a symbol of Novgorod liberty. At the ringing of the bell, people rushed to the veche square. Discussions were stormy, and decisions were made without a vote, with the general consent of the streets and ends. Sharp disagreements often arose, which ended in a fight on a large bridge across the Volkhov. In such cases, the prince could act as an intermediary. Archaeological excavations have shown that the veche area was not very large and could accommodate no more than 300-400 people. Consequently, only the most influential and noble citizens participated in the meetings. In 1471, the Novgorod Veche adopted and approved the Sudebnik (deed of judgment). The veche resolved issues of war and peace, called on the prince and concluded an agreement with him, sorted out disputes with the prince, elected the posadnik, thousandth, lord. Veche was the highest court for the most important crimes requiring the most severe punishment (the death penalty and confiscation of property). Veche was in charge foreign policy and all questions of defense (gathering troops, building fortresses, etc.). The ends and streets of the city had their own local self-government, their own councils met, which elected the "Konchan" and "street" (uniting the inhabitants of the streets) elders.
Played an important role in the administration of Novgorod council of lords It consisted of working and former posadniks and thousand, "Konchan" and "Ulichan" elders. The council of gentlemen preliminarily discussed all the questions that were brought up at the meeting. According to V.O. Klyuchevsky, it was "a hidden, but very active spring of the Novgorod administration."
The social structure of Novgorod
In Novgorod, two antagonistic groups of the population, the so-called the best people, which included boyars, merchants, live and people, And black people - urban poor, artisans, smerds And serfs. Boyars occupied the highest elective positions of posadniks and thousands, but throughout the 13th century. and the first half of the 14th century. the place of the posadnik was divided between the two largest boyar families - the descendants of Mikhalk Stepanovich (Mishinichi) and Miroshka Nezdinich. Only occasionally other candidates were chosen for this post. Mishinichi and Nezdinichi were at enmity with each other and dragged the citizens of the city into the struggle.
Novgorod boyars were engaged in trade and usury. Their vast land holdings were used for the extraction and supply of leather, honey, wax, resin, and timber to foreign markets.
Merchants were intermediaries in trade, to whom the boyars lent money.
Living (living) people are smaller landowners who were not part of the aristocracy.
Novgorod merchants were not homogeneous. Its highest layer - Ivankovskaya hundred - was grouped around the church of John the Baptist. To join this guild, a large contribution was needed - 50 hryvnias of silver. The Ivankovo merchant class had significant privileges, they themselves ruled the court on commercial matters. There were other trade associations, as well as a significant number of small and medium-sized traders.
Life and life of people
Unlike countries Western Europe, where stone prevailed in construction, Rus' was wooden. The first stone buildings appeared in Kyiv and Novgorod under Yaroslav the Wise. Fires were common. Cities and villages turned to ashes, but quickly rebuilt. The cities were surrounded by extensive forests rich in material. General name of the dwelling mansions. It consisted of warm housing - huts (firebox) And summer cages. At the entrance to the mansions were built canopy And porch on the poles. In the houses of the more affluent segments of the population were audrins(bedrooms, from the word "odr" - bed). The seats were shops (conversations). Clothes were sewn from home-made woolen and linen fabrics, and curtains were imported from Byzantium. Bast shoes were the main type of footwear; wealthier people wore boots. Shoemaker and tanner were common professions. They ate bread, meat of wild and domestic animals, including horse meat, fish, vegetables, cheeses. Kissels made from wheat, bran, and oats were very popular. Meat was cooked and baked on coals. They drank kvass, as well as wine and honey. However, the documents do not note rampant drunkenness. Princely feasts were characterized by moderation. The main occupation of the inhabitants was agriculture. Animal husbandry was of an auxiliary nature. It is known that cattle, horses and sheep were bought from the Pechenegs. Obviously, these animals were not enough. Pork and lamb were considered valuable types of meat. Horticulture was also developed. Pigeons, chickens, ducks, geese, cranes, swans are known from poultry.
In ancient Rus', the steam room dominated family, consisting of husband, wife, children. Large families were the exception. In pre-Christian times, the custom of “kidnapping” brides during pagan holidays is known, but, as the chronicler notes, “I also converse with her,” i.e. with the consent of the bride. The marriage took place in several stages. It started with marriage. The bride dressed up at the appearance of the matchmakers in the best dress. After that, there was an agreement in the bride's house. Ritual dishes were a round pie (loaves) and cheese. If the groom, after collusion, refused to marry, he "paid for the cheese" (for deceiving the bride). The wedding lasted several days and was accompanied by songs and games.
With the adoption of Christianity, a church wedding was introduced. But the majority of the population for a long time was limited to the rooted custom of a wedding-fun.
Gradually, however, the church became the main regulator family life. Church rules dictated certain restrictions on marriage unions. By age - not younger than 13-14 years;
according to the degree of kinship - marriages closer than the sixth knee of kinship (second cousins) were not allowed. Marriage was not allowed with a sharp difference in the social status of the bride and groom. The number of marriages was limited: no more than two were allowed. The third marriage was approved only in exceptional cases.
Divorce (dissolution) was allowed in a few cases: wife's infidelity, adultery (if it was proven), wife's participation in an attempt on her husband's life and theft of his property; absence of children. In most cases, the initiator of the divorce was the husband. At the initiative of the wife, a divorce was approved if the husband was drinking and wasting family property.
Many children, childbearing was considered the most important sign prosperous family. Parents were required to take care of their children. The upbringing of children, along with housekeeping, was the main concern of a woman. Chastity and respect for elders were considered signs of a good upbringing. Children who treated their parents badly were destined for severe punishment - from damnation to excommunication from the church. Parents, while punishing their children, should not have embittered them.
In ancient Rus', there was freedom to choose a spouse, coercion of parents and other persons was condemned. The woman was relatively equal. Vigilantes and boyars with their wives attended princely feasts. Women took part in table conversations.
Archaeological excavations show that Novgorod was a major center of handicraft production. Craft workshops are found both in the courtyards of large boyars and on the streets of the city. Craftsmen-laborers made up the lowest stratum of society - black people. In rural areas, they included free community members - smerds who were sitting on state lands. Polovinniki are semi-farmers who worked on the land of the owner for half the harvest. Slavery was also widespread in Novgorod Rus'.
Novgorod was characterized by acute social conflicts. The nobility sought to manage and dictate its will, the lower people defended their interests. There were cases when "thin men" at the veche began to smash and rob the estates of boyars and merchants. Social contradictions were used by the warring boyar clans. Incessant internal unrest weakened Novgorod in its struggle with external opponents and was the main reason for its annexation to Moscow.
Much more is known about the life of the population of Novgorod than about other Russian principalities. Archaeological excavations have been carried out in the city for more than 100 years. Due to the peculiarities of the soil, many buildings and other monuments have been preserved. The most remarkable was the discovery of birch bark letters - various inscriptions on birch bark. On July 26, 1951, one of the members of the expedition of Professor A. V. Artsikhovsky found the first piece of birch bark with a fragment of the inscription. Since then, more than 750 birch bark letters have been found. This is a unique and richest historical source.
Here are business letters, and personal messages, and student exercises, and records of craft technologies. About 20 letters - exercises of the Novgorod schoolboy Onfim, who lived 750 years ago. He was 6-8 years old. The syllables scratched on birch bark provide an opportunity to learn the method of teaching literacy. One of Onfim's drawings shows a man on horseback striking an enemy lying on the ground with a spear. Onfim imagined himself to be a brave warrior in the future. This is evidenced by other battle drawings of Onfim - horsemen jump, fight with sabers. One of the drawings - seven men:
Onfim and his friends. We know the name of one friend - Danila. On the letter is scrawled "from Onfim to Danila bow." The worldview of Onfim, the future citizen of Veliky Novgorod, is being formed. “Lord, help your servant Onfim”, “as God is with us, hear yes to the ambassador, as if your prayer, God is against your servant.”
From letters we can learn about the leisure of Novgorodians. Inhabitants ancient city loved to joke. A riddle has been preserved: there is a city between heaven and earth, an ambassador goes to him without a path, he himself is mute, carries an unwritten letter (Noah's Ark). Scientists put together the letters with great difficulty: ignorant writing, unthinking kaza, and who is se quoting ... (like ours: “Who wrote, I don’t know, but I, a fool, read”).
There are lyrical messages among the birch bark letters. The groom writes to his bride “from Makita to Ulaanits (Ulyana). Follow me. Yaz you want me, and you want me. And that’s what Ignat Moiseev heard.” The marriage was concluded with the consent of the bride and groom, there is also a witness (rumour) necessary for this.
Most of the messages on birch bark are business letters. The owner asks to send him a woven canvas, and if there is no one to send with, whitewash it on the spot. The mother asks her son to buy her a good cloth, and she sent him the money. The key keeper reports to the master that, on his orders, he withheld bread from the peasants, who passed to another owner without paying their debts. Many excerpts from business letters and notes of the boyar and posadnik Yuri Ontsiferovich have been preserved. The peasants complain to him about the keykeeper, who steals and robs them. Widows do not have seeds and horses, maybe the boyar will give them for processing land plot. A miller from the village of Zlostitsa asks for protection from someone.
Several letters of Sotsky Maxim are also known. Kum and his friend Yakov ask to buy oats from Andrey, and also send "good readings". Most likely, this is not a church book, otherwise he would have given the title.
Birch-bark letters testify to the wide spread of literacy among Novgorodians, who were very fond of reading.
Novgorod land
Novgorod the Great and its territory. The political system of Novgorod the Great, i.e. the oldest city in its land, was closely associated with the location of the city. It was located on both banks of the Volkhov River, not far from its source from Lake Ilmen. Novgorod was made up of several settlements or settlements, which were independent societies, and then merged into an urban community. Traces of this independent existence of the constituent parts of Novgorod were preserved later in the distribution of the city to the ends. Volkhov divides Novgorod into two halves: on the right - along the eastern bank of the river and on the left - along the western bank; the first one was called Trading, because it was the main city market, bargaining; the second was called Sofia since the end of the 10th century, after the adoption of Christianity by Novgorod, the cathedral church of St. Sofia. Both sides were connected by a large Volkhov bridge, located not far from the market. Adjacent to the market was a square called Yaroslav's yard, because Yaroslav's farmstead was once located here when he reigned in Novgorod during the life of his father. This square was dominated by degree, a platform from which Novgorod dignitaries addressed speeches to the people who gathered at the veche. Near the degree there was a veche tower, on which a veche bell hung, and below it was placed a veche office. Trade side to the south. Slavensky end got its name from the oldest Novgorod village, which became part of Novgorod, glorious. The city market and Yaroslav's yard were located at the Slavensky end. On the Sofia side, immediately after crossing the Volkhov bridge, there was detinets, a walled place where the cathedral church of St. Sofia. The Sofia side was divided into three ends: Nerevsky to North, Zagorodsky to the west and Goncharsky, or Lyudin, to the south, closer to the lake. The names of the ends of Goncharsky and Plotnitsky indicate the craft character of the ancient settlements from which the ends of Novgorod were formed.
Novgorod, with its five ends, was the political center of a vast territory that was drawn to it. This territory consisted of parts of two categories: from Pyatin And volosts, or lands; the combination of those and others constituted the region, or land, of St. Sofia. According to the Novgorod monuments, before the fall of Novgorod and Pyatina they were called lands, and in more ancient time - rows. The patches were as follows: in the northwest of Novgorod, between the Volkhov and Luga rivers, a patch extended towards the Gulf of Finland Votskaya, which got its name from the Finnish tribe that lived here Vodi or That's; on the NE to the right of Volkhov went far to the White Sea on both sides of Lake Onega Obonezhskaya; to the southeast between the rivers Mstoy and Lovat stretched five Derevskaya; to the SW between the rivers Lovatyu and Luga, on both sides of the Shelon River, was Shelonskaya pyatina; on departure behind the patches of Obonezhskaya and Derevskaya, the patch extended far to the E and SE Bezhetskaya, which got its name from the village of Bezhichi, which was once one of its administrative centers (in the present Tver province). Initially, the pyatins consisted of the most ancient and closest possessions to Novgorod. More distant and later acquired possessions were not included in the fifth division and formed a number of special volosts who had a device somewhat different from Pyatin. So, the cities of Volok-Lamsky and Torzhok with their districts did not belong to any five. Behind the five patches of Obonezhskaya and Bezhetskaya, the volost extended to the NE Zavolochye, or Dvina land. It was called Zavolochye, because it was behind the portage, behind the vast watershed separating the basins of the Onega and the Northern Dvina from the Volga basin. The course of the Vychegda River with its tributaries determined the position Perm land. Beyond the Dvina land and Perm further to the northeast were volosts Pechora along the Pechora River and on the other side of the northern Ural ridge, the volost Yugra. On the northern coast of the White Sea there was a parish Ter, or Tersky coast. These were the main volosts of Novgorod, which were not included in the fifth division. They were early acquired by Novgorod: for example, already in the 11th century. Novgorodians went to Pechora for tribute for the Dvina, and in the 13th century they collected tribute on the Tersky coast.
The attitude of Novgorod to the princes. At the beginning of our history, the Novgorod land was completely similar in structure to other regions of the Russian land. In the same way, the relations of Novgorod to the princes differed little from those in which other older cities of the regions stood. Since the first princes left it for Kiev, tribute has been imposed on Novgorod in favor of the Grand Duke of Kyiv. After the death of Yaroslav, Novgorod land was attached to the Grand Duchy of Kyiv, and the Grand Duke usually sent his son or close relative there to govern, appointing a posadnik as his assistant. Until the second quarter of the XII century. in the life of the Novgorod land, no political features are imperceptible that would distinguish it from a number of other regions of the Russian land. But since the death of Vladimir Monomakh, these features have been developing more and more successfully, which later became the basis of Novgorod liberty. The successful development of this political isolation of Novgorod land was helped partly by its geographical position, partly by its external relations. Novgorod was the political center of the region, which constituted the remote northwestern corner of what was then Rus'. Such a remote position of Novgorod placed it outside the circle of Russian lands, which were the main scene of the activity of the princes and their squads. This freed Novgorod from direct pressure from the prince and his retinue and allowed the Novgorod way of life to develop more freely, on a larger scale. On the other hand, Novgorod lay close to the main river basins of our plain, to the Volga, the Dnieper, the Western Dvina, and the Volkhov connected it by water with the Gulf of Finland and the Baltic Sea. Thanks to this proximity to the great trade routes of Rus', Novgorod was early drawn into versatile trade turnovers. Being on the outskirts of Rus', surrounded on several sides by hostile foreigners and, moreover, engaged mainly in foreign trade, Novgorod always needed the prince and his squad to defend its borders and trade routes. But it was precisely in the twelfth century, when the prince's tangled accounts dropped the authority of the princes, that Novgorod needed the prince and his retinue much less than it needed before and began to need it later. Then two dangerous enemies, the Livonian Order and united Lithuania, appeared on the Novgorod borders. In the XII century. there was neither one nor the other enemy: the Livonian Order was founded at the very beginning of the 13th century, and Lithuania began to unite from the end of this century. Under the influence of these favorable conditions, Novgorod's relations with the princes, and the structure of its administration, and its social system were formed.
After the death of Monomakh, Novgorodians managed to achieve important political benefits. Princely strife was accompanied by frequent changes of princes on the Novgorod table. These strife and shifts helped Novgorodians introduce two important principles into their political system, which became guarantors of their freedom: 1) selectivity of the highest administration, 2) row, i.e. treaty with princes. Frequent changes of princes in Novgorod were accompanied by changes in the personnel of the highest Novgorod administration. The prince ruled Novgorod with the assistance of assistants appointed by him or the Grand Duke of Kyiv, the posadnik and the thousand. When the prince left the city voluntarily or involuntarily, the posadnik appointed by him usually resigned his position, because the new prince usually appointed his posadnik. But in the intervals between the two reigns, the Novgorodians, remaining without a higher government, got used to electing a posadnik who corrected his position for a while and demanding that the new prince confirm him in office. Thus, by the very course of affairs, the custom of choosing a posadnik began in Novgorod. This custom begins immediately after the death of Monomakh, when, according to the chronicle, in 1126 the Novgorodians "gave posadnichestvo" to one of their fellow citizens. After the choice of the posadnik became a permanent right of the city, which the people of Novgorod greatly valued. The change in the very nature of this position is understandable, which occurred due to the fact that it was given not at the prince's court, but at Veche square: from the representative and guardian of the interests of the prince in front of Novgorod, the elected mayor had to turn into a representative and guardian of the interests of Novgorod in front of the prince. After that, another important position of the thousandth also became elective. The local bishop played an important role in the administration of Novgorod. Until the middle of the XII century. he was appointed and ordained by the Russian metropolitan with a cathedral of bishops in Kiev, therefore, under the influence of the Grand Duke. But from the second half of the 12th century, the Novgorodians themselves began to choose from the local clergy and their lord, gathering "with the whole city" at a veche and sending the chosen one to Kyiv to the metropolitan for ordination. The first such elective bishop was Abbot of one of the local monasteries, Arkady, who was elected by the Novgorodians in 1156. Since then, the Metropolitan of Kyiv had only the right to ordain a candidate sent from Novgorod. So, in the second and third quarter of the XII century. the highest Novgorod administration became elective. At the same time, the Novgorodians began to more accurately define their relationship to the princes. The strife of the princes gave Novgorod the opportunity to choose between rival princes and to impose certain obligations on his chosen one, which hampered his power. These obligations are set out in ranks, agreements with the prince, which determined the importance of the Novgorod prince in local government. Indistinct traces of these rows, held together by the kiss of the cross on the part of the prince, appear already in the first half of the 12th century. Later they are more clearly indicated in the chronicler's story. In 1218, the famous Mstislav Mstislavich Udaloy, Prince of Toropetsk, who ruled it, left Novgorod. His Smolensk relative Svyatoslav Mstislavich arrived in his place. This prince demanded the replacement of the elected Novgorod posadnik Tverdislav. "For what? - asked the Novgorodians. What is his fault? “So, without guilt,” the prince replied. Then Tverdislav said, turning to the veche: "I am glad that there is no guilt on me, and you, brothers, are free both in the posadniks and in the princes." Then the veche said to the prince: “Here you are depriving your husband of his position, and yet you kissed the cross for us without fault of the husband of the position, do not deprive him of his position.” So, already at the beginning of the XIII century. the princes with the kiss of the cross sealed the well-known rights of the Novgorodians. The condition not to deprive a Novgorod dignitary of his post without guilt, i.e. without trial, is in later treaties one of the main guarantees of Novgorod liberty.
The political privileges that the Novgorodians had achieved were set out in treaty letters. The first such charters that have come down to us are not earlier than the second half of the 13th century. There are three of them: they set out the conditions under which Yaroslav of Tver ruled the Novgorod land. Two of them were written in 1265 and one - in 1270. Later treaty letters repeat only the conditions set forth in these letters of Yaroslav. Studying them, we see the foundations of the political structure of Novgorod. Novgorodians obliged the princes to kiss the cross, on which their fathers and grandfathers kissed. The main general obligation that fell on the prince was that he ruled, “kept Novgorod in the old days according to duties”, i.e. according to old customs. This means that the conditions set forth in the letters of Yaroslav were not an innovation, but a testament of antiquity. The agreements determined: 1) the judicial and administrative relations of the prince to the city, 2) the financial relations of the city to the prince, 3) the relationship of the prince to Novgorod trade. The prince was the highest judicial and government authority in Novgorod. But he performed all judicial and administrative actions not alone and not at his own discretion, but in the presence and with the consent of the elected Novgorod posadnik. For lower positions, filled not by choice, but by princely appointment, the prince elected people from Novgorod society, and not from his squad. He handed out all such positions with the consent of the posadnik. The prince could not take away a position from an elected or appointed official without a trial. Moreover, he personally performed all judicial and government actions in Novgorod and could not dispose of anything, living in his inheritance: “And from the Suzdal land,” we read in the contract, “Novagorod should not be ordered, nor volosts (positions) should be handed out.” In the same way, without a posadnik, the prince could not judge, he could not issue letters to anyone. So all the judicial and government activities of the prince were controlled by the representative of Novgorod. With petty suspicion, the Novgorodians determined their financial relations with the prince, his income. The prince received gift from Novgorod land, going to Novgorod, and could not take it, going from Novgorod land. Tribute was received by the prince only from Zavolochye, a conquered region that was not included in the fifth division Novgorod region; and the prince usually paid this tribute at the mercy of the Novgorodians. If he collected it himself, he sent two collectors to Zavolochye, who could not take the collected tribute directly to the prince's inheritance, but first brought it to Novgorod, from where it was transferred to the prince. Since the time of the Tatar invasion, the Horde was also imposed on Novgorod exit- tribute. The Tatars then instructed the collection of this exit, called black forest, i.e. general, head tax, to the Grand Duke of Vladimir. Novgorodians themselves collected black forest and handed it over to their prince, who delivered it to the Horde. In addition, the prince used well-known lands in the Novgorod land, fishing, boards, animal ruts; but he used all these lands according to precisely defined rules, at the appointed time and in conditional sizes. With the same precision, the prince's relations with Novgorod trade were determined. Trade, predominantly foreign, was the vital nerve of the city. Novgorod needed the prince not only to defend the borders, but also to ensure trade interests; he was supposed to give a free and safe way to Novgorod merchants in his principality. It was precisely determined what duties the prince should collect from each Novgorodian boat or merchant cart that was in his principality. German merchants settled early in Novgorod. In the 14th century in Novgorod there were two courts of overseas merchants: one belonged to the Hanseatic cities, the other, Gothic, to merchants from the island of Gotland. At these courtyards there were even two Catholic churches. The prince could participate in the city's trade with overseas merchants only through Novgorod intermediaries; he could not close the courts of foreign merchants, put his bailiffs to them. So the foreign trade of Novgorod was protected from arbitrariness on the part of the prince. Bound by such obligations, the prince received certain food for his military and government services to the city. Let us recall the importance of the prince, the leader of the squad, in the ancient trading cities of Rus' in the 9th century: he was a hired military watchman of the city and its trade. The Novgorod prince of specific time had exactly the same meaning. Such a significance of a prince in a free city is expressed by the Pskov chronicle, which calls one Novgorod prince of the 15th century "a governor and a well-fed prince, about whom he had to stand and fight." The value of the prince, as a mercenary, Novgorod tried to support by contracts until the end of his liberty. This is how Novgorod's relations with the princes were determined by treaties.
Control. Veche. Novgorod administration was built in connection with the definition of the relationship of the city to the prince. These relations, we saw, were determined by treaties. Thanks to these agreements, the prince gradually stepped out of the local society, losing organic ties with it. He and his retinue entered this society only mechanically, as a third-party temporary force. Thanks to this, the political center of gravity in Novgorod had to move from the princely court to veche square, into the environment of local society. That is why, despite the presence of the prince, Novgorod in specific centuries was actually a city republic. Further, in Novgorod we meet the same military system, which, even before the princes, had developed in other older cities of Rus'. Novgorod was thousand- an armed regiment under the command of a thousand. This thousand was divided into hundreds- military parts of the city. Each hundred, with its elected sotsky, represented a special society that enjoyed a certain degree of self-government. In wartime it was a recruiting district, in peacetime it was a police district. But the hundred was not the smallest administrative part of the city: it was subdivided into streets, of which each with its own elective street the headman was also a special local world, which enjoyed self-government. On the other hand, hundreds formed into larger alliances - ends. Each city end consisted of two hundred. At the head of the end was the elected Konchansky the headman, who conducted the current affairs of the end under the supervision of the Konchan gathering or veche, which had administrative power. The union of the ends constituted the community of Veliky Novgorod. Thus, Novgorod represented a multi-stage combination of small and large local worlds, of which the latter were composed by adding the former. The combined will of all these allied worlds was expressed in the general council of the city. The veche was sometimes convened by the prince, more often by one of the chief city dignitaries, a posadnik or a thousand. It was not a permanent institution, it was convened when there was a need for it. There has never been a fixed time limit for its convening. The veche met at the ringing of the veche bell, usually in the square called Yaroslav's Court. It was not a representative institution in its composition, it did not consist of deputies: anyone who considered himself a full-fledged citizen fled to Veche Square. Veche usually consisted of citizens of one senior city; but sometimes residents of the younger cities of the earth appeared on it, however, only two, Ladoga and Pskov. The questions to be discussed by the veche were proposed to him by degrees senior dignitaries, a sedate posadnik or a thousand. These questions were legislative and constituent. The veche decreed new laws, invited the prince or expelled him, elected and judged the main city dignitaries, sorted out their disputes with the prince, resolved issues of war and peace, etc. At the meeting, by its very composition, there could be neither a correct discussion of the issue, nor a correct vote. The decision was drawn up by eye, or rather by ear, rather by the strength of the cries than by the majority of votes. When the veche was divided into parties, the verdict was worked out by force, through a fight: the side that overpowered was recognized by the majority (a peculiar form fields, the judgment of God). Sometimes the whole city was divided, and then two meetings were convened, one at the usual place, on the Trade side, the other on the Sofia side. As a rule, the discord ended with the fact that both vechas, moving against each other, converged on the Volkhov bridge and started a fight if the clergy did not manage to separate the opponents in time.
Posadnik and thousand. The executive bodies of the veche were two highest elected dignitaries who conducted the current affairs of administration and the court, - posadnik And thousand. While they held their positions, they were called power, i.e. standing on a degree, and upon leaving the post they entered the category of posadniks and thousandths old. It is rather difficult to distinguish between the departments of both dignitaries. It seems that the posadnik was a civil governor of the city, and the thousandth one was a military and police officer. That is why the Germans in specific centuries called the posadnik burggrave, and the thousandth - duke. Both dignitaries received their powers from the council for an indefinite period: some ruled for a year, others for less, others for several years. It seems not earlier than the beginning of the 15th century. a fixed term was set for them to hold their posts. At least one French traveler, Lannoy, who visited Novgorod at the beginning of the 15th century, speaks of the posadnik and the thousandth that these dignitaries were replaced annually. Posadnik and tysyatsky ruled with the help of a whole staff of inferior agents subordinate to them.
council of gentlemen. Veche was a legislative institution. But by its nature, it could not correctly discuss the questions proposed to it. A special institution was needed that could preliminarily develop legislative questions and propose a council finished projects laws and decisions. Such a preparatory and administrative institution was the Novgorod Council of Masters, Herrenrath, as the Germans called it, or gentlemen, as it was called in Pskov. The lords of the free city developed from the ancient boyar duma of the prince with the participation of the elders of the city. The chairman of this council in Novgorod was the local lord - the archbishop. The council consisted of the princely governor, of the sedate posadniks and the thousand, of the elders of Konchan and Sotsk, of the old posadniks and the thousand. All these members, except for the chairman, were called boyars.
Regional administration. The regional administration was closely connected with the central administration. This connection was expressed in the fact that each fifth of the Novgorod land in the administration depended on the city end to which it was assigned. A similar relationship of parts of the territory to the ends of the city existed in the Pskov land. Here, the old suburbs have long been distributed between the ends of the city. In 1468, when many new suburbs had accumulated, it was decided at the council to also divide them by lot between the ends, two suburbs at each end. Pyatina, however, was not an integral administrative unit, did not have one local administrative center. It broke up into administrative districts, called in Moscow time halves, subdivided into counties; each county had its own special administrative center in a well-known suburb, so that the Konchan administration was the only link connecting the pyatina into one administrative whole. The suburb with its district was the same local self-governing world as the Novgorod ends and hundreds were. Its autonomy was expressed in the local suburban council. However, this evening was led by a posadnik, who was usually sent from the older city. The forms in which the political dependence of the suburbs on the older city was expressed are revealed in the story of how Pskov became an independent city. Until the middle of the 14th century it was a suburb of Novgorod. In 1348, under an agreement with Novgorod, he became independent from him, began to be called younger brother his. According to this agreement, the Novgorodians renounced the right to send a posadnik to Pskov and summon the Pskovites to Novgorod for civil and ecclesiastical court. This means that the main city appointed a posadnik to the suburbs and concentrated in it supreme court over the suburbs. However, the dependence of the suburbs on Novgorod was always very weak: the suburbs sometimes refused to accept posadniks sent by the main city.
Classes of Novgorod society. In the composition of Novgorod society, it is necessary to distinguish between urban and rural classes. The population of Novgorod the Great consisted of boyars, living people, merchants and black people.
The boyars were at the head of the Novgorod society. It was composed of wealthy and influential Novgorod families, whose members were appointed by the princes who ruled Novgorod to the highest positions in local government. Occupying positions by appointment of the prince, which in other areas were given to the princely boyars, the Novgorod nobility assimilated the meaning and title of the boyars and retained this title even after, when they began to receive their government powers not from the prince, but from the local council.
The second class does not appear so clearly in the Novgorod monuments. living, or living, of people. It can be seen that this class stood closer to the local boyars than to the lower strata of the population. The living people were, apparently, middle-class capitalists who did not belong to the paramount government nobility. The merchant class was called merchants. They were already standing closer to the urban common people, weakly separated from the mass of urban black people. They worked with the help of the boyars' capital, or borrowed money from the boyars, or conducted their business as clerks. black people there were small artisans and workers who took work or money for work from the upper classes, boyars and living people. Such is the composition of society in the main city. We meet the same classes in the suburbs, at least the most important ones.
In the depths of rural society, as well as urban, we see serfs. This class was very numerous in the Novgorod land, but invisible in Pskov. The free peasant population in the Novgorod land consisted of two categories: from the smerds, who cultivated the state lands of Novgorod the Great, and ladles who rented land from private owners. Ladles got their name from the usual in ancient Rus' terms of land lease - to cultivate the land halfway through, from half of the harvest. However, in the Novgorod land of specific time, ladles rented land from private owners and on more favorable terms, from the third or fourth sheaf. Ladles were in the Novgorod land in a more humiliated state compared to free peasants in princely Rus', they stood in a position close to serfs. This humiliation was expressed in two conditions that the Novgorodians included in the agreements with the princes: 1) not to judge a serf and a ladle without a master, and 2) to give back the Novgorod serfs and ladles who fled to the prince's inheritance. In this respect, Pskov land differed sharply from Novgorod. In the first isorniki, as they called there peasants who rented private land, usually with a loan, steep, were free cultivators who enjoyed the right to transfer from one owner to another. There, even a promissory note did not attach the isornik to the landowner. According to Russkaya Pravda, a purchase that fled from the owner without retribution became his complete slave. According to Pskovskaya Pravda, a monument that received its final form in the second half of the 15th century, an izornik who ran away from the owner without retribution was not punished with imprisonment when he returned from the run; the owner could only, with the participation of the local authorities, sell the property abandoned by the fugitive and, thus, reward himself for the unreturned loan. If the property of the fugitive was not enough for this, the master could look for additional payments on the isornik when he returned. Peasants in princely Rus' of specific centuries also had similar attitudes towards their masters. So, in the free Novgorod land rural population, who worked on the master's lands, was made more dependent on the landowners than anywhere else in contemporary Rus'.
Another feature of Novgorod, as well as Pskov land ownership, was the class of peasant proprietors, which we do not meet in princely Rus', where all the peasants worked either on state or private master lands. This class was called zemtsamu, or natives. These were generally small landowners. Own landowners either cultivated their lands themselves, or rented them out to peasant ladles. In terms of occupation and size of the economy, the natives did not differ in any way from the peasants; but they owned their lands on the rights of full ownership. This rural class of natives was formed mainly from the townspeople. In the Novgorod and Pskov lands, the right to land ownership was not a privilege of the highest service class. Urban dwellers acquired small rural plots as property not only for arable farming, but also for the purpose of their industrial exploitation, planting flax, hops and forest boards, catching fish and animals. Such was the composition of society in the Novgorod land.
Political life of Novgorod the Great. The forms of political life in Novgorod, as in Pskov, were of a democratic nature. All free inhabitants had equal votes at the veche, and the free classes of society did not differ sharply in political rights. But trade, which served as the basis of the national economy in these free cities, gave actual dominance to those classes that possessed commercial capital - the boyars and the living people. This dominance of the commercial aristocracy under democratic forms of government was revealed both in administration and in political life Novgorod, causing a lively struggle of political parties; but at different times the nature of this struggle was not the same. In this regard, the internal political life of the city can be divided into two periods.
Until the 14th century, princes often changed in Novgorod, and these princes competed with each other, belonging to hostile princely lines. Under the influence of this frequent change of princes, local political circles were formed in Novgorod, which stood for different princes and were led by the heads of the richest boyar families in the city. One can think that these circles were formed under the influence of trade relations between the boyar houses of Novgorod and one or another Russian principality. Thus, the first period in the history of the political life of Novgorod was marked by the struggle of the princely parties, more precisely, the struggle of the Novgorod trading houses that competed with each other.
From the 14th century the frequent change of princes on the Novgorod table stops, along with this, the nature of the political life of Novgorod also changes. From the death of Yaroslav I to the Tatar invasion, the Novgorod chronicle describes up to 12 troubles in the city; of these, only two were not associated with princely changes, i.e. were not caused by the struggle of local political circles for one or another prince. From the Tatar invasion to the accession of John III to the grand prince's table, more than 20 troubles are described in the local chronicle; of these, only 4 are associated with princely changes; everyone else had a completely different source. This new source of political struggle, opening up since the 14th century, was social strife - the struggle of the lower poor classes of Novgorod society with the upper rich. Since then, Novgorod society has been divided into two hostile camps, of which in one stood best, or elders, people, as the Novgorod chronicle calls the local rich nobility, and in another people younger, or smaller, i.e. black. So since the XIV century. the struggle of trading firms in Novgorod was replaced by the struggle of social classes. This new struggle also had its roots in the political and economic structure of the city. Sharp property inequality between citizens is a very common occurrence in large trading cities, especially with republican forms of organization. In Novgorod, this inequality of property, given political equality, under democratic forms of organization, was felt especially sharply, and produced an irritating effect on the lower classes. This action was intensified by the heavy economic dependence of the lower working population on the capitalist boyars. Thanks to this, an irreconcilable antagonism against the higher classes developed in the lower classes of Novgorod society. Both of these social parties were headed by wealthy boyar families, so that even young people in Novgorod acted under the leadership of certain noble boyar houses, who became at the head of the Novgorod common people in the struggle against their boyar brethren.
So the Novgorod boyars remained the leader of local political life throughout the history of the free city. Over time, all local government fell into the hands of a few noble houses. Of these, the Novgorod veche chose posadniks and thousands; their members filled the Novgorod government council, which, in fact, gave direction to local political life.
The peculiarities of the economic situation and political life of Novgorod helped to take root in its system of important shortcomings, which prepared the easy fall of its liberty in the second half of the 15th century. These were: 1) lack of internal social unity, class discord in Novgorod society; central Great Russia, from where Novgorod with its non-grain-bearing region received grain, and 4) the weakness of the military structure of the trading city, the militia of which could not stand against the princely regiments.
But in all these shortcomings one must see only the conditions for the ease with which Novgorod fell, and not the reasons for its fall itself; Novgorod would have fallen even if it had been free from these shortcomings: the fate of its liberty was decided not by this or that weak side of its system, but by a more general cause, a wider and more oppressive historical process. By the middle of the fifteenth century the formation of the Great Russian people had already been completed: it lacked only political unity. This nation had to fight for its existence in the east, south and west. She was looking for a political center around which she could gather her forces for a hard struggle. Moscow became such a center. The meeting of the specific dynastic aspirations of the Moscow princes with the political needs of the entire Great Russian population decided the fate of not only Novgorod the Great, but also other independent political worlds that still remained in Rus' by the middle of the 15th century. The destruction of the peculiarity of the zemstvo units was a sacrifice demanded by the common good of the whole earth, and the Moscow sovereign was the executor of this requirement. Novgorod at its best political structure could wage a more stubborn struggle with Moscow, but the result of this struggle would be the same. Novgorod would inevitably fall under the blows of Moscow. Nikolaev Igor Mikhailovich
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From the book History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 17th century author Milov Leonid Vasilievich§ 2. Novgorod land in the XII-XIII centuries. Princely power and Novgorod in the IX-XI centuries. Already during the period of being a part of the Old Russian state, the Novgorod land had important differences from other ancient Russian lands. The local elite of Slovenes, Krivichi and Chud, who invited to
From the book HISTORY OF RUSSIA from ancient times to 1618. Textbook for universities. In two books. Book one. author Kuzmin Apollon Grigorievich From the book Jewish tornado or Ukrainian purchase of thirty pieces of silver the author Hodos EdwardAnd the Lord said to Moses: “The land should never be sold forever and never rented out for a long time, for it is My land!” “And the Lord said to Moses that he was standing on Mount Sinai:“ The land should never be sold forever and not be rented out for a long time, for it is My land!
From the book A complete course of Russian history: in one book [in a modern presentation] author Solovyov Sergey MikhailovichNovgorod land In this regard, Novgorod land occupied a special position, which bordered on the West and could not but accept a certain Western element. And the most important element for Russian history was the Baltic Vikings. The Slavs managed to gain a foothold in
From the book Book 2. The heyday of the kingdom [Empire. Where did Marco Polo actually travel? Who are the Italian Etruscans. Ancient Egypt. Scandinavia. Rus-Horde n author Nosovsky Gleb Vladimirovich1.7. Land of Canaan = land of Khan The people of HIT (HETA) are closely connected with the people of CANAAN. Brugsch believes that they were allies, other scientists were convinced that this is generally the SAME, p. 432. Here we see the appearance of the word KHAN in the form CANAAN. And quite naturally. If
From the book History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 20th century author Nikolaev Igor MikhailovichNovgorod land In the north-west of Rus' were located the Novgorod and Pskov lands. More severe than in the Dnieper region and North-Eastern Rus', the climate and less fertile soils led to the fact that agriculture here was less developed than in other parts of Rus'. IN
From the book Best Historians: Sergei Solovyov, Vasily Klyuchevsky. From the origins to the Mongol invasion (compilation) author Klyuchevsky Vasily OsipovichNovgorod land Novgorod the Great and its territory. The political structure of Novgorod the Great, that is, the oldest city in its land, was closely connected with the location of the city. It was located on both banks of the Volkhov River, not far from its source from Lake Ilmen.
From the book Essays on the History of Medieval Novgorod author Yanin Valentin LavrentievichNovgorod land before the emergence of Novgorod language group. Beginning
From the book Pre-Petrine Rus'. historical portraits. author Fedorova Olga PetrovnaNovgorod land and its rulers Some historians, including V. L. Yanin, M. Kh. Aleshkovsky, suggest that Novgorod arose as an association (or federation) of three tribal settlements: Slavic, Meryansky and Chudsky, i.e. there was a connection Slavs with Finno-Ugric peoples.
From the book Millennium Roads author Drachuk Viktor SemyonovichLAND OF GODS - LAND OF PEOPLE
From the book History of the USSR. Short course author Shestakov Andrey Vasilievich10. Novgorod land Fragmentation of the Kyiv principality. In the 12th century Kiev principality divided among the sons, grandchildren and relatives of Vladimir Monomakh. Between them there were constant wars for principalities and cities. In these wars, the princes robbed smerds without mercy
From the book History of the Serbs author Chirkovich Sima M.“Royal land” and “royal land” It became clear to Dushan’s Byzantine contemporaries that, having reigned on the throne, he divided Serbia: he ruled the conquered Roman territories according to Roman laws, and allowed his son to rule according to Serbian laws in the lands from
From the book A Short Course in the History of Russia from Ancient Times to the Beginning of the 21st Century author Kerov Valery Vsevolodovich4. Novgorod land 4.1. natural conditions. The possessions of Novgorod stretched from the Gulf of Finland to the Urals and from the Arctic Ocean to the upper reaches of the Volga. Geographical location, harsh natural conditions, mixed ethnic composition of the population, along with a number of
