Dangerous neighbors of the Kyiv principality in the 12th-13th centuries. Ancient Russian principalities. Specific system in the XII - early XIII century

KIEV PRINCIPALITY, Old Russian principality in the 2nd third of the 12th century - 1470. Capital - Kyiv. Formed in the process of decay Old Russian state. Initially, the Kiev principality, in addition to its main territory, included Pogorina (Pogorynya; lands along the Goryn River) and the Beresteisky volost (the center is the city of Berestye, now Brest). There were about 90 cities in the Kiev principality, in many of them there were separate princely tables in different periods: in Belgorod Kiev, Berestye, Vasilevo (now Vasilkov), Vyshgorod, Dorogobuzh, Dorohichyn (now Drokhichin), Ovruch, Gorodets-Ostersky (now Oster ), Peresopnitsa, Torchesk, Trepol, etc. A number of fortress cities protected Kyiv from Polovtsian raids along the right bank of the Dnieper River and from the south along the Stugna and Ros rivers; Vyshgorod and Belgorod Kyiv defended the capital of the Kyiv principality from the north and west. On the southern borders of the Kyiv principality, in Porosie, nomads serving the Kyiv princes settled - black hoods.

Economy. basis economic development The Kyiv principality was arable agriculture (mainly in the form of two-field and three-field), while the population of cities was closely connected with agriculture. The main grain crops grown on the territory of the Kyiv Principality are rye, wheat, barley, oats, millet and buckwheat; from legumes - peas, vetch, lentils and beans; from industrial crops - flax, hemp and camelina. Cattle breeding and poultry farming also developed: cows, sheep, goats and pigs were bred in the Kiev principality; chickens, geese and ducks. Horticulture and horticulture are quite widespread. The most common industry in the Kiev principality was fishing. Due to the constant inter-princely conflicts and the increase in Polovtsian raids, a gradual outflow began from the middle (and especially the last third) of the 12th century. rural population from the Kyiv principality (for example, from Porosie), primarily to North-Eastern Rus', the Ryazan and Murom principalities.

Most of the cities of the Kyiv Principality until the end of the 1230s were major centers of crafts; almost the entire range of ancient Russian handicrafts was produced on its territory. Pottery, foundry (the production of copper encolpion crosses, icons, etc.), enamel, bone carving, woodworking and stoneworking, and the art of niello have reached a high level of development. Until the middle of the 13th century, Kyiv was the only center of glassmaking in Rus' (dishes, window glass, jewelry, mainly beads and bracelets). In some cities of the Kyiv Principality, production was based on the use of local minerals: for example, in the city of Ovruch, the extraction and processing of natural red (pink) slate, the manufacture of slate whorls; in the city of Gorodesk - iron production, etc.

The largest trade routes passed through the territory of the Kyiv Principality, connecting it both with other Russian principalities and with foreign states, including the Dnieper section of the route "from the Varangians to the Greeks", the land roads Kyiv - Galich - Krakow - Prague - Regensburg; Kyiv - Lutsk - Vladimir-Volynsky - Lublin; Salt and Zalozny paths.

Struggle old Russian princes for dynastic seniority. The main feature of the political development of the Kyiv principality in the 12th - 1st third of the 13th century was the absence in it, unlike other ancient Russian principalities, of its own princely dynasty. Despite the collapse of the Old Russian state, the Russian princes until 1169 continued to consider Kyiv as a kind of "oldest" city, and its possession as obtaining dynastic eldership, which led to an aggravation of the inter-princely struggle for the Kiev principality. Quite often, the closest relatives and allies of the Kyiv princes received separate cities and volosts in the territory of the Kyiv principality. During the 1130-1150s, two groups of Monomakhoviches played a decisive role in this struggle (Vladimirovichi - children of Prince Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh; Mstislavichs - children of Prince Mstislav Vladimirovich the Great) and Svyatoslavichi (descendants of the Chernigov and Kyiv prince Svyatoslav Yaroslavich). After the death of the Kyiv prince Mstislav Vladimirovich (1132), his younger brother Yaropolk Vladimirovich took the Kyiv throne without any difficulty. However, Yaropolk's attempts to implement some of the provisions of the will of Vladimir Monomakh (the transfer of the sons of Mstislav the Great to the princely tables closest to Kyiv, so that later, after the death of Yaropolk, they inherited the Kyiv table) caused serious opposition from the younger Vladimirovichs, in particular Prince Yuri Vladimirovich Dolgoruky. The weakening of the internal unity of the Monomakhoviches took advantage of the Chernigov Svyatoslavichs, who actively intervened in the inter-princely struggle in the 1130s. As a result of these troubles, Yaropolk's successor on the Kiev table, Vyacheslav Vladimirovich, lasted less than two weeks in Kyiv (22.2-4.3.1139), after which he was expelled from the Kyiv principality by the Chernigov prince Vsevolod Olgovich, who, in violation of the agreements of the Lyubech Congress of 1097, deprived the Chernigov princes of the right to inherit the Kievan table, not only managed to take and hold the Kievan table until his death (1146), but also took steps to secure the inheritance of the Kievan principality for the Chernigov Olgovichi. In 1142 and 1146-57 the Principality of Kyiv included the Principality of Turov.

In the mid-1140s - early 1170s, the role of the Kyiv Council, which discussed almost all key issues, increased. political life Kyiv principality and often determined the fate of the Kyiv princes or pretenders to the Kyiv table. After the death of Vsevolod Olgovich, his brother Igor Olgovich (August 2-13, 1146) reigned for a short time in the Principality of Kiev, who was defeated in a battle near Kyiv by the Pereyaslav prince Izyaslav Mstislavich. The 2nd half of the 1140s - the middle of the 1150s - the time of open confrontation between Izyaslav Mstislavich and Yuri Dolgoruky in the struggle for the Kiev principality. It was accompanied by various innovations, including in the political life of the Kyiv principality. So, in fact, for the first time, both princes (especially Yuri Dolgoruky) practiced the creation of numerous princely tables within the Kyiv principality (under Yuri Dolgoruky they were occupied by his sons). Izyaslav Mstislavich in 1151 went to recognize the seniority of his uncle - Vyacheslav Vladimirovich in order to create a "duumvirate" with him to legitimize his own power in the Kiev principality. The victory of Izyaslav Mstislavich in the Battle of Ruta in 1151 actually meant his victory in the struggle for the Kiev principality. A new aggravation of the struggle for the Principality of Kiev fell on the time after the death of Izyaslav Mstislavich (on the night of November 13-14, 1154) and Vyacheslav Vladimirovich (December 1154) and ended with the reign of Yuri Dolgoruky (1155-57) in Kyiv. The death of the latter changed the balance of power in the course of the struggle for the Kyiv table among the Monomakhoviches. All Vladimirovichs died, only two Mstislavichs remained (Prince of Smolensk Rostislav Mstislavich and his younger half-brother Vladimir Mstislavich, who did not play a significant political role), in North-Eastern Rus' the positions of Prince Andrei Yuryevich Bogolyubsky were strengthened, coalitions of sons gradually formed (later - descendants in the following generations) Izyaslav Mstislavich - Volyn Izyaslavich and sons (later - descendants in the next generations) Rostislav Mstislavich - Smolensk Rostislavich.

In the short second reign of the Chernigov prince Izyaslav Davidovich (1157-1158), the Turov principality was separated from the Kyiv principality, the power in which was seized by Prince Yuri Yaroslavich, who had previously been in the service of Yuri Dolgoruky (grandson of the Vladimir-Volyn prince Yaropolk Izyaslavich). Probably, at the same time, the Beresteisky volost finally passed from the Kyiv principality to the Vladimir-Volyn principality. Already in December 1158, the Monomakhoviches regained the Kiev principality. Rostislav Mstislavich, Kyiv prince from 12.4.1159 to 8.2.1161 and from 6.3.1161 to 14.3.1167, he sought to restore the former prestige and respect for the power of the Kyiv prince and largely achieved his goal. Under his control and the authority of his sons in 1161-67 were, in addition to the Kyiv principality, the Smolensk principality and the Novgorod Republic; the allies and vassals of Rostislav were the princes of Vladimir-Volynsky, Lutsk, Galich, Pereyaslavl; the suzerainty of the Rostislavichs extended to the Polotsk and Vitebsk principalities. The eldership of Rostislav Mstislavich was also recognized by Vladimir Prince Andrey Yuryevich Bogolyubsky. The closest relatives and allies of Rostislav Mstislavich received new holdings on the territory of the Kyiv Principality.

With the death of Rostislav Mstislavich, there was no prince left among the pretenders to the Kiev principality who would enjoy the same authority among relatives and vassals. In this regard, the position and status of the Kyiv prince changed: during 1167-74, he almost always turned out to be a hostage in the struggle of various princely groups or individual princes, relying on the support of the inhabitants of Kyiv or the population of some lands of the Kyiv principality (for example, Porosie or Pogorynya) . At the same time, the death of Rostislav Mstislavich made Prince Vladimir Andrei Bogolyubsky the oldest among the descendants of Vladimir Monomakh (the youngest son of Mstislav the Great, Prince Vladimir Mstislavich, was not a serious political figure and was younger than his cousin). The campaign against the Kiev principality in 1169 by the troops of the coalition created by Andrei Bogolyubsky ended in a three-day defeat of Kyiv (12-15.3.1169). The capture of Kyiv by the forces of Andrei Bogolyubsky and the fact that he himself did not occupy the Kyiv table, but handed it over to his younger brother Gleb Yuryevich (1169-70, 1170-71), marked a change in the political status of the Kyiv principality. Firstly, now seniority, at least for Vladimir princes, was no longer associated with the occupation of the Kyiv table (beginning in the autumn of 1173, only one descendant of Yuri Dolgoruky occupied the Kyiv table - Prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich in 1236-38). Secondly, since the beginning of the 1170s, the role of the Kyiv Council in making key political decisions, including in matters of determining candidates for the Kyiv table, has seriously decreased. After 1170, the main part of Pogorynya gradually entered the sphere of influence of the Vladimir-Volyn principality. The suzerainty of Andrei Bogolyubsky over the Kyiv Principality remained until 1173, when, after the conflict between the Rostislavichs and Andrei Bogolyubsky, the troops of the Vyshgorod prince David Rostislavich and the Belgorod prince Mstislav Rostislavich captured Kyiv on 24.3. The Big Nest - and handed over the Kyiv table to his brother - Ovruch prince Rurik Rostislavich. The defeat in the autumn of 1173 of the troops of the new coalition sent to Kyiv by Andrei Bogolyubsky meant the final liberation of the Kyiv principality from its influence.

Kiev principality - the sphere of interests of the South Russian princes. For the princes of South Rus', the occupation of the Kievan table continued to be associated with a kind of seniority until the mid-1230s (the only exception was the attempt of the Galician-Volyn prince Roman Mstislavich in 1201-05 to establish control over the Kyiv principality, similar to what Andrei Bogolyubsky did in 1169- 73). The history of the Kyiv principality in 1174-1240 is essentially a struggle for it (sometimes subsiding, then again escalating) of two princely coalitions - the Rostislavichs and the Chernigov Olgoviches (the only exception was the period 1201-05). For many years, the key figure in this struggle was Rurik Rostislavich (Prince of Kyiv in March - September 1173, 1180-81, 1194-1201, 1203-04, 1205-06, 1206-07, 1207-10). In 1181-94, a “duumvirate” of Prince Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich and Rurik Rostislavich acted in the Kiev principality: Svyatoslav received Kyiv and nominal eldership, but at the same time the rest of the territory of the Kyiv principality was under the rule of Rurik. Dramatic Gain political influence Vladimir Prince Vsevolod the Big Nest forced the South Russian princes to officially recognize his seniority (probably in 1194 at the congress of the Kyiv prince Rurik Rostislavich and the Smolensk prince David Rostislavich), but this did not change the sufficiently independent position of the rulers of the Kyiv principality. At the same time, the problem of "communion" was identified - recognized as the oldest, Vsevolod the Big Nest in 1195 demanded a "part" on the territory of the Kyiv principality, which led to a conflict, since the cities that he wanted to receive (Torchesk, Korsun, Boguslavl, Trepol, Kanev ), the Kyiv prince Rurik Rostislavich had already transferred to the possession of his son-in-law - Vladimir-Volyn prince Roman Mstislavich. The Kyiv prince took the required cities from Roman Mstislavich, which led to a conflict between them, which only aggravated in the future (in particular, in 1196 the Vladimir-Volyn prince actually left his first wife, the daughter of Rurik Rostislavich Predslava) and largely determined the political fate of Kyiv principalities at the turn of the 12th-13th centuries. The conflict of interests of Roman Mstislavich (who united the Vladimir-Volyn and Galician principalities in 1199) and Rurik Rostislavich led to the overthrow of the latter and the appearance on the Kiev table of Roman Mstislavich's henchman, Prince Ingvar Yaroslavich of Lutsk (1201-02, 1204).

On January 1-2, 1203, the combined troops of Rurik Rostislavich, the Chernigov Olgovichi and the Polovtsy subjected Kyiv to a new defeat. At the beginning of 1204, Roman Mstislavich forced Rurik Rostislavich, his wife and daughter Predslava (his ex-wife) to take monastic vows, and the sons of Rurik - Rostislav Rurikovich and Vladimir Rurikovich captured and taken to Galich. However, soon, after the diplomatic intervention in the situation of the father-in-law of Rostislav Rurikovich - the Vladimir prince Vsevolod the Big Nest, Roman Mstislavich had to transfer the Kiev principality to Rostislav (1204-05). The death of Roman Mstislavich in Poland (June 19, 1205) made it possible for Rurik Rostislavich to start fighting again for the Kyiv table, now with the Chernigov prince Vsevolod Svyatoslavich Chermny (Kyiv prince in 1206, 1207, 1210-12). During 1212-36, only the Rostislavichs ruled in the Kiev principality (Mstislav Romanovich the Old in 1212-23, Vladimir Rurikovich in 1223-35 and 1235-36, Izyaslav Mstislavich in 1235). In the 1st third of the 13th century, the “Bolokhov land” became practically independent of the Kyiv principality, turning into a kind of buffer zone between the Kyiv principality, the Galician and Vladimir-Volyn principalities. In 1236, Vladimir Rurikovich ceded the Kiev principality to Yaroslav Vsevolodovich of Novgorod, probably in exchange for support in taking the Smolensk table.

The Mongol-Tatar invasion of North-Eastern Rus' (1237-38) led to the departure of Yaroslav Vsevolodovich from the Kyiv principality to Novgorod, and then to Vladimir. For the first time since 1212, a representative of the Chernigov Olgovichi, Mikhail Vsevolodovich, became the prince of Kyiv. After the capture of Pereyaslavl by the Mongols (3.3.1239), the arrival of Mongolian ambassadors from Tsarevich Möngke in Kyiv and their murder, Mikhail Vsevolodovich fled to Hungary. According to indirect data from a number of chronicles, it can be assumed that his cousin Mstislav Glebovich became his successor, whose name is named first among the names three Russians princes (formerly Vladimir Rurikovich and Daniil Romanovich), who signed a truce with the Mongols in the fall of 1239. However, Mstislav Glebovich soon, apparently, also left the Kiev principality and fled to Hungary. He was replaced by the son of Mstislav Romanovich the Old - Rostislav Mstislavich, who took the Kyiv throne, probably after the death of Vladimir Rurikovich in Smolensk. Rostislav Mstislavich had no real support in the principality of Kiev and was easily captured by the Galician prince Daniil Romanovich, who left the thousandth Dmitri in Kyiv in the face of the Mongol-Tatar threat to organize defense. After more than a 10-week siege by the main forces of the Mongol-Tatars, Kyiv fell on November 19, 1240, most of the cities of the Kyiv principality were taken by storm or destroyed.

Kiev principality under the control of the Mongol-Tatars. The destruction and devastation of cities and lands on the territory of the Kyiv principality led to a severe political and economic crisis. According to the Nikon chronicle (1520s), after the conquest of Kyiv and before continuing the campaign to the west, Batu left his governor in the city. Obviously, the appearance of the Mongol authorities in Pereyaslavl and Kanev, which was described by Carpini, dates back to 1239-40. One of their main functions at the first stage was the organization of the pit service and the recruitment of soldiers to go to the countries Western Europe. Already in 1241, Prince Mikhail Vsevolodovich, who returned to Rus', was forced to live not in the princely court in Kyiv (obviously occupied by representatives of another government), but on one of the islands on the Dnieper River, and then return to Chernigov. In the 1240s, he tried to unite the efforts of the Kyiv Principality, Hungary and the Roman Curia in the fight against the Golden Horde, Lithuania, Mazovia and the Galician prince Daniel Romanovich. The anti-Orda position of Mikhail Vsevolodovich alerted Batu, who in 1243 summoned Mikhail Vsevolodovich's longtime political opponent, the Grand Duke of Vladimir Yaroslav Vsevolodovich, to the Horde and gave him a label for the Kiev principality and the entire "Russian land". Yaroslav Vsevolodovich did not personally rule in Kyiv, but sent his governor to the city - the boyar Dmitry Yeikovich (1243-46). After the death of Yaroslav Vsevolodovich (1246), his eldest sons, princes Alexander Yaroslavich Nevsky and Andrei Yaroslavich, went to the Mongol Empire. In 1248, the first of them received the right to the Kiev principality, and the second - to the Grand Duchy of Vladimir. This political act testified to the legal preservation of the seniority of the Kyiv principality in the system of ancient Russian principalities. However, the refusal of Prince Alexander Yaroslavich to move from Novgorod to Kyiv and his reign in Vladimir (1252) led to a decline in the importance of the Kyiv principality. This was facilitated not only by the political and economic crisis, favorable conditions for the settlement of nomads on the southern borders of the Kyiv principality, but also by the establishment here of a stricter system of Horde control, which had not yet been introduced in North-Eastern Rus', and the frequent presence there, and not in Kiev the principality of Metropolitan Kirill II (III). The Mongolian administration supported the desire of the princes of the “Bolokhov Land” to get out of the control of Prince Daniel Romanovich, traces of the presence of its garrisons are known in the territory of some cities of Pogorynya, brodniki and black hoods, as well as a number of lands along the rivers Ros and Stugna. The unsuccessful plan to capture Kyiv (1254) and the defeat of Prince Daniil Romanovich in the fight against the Mongol noyon Burundai (1257-60) caused a new political crisis in the Kiev principality. In the 1260s, under the temnik of Nogai, the bulk of the black hoods were resettled in the Volga region and on North Caucasus. The Mongol authorities resettled the conquered Polovtsy in the liberated regions of the Kyiv principality. On the southern borders of the Kyiv principality, there was a gradual desolation of cities, even those that were not destroyed during the Mongol-Tatar invasion. In a number of cases, the fortifications of the border towns of the Kyiv Principality were burned and demolished, and they themselves turned into rural-type settlements (for example, Vyshgorod, Chuchin, Ivan in Rzhishchev, Voin at the mouth of the Sula, as well as settlements that were located on the site of the settlements explored by archaeologists near the village of Komarovka on the Dnieper, settlements near the Polovtsian farm on Ros, etc.). Separate categories of residents of the Kyiv principality, primarily artisans, moved to other Russian principalities and lands (to Novgorod, Smolensk, Galicia-Volyn lands, etc.).

Information about the political development of the Kyiv principality in the last third of the 13th century is associated exclusively with the activities of the Russian metropolitans Cyril II (III) and Maxim, who spent a lot of time here, and sometimes also consecrated new bishops in Kyiv. The gradual restoration of the Kyiv principality was interrupted in the 1290s, during a fierce struggle for power in the Golden Horde between the Mongol princes and the influential temnik Nogai, to whom the Kiev principality was directly subordinate. This struggle caused the attacks of the Horde (probably, the troops of Khan Tokhta) on the territory of the Kyiv principality. Horde violence also led to the flight of Metropolitan Maxim, along with the entire clergy of the St. Sophia Cathedral, from Kyiv to Vladimir (1299), after which, as it is said in the Laurentian Chronicle (1377), "and the whole of Kiev fled."

In the 1st quarter of the 14th century, the Kiev principality gradually revived (this is evidenced, in particular, by dated graffiti in the churches of Kyiv, starting from 1317). At the turn of the 1320s-30s, the younger brother of the Lithuanian prince Gediminas, Prince Fyodor, reigned in the Kiev principality, probably, who occupied the Kyiv table with the consent of the Horde. In Kyiv, the Basque institution was preserved. At the same time, the jurisdiction of Prince Fedor extended to part of the Chernigov principality, which indicates a change in the boundaries of the Kyiv principality in the 1st quarter of the 14th century. The reign of Prince Fedor in Kyiv, apparently, ended no later than the 1340s. The Horde took advantage of the weakening position of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (GDL) in the mid-1340s and early 1350s. The next prince of Kyiv known from sources was Vladimir Ivanovich (probably died between 1359 and 1363), who came from the senior (Bryansk) line of the Chernigov Olgovichi dynasty and was the great-grandson of the Kyiv and Chernigov prince Mikhail Vsevolodovich. It is possible that his claims were caused by the previous reign in the Kiev principality of his father, Prince Ivan Romanovich of Putivl, who, like Vladimir himself, died at the hands of the Horde.

Kievan principality within the Grand Duchy of Lithuania . The beginning of the “Great Memory” in the Horde (1359) weakened the Horde’s control over the Kyiv Principality, and the death of Vladimir Ivanovich allowed the newly representative of the Lithuanian Gediminoviches, Prince Vladimir Olgerdovich (not later than 1367-95) to occupy the Kyiv table that had become vacant and entailed the inclusion in the Kyiv principalities of escheated possessions of the senior branch of the Olgovichi in the territory of Chernihiv and Putivl regions. The reign of the Grand Duke of Kyiv Vladimir Olgerdovich, despite the political dependence of the Kyiv principality on the Golden Horde, was characterized by a noticeable military-economic and cultural upsurge of the cities and lands of the Kyiv principality. In the middle - the 2nd half of the 14th century, they finally entered the zone of interests of the rulers of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Vladimir Olgerdovich led a large construction and reconstruction in the cities of the Kyiv principality, mainly in Kyiv. With the help of the military forces of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Horde was gradually forced out across the Dnieper River, and defensive fortifications along the Sula River were recreated on the southeastern border of the Kyiv Principality. Apparently, already under the Grand Duke Vladimir Olgerdovich, the Pereyaslav principality (on the left bank of the Dnieper) was included in the Kyiv principality. Vladimir Olgerdovich, like other Orthodox specific Lithuanian princes - his contemporaries, began minting silver coins in Kyiv with his name (they were widely used on the territory of the Kyiv principality and the Chernigov principality, in the GDL). In the struggle for control over the Kyiv Metropolis, Vladimir Olgerdovich supported Cyprian, who in 1376-81 and 1382-90 was in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and often lived in Kyiv. In the winter of 1385, the daughter of Vladimir Olgerdovich married the 4th son of the Grand Duke of Tver, Mikhail Alexandrovich, Prince Vasily Mikhailovich. After the accession of Jagiello to the royal throne in Poland under the name of Vladislav II Jagello in 1386, Vladimir Olgerdovich recognized the power and suzerainty of his younger brother (in 1386, 1388 and 1389 he took an oath of allegiance to the king, his wife, Queen Jadwiga and the Polish crown). In 1390 he supported Vladislav II Jagello in the fight against Vytautas; together with the Kyiv army participated in the siege of Grodno. In 1392, after Vytautas came to power in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Vladimir Olgerdovich refused to obey him, motivating his decision by the fact that he had already taken an oath of allegiance to Vladislav II Jagiello. Another reason for the conflict was the terms of the 1392 agreement between Vladislav II Jagello and Vitovt, according to which the Kiev principality was to pass to Prince John-Skirgailo as compensation for the lands of North-Western Belarus and the Troksky principality he had lost. In 1393-94, Vladimir Olgerdovich supported the Novgorod-Seversky prince Dmitry-Koribut Olgerdovich and the Podolsk prince Fyodor Koryatovich in the fight against Vitovt. In the spring of 1394, Vitovt and Polotsk prince John-Skirgaylo captured the cities of Zhitomir and Ovruch in the northern part of the Kyiv principality and forced Vladimir Olgerdovich to negotiate. The princes made peace for 2 years, but already in 1395 Vladimir Olgerdovich lost the Kyiv principality, and his place was taken by Prince John-Skirgailo, who immediately had to besiege the cities of Zvenigorod and Cherkasy that did not submit to him. In 1397, the Grand Duke of Kyiv, John-Skirgailo, was poisoned by Thomas (Izufov), the vicegerent of Metropolitan Cyprian in Kyiv. Probably, after that, Vytautas essentially turned the Kiev principality into a governorship, which sharply reduced the status of the Kyiv principality among the ancient Russian principalities subordinate to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. At the same time, the inheritances of minor princes were preserved in the Kiev principality, whose role was largely determined by service at the court of Vitovt (for example, the princes of Glinsky). Prince Ivan Borisovich (died in 1399), the son of Prince Boris Koryatovich of Podolsk, and Ivan Mikhailovich Golshansky (died after 1401), son of the Lithuanian prince Mikhail Olgimont, became the first governors of the Kyiv principality. In 1399, after the defeat of the troops of Vitovt and his allies in the Battle of Vorskla, the Kiev Principality was attacked by the troops of the Horde rulers. Having ruined the rural district, Khan Timur-Kutlug and Emir Yedigey were satisfied with 1 thousand rubles from Kyiv and 30 rubles from the Kiev-Pechersky Monastery; in 1416, the Horde again raided the Kiev principality, ruining the rural district of Kyiv and the Kiev Caves Monastery. According to the Belarusian-Lithuanian chronicles of the 1st third of the 16th century, I. M. Golshansky's successors as governors of the Kyiv principality were his sons - Andrei (died no later than 1422) and Mikhail (died in 1433).

In 1440, Casimir Jagiellonchik, who became the new Grand Duke of Lithuania (later the Polish King Casimir IV), went to a partial revival of the appanage system in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, in particular, the Principality of Kiev received such a status. The specific Kyiv prince was the son of the Grand Duke of Kyiv Vladimir Olgerdovich - Slutsk prince Alexander Olelko Vladimirovich. His reign was interrupted for a short time in 1449, when the Grand Duke of Lithuania Mikhail Sigismundovich, with the support of the Horde Khan Seid-Ahmed, captured the Kiev principality and Seversk land. However, the joint actions of the troops of Casimir IV and the Grand Duke of Moscow Vasily II Vasilyevich the Dark led to the defeat of Mikhail Sigismundovich and the return to Kyiv of Prince Alexander Olelko Vladimirovich. In 1455, after his death, the Principality of Kiev was inherited by his eldest son Semyon Alexandrovich.

Some increase in the status of the Kyiv Principality within the GDL helped to strengthen the role of the Kyiv boyars within the Kyiv principality, where the Kyiv princes continued the policy of distributing large and small possessions to the princes and boyars who were part of their council, as well as to smaller boyars and servants. For large boyars who were not members of the Rada, the system of annual feeding continued to operate. The boyars took part in the collection and distribution of taxes collected in the Kiev principality, and also sometimes received salaries and lands from the Grand Duke of Lithuania, who was considered the ruler of the Kyiv principality. In the 1450s and 60s, relations between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Crimean Khanate normalized, Khan Hadji Giray I issued a label to Casimir IV for the possession of the Kyiv principality and other lands of Western and Southern Rus'.

After strengthening his positions in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Poland, winning the war with the Teutonic Order, Casimir IV, taking advantage of the death of Prince Semyon Alexandrovich in 1470 and the absence of his brother Mikhail in Kyiv (he reigned in Novgorod in 1470-71), liquidated the Kiev principality and transformed it into a voivodeship , while in 1471 Casimir IV, with a special privilege, secured a certain autonomy of the Kiev region as part of the ON.

Lit .: Lyubavsky M.K. Regional division and local government of the Lithuanian-Russian state at the time of the publication of the first Lithuanian statute. M., 1893; Klepatsky P. G. Essays on the history of the Kyiv land. Od., 1912. T. 1; Nasonov A.N. Mongols and Rus'. M.; L., 1940; Rybakov B. A. Craft of Ancient Rus'. M., 1948; Dovzhenok V. I. Farming of Ancient Pyci until the middle of the XIII century. Kiev, 1961; Umanskaya A.S. On the importance of birds in the economy of the Old Russian population of the territory of Ukraine // Archeology. 1973. No. 10; Rapov O. M. Princely possessions in Rus' in the X - first half of the XIII century. M., 1977; Dovzhenok V. O. Middle Dnieper after the Tatar-Mongol invasion // Ancient Rus' and Slavs. M., 1978; Tolochko P.P. Kyiv and Kyiv land in the era of feudal fragmentation of the XII-XIII centuries. K., 1980; Pashkevich G. O., Petrashenko V. O. Farming and cattle breeding in the Middle Dnieper in the VIII-X centuries. // Archeology. 1982. No. 41; Pashuto V. T., Florya B. N., Khoroshkevich A. L. Old Russian heritage and historical fate of Eastern Slavs. M., 1982; Belyaeva S. A. South Russian lands in the second half of the XIII-XIV centuries. K., 1982; Rychka V. M. Formation of the territory of the Kyiv land (IX - the first third of the XII century). K., 1988; Stavisky V.I. To the analysis of news about Rus' in the "History of the Mongols" by Plano Carpini in the light of its archaeographic tradition // Ancient States on the territory of the USSR: Materials and research. 1986 M., 1988; he is. "History of the Mongols" by Plano Carpini and Russian chronicles // Ibid. 1990 M., 1991; Grushevsky M.S. Essay on the history of the Kyiv land from the death of Yaroslav to the end of the XIV century. K., 1991; Hrushevsky M. S. History of Ukraine-Rus. Kiev, 1992-1993. T. 2-4; Gorsky A. A. Russian lands in the XIII-XIV centuries: Ways of political development. M., 1996; Rusina O. V. Ukraine under the Tatars and Lithuania // Ukraine kpiz wiki. Kiev, 1998. Vol. 6; Ivakin G. Yu. The historical development of Southern Rus' and the Batu invasion // Rus' in the XIII century: Antiquities of the dark time. M., 2003; Pyatnov A.P. The struggle for the Kyiv table in 1148-1151 // Bulletin of Moscow State University. Series 8. History. 2003. No. 1; he is. Kyiv and Kyiv land in 1167-1169 // Ancient Rus': questions of medieval studies. 2003. No. 1; he is. Kyiv and Kyiv land in 1169-1173 // Collection of the Russian Historical Society. M., 2003. T. 7; he is. Kiev principality in 1235-1240 // The first open historical readings "Young Science". M., 2003; Kuzmin A. V. Sources of the XVI-XVII centuries. about the origin of Kyiv and Putivl Prince Vladimir Ivanovich // Eastern Europe in Antiquity and the Middle Ages: Problems of Source Studies. M., 2005. Part 2.

A. V. Kuzmin, A. P. Pyatnov.

By the middle of the XII century. The Kiev principality actually turned into an ordinary one, although nominally it continued to be considered a political and ideological center (there was a grand-princely table and a metropolitan see). A feature of its socio-political development was a large number of old boyar estates, which did not allow excessive strengthening of princely power.

In 1132-1157. a fierce struggle for Kyiv continued between the offspring of Vladimir Monomakh (“Monomachichs”) and the children of his cousin, Oleg Svyatoslavich (“Olgovichi”, or “Gorislavichi”, as their contemporaries called them). Monomashichs rule here (Yaropolk Vladimirovich and Vyacheslav Vladimirovich), then Olgovichi (Vsevolod Olgovich and Igor Olgovich), then again Monomashichs (Izyaslav Mstislavich and Rostislav Mstislavich). In 1155-1157. the principality is ruled by the Suzdal prince Yuri Dolgoruky (one of the younger sons of Vladimir Monomakh).

Almost all Russian principalities are gradually involved in the struggle for a great reign. As a result, by the middle of the XII century. The Kyiv land was devastated and took an insignificant place among other lands of Rus'. Starting from 1157, the princes who received the grand prince's table tried not to break ties with their principalities and felt insecure in Kyiv. At this time, the duumvirate system was established, when the simultaneous reign of two great princes became the rule. The title of the Grand Duke of Kyiv remained honorary, but no more.

Especially fatal for Kyiv was the campaign of the Rostov-Suzdal prince Andrei Yurievich Bogolyubsky in 1169, after which the city actually lost all political significance, although it remained a major cultural center. Real political power passed to the Suzdal prince. Andrei Bogolyubsky began to dispose of the Kyiv princely table as his vassal possession, transferring it at his own discretion.

Some strengthening of the Kyiv principality occurs in the 80-90s. 12th century It falls on the reign of Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich (1177-94), the grandson of Oleg Svyatoslavich. In view of the increased danger from the Polovtsians, he managed to unite the forces of a number of principalities. The 1183 campaign against Khan Kobyak was especially large and successful. The well-known campaign of Igor Svyatoslavich (1185) dates back to the reign of Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich. Under Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich and his successor Rurik Rostislavich (1194-1211 with a break), Kyiv again tries to play the role of an all-Russian cultural and political center. This is evidenced, for example, by the compilation of an annals in Kyiv in 1199.

But in the beginning of the first years of the XIII century. feudal struggle the value of Kyiv falls completely. The Kiev principality becomes one of the objects of rivalry between Vladimir-Suzdal, Galicia-Volyn, as well as Chernigov and Smolensk princes. The princes are quickly replaced on the Kiev table until the Mongol conquest.

The Kiev principality suffered greatly during the Mongol invasion. In the autumn of 1240, Batu took Kyiv, which was then owned by Daniil Romanovich of Galicia, and handed it over to the Suzdal prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich. In the 40s. 13th century the boyar of this prince sits in Kyiv. Since then, we have very little data on the fate of the Kyiv land. In the second half of the XIII century. the Kyiv princely table, apparently, remained unoccupied. In the future, the territory of the former Kyiv principality began to increasingly fall under the influence of the rapidly gaining strength of the Russian-Lithuanian state, into which it became part in 1362.

The Kiev principality was still considered the first among other Russian principalities. His prince continued to sing the title of "Great Prince of Kyiv". Kyiv has preserved the historical glory of the "mother of Russian cities". It also remained the main religious center of the Russian lands. This principality had the largest area of ​​arable land and many large patrimonial and monastic farms. Thousands of skilled artisans worked in Kyiv and the cities of the principality, whose products were famous not only in Rus', but also abroad. The Kiev principality occupied a large territory along the right bank of the Dnieper and almost the entire basin of the river. Pripyat.

But at the same time, from the 1140s. Kyiv irrevocably lost control over the Russian lands and turned into one of the Russian principalities, with which strong neighbors and. The Chernigov-Seversky land did not recognize the power of the Kyiv princes over itself. The energetic and power-hungry prince of Rostov-Suzdal Yuri Dolgoruky frankly pushed around the Kyiv rulers. In Novgorod and Smolensk, the boyars themselves, without the knowledge of the Kievan princes, chose their rulers. Only one condition was preserved without fail - the prince had to be from the Rurik dynasty. This dynasty itself grew and now included dozens of large and small princes, their children and grandchildren.

The water spaces of the Dnieper became more and more deserted, the international route "from the Varangians to the Greeks" was dying. Now only caravans serving the Russian lands were moving along the Dnieper. The Kyiv trade under the mountain near the Dnieper also became more modest and quieter. There was no longer such a multilingual speech as it was before.

For the Kyiv land, a big thing remained in the past: European: politics, grandiose trips to the Balkans, to the center of Europe, to the depths of the Polovtsian steppe. Now the foreign policy of Kyiv focused only on the fight against North-Eastern Russia, against Yuri Dolgoruky and his heirs, and on the former exhausting struggle against the Polovtsy.

If the Polovtsian danger could be contained by involving other interested princes in the defense of the Russian borders, then there were no forces to cope with the northeastern neighbor. First, Yuri Dolgoruky took the Pereyaslav principality from Kyiv, and then he himself established himself in Kyiv and declared himself the Grand Prince of Kyiv. Thus, for the first time, the northeast prevailed over the south of the Russian lands. This indicated the increased power of Rostov-Suzdal Rus and the fact that the center of Russian statehood was gradually moving to the northeast.

The policy of Yuri Dolgoruky in relation to the Kyiv principality was continued by the eldest son of Yuri and the daughter of the Polovtsian Khan, Andrei Yuryevich (about 1111–1174). He was nicknamed Bogolyubsky, because he spent almost all the time in his new residence in the village. Bogolyubovo, near the city of Vladimir on the river. Klyazma, which under him became the capital of North-Eastern Rus'. Since then, the North-Eastern Russian principality began to be called Vladimir-Suzdal, or Vladimir.

Andrei Bogolyubsky did not recognize the power of the Kyiv Grand Duke. To them in the 1160s. was one of the descendants of Vladimir Monomakh. The Vladimir-Suzdal prince, together with his allies - other Russian princes, approached Kyiv in 1169 and, after a three-day siege, took it by storm. It was historical event. For the first time in its history, Kyiv was captured, taken "on the shield" not by the Pechenegs, not by the Polovtsians, but by the Russians themselves. For several days, the victors plundered the city, burned churches, killed the inhabitants and took them captive, robbed the houses of wealthy citizens and monasteries. As the chronicler said, there were then in Kyiv "on all people there was a groan and anguish, inconsolable sadness and incessant tears."

Andrei Bogolyubsky received the title of the Grand Prince of Kyiv, but he did not rule in Kyiv for a single day, but left for Vladimir, dear to his heart. This defeat emphasized that the era of Kyiv, among other Russian lands, was over. Rus' began to live according to other laws.

But the storm passed, and Kyiv did not disappear from the pages of Russian history. He rebuilt after the fire, restored his economy and continued to live as the capital of a rather large principality, which, however, lost its leading role. Beautiful stone palaces and temples have been preserved here. The famous Sophia of Kyiv stood, as before, and the wonderful Golden Gate, erected by Yaroslav the Wise, delighted the eyes of people. Every year, thousands of pilgrims came here, to the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery, or the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra (Greek Laura - the name of the largest male Orthodox monasteries subordinate directly to the patriarch). Here the all-Russian chronicle continued to be created and at the end of the 12th century. the famous Russian poem "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" appeared.

There were periods in the history of this principality when, under a strong and skillful ruler, it achieved certain successes and partially regained its former authority. This happened at the end of the 12th century. under Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich, the grandson of the Chernigov prince Oleg. In order to maintain his power in the fight against the prince of Smolensk, the pretender to the Kyiv throne, Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich agreed that his opponent also took the Kyiv throne. The boyars of Kyiv also supported this decision in order to avoid another internecine war. This was a new phenomenon in the history of Russian lands. But it did not save from strife. The co-rulers began to fight among themselves. Later, after the death of Svyatoslav, the ruler of the Galicia-Volyn principality Roman Mstislavich (?–1205), the great-great-grandson of Vladimir Monomakh, began to claim the throne of Kyiv. And again the princes peacefully divided the throne of Kyiv, but not for long. The Smolensk prince, together with his allies, the Polovtsy, again took Kyiv by storm and brutally plundered it, Russian shrines - St. Sophia Cathedral, the Tithe Church and the Kiev Caves Monastery - were badly damaged from this raid. There was nothing sacred in the fierce struggle for power for the Russian princes and their associates. Roman Mstislavich eventually defeated his rival and annexed the Principality of Kiev to his possessions in Galich and Volhynia. Having the title of the Grand Prince of Kyiv, he continued to rule in his land.

Already in the middle of the XII century. the power of the Kyiv princes began to have real significance only within the Kyiv principality itself, which included lands along the banks of the tributaries of the Dnieper - the Teterev, the Irpen and the semi-autonomous Porose, inhabited by the "Black Hoods" vassals from Kyiv. The attempt of Yaropolk, who became the prince of Kyiv after the death of Mstislav I, to autocratically dispose of the "fatherlands" of other princes was decisively suppressed.
Despite the loss of all-Russian significance by Kyiv, the struggle for possession of it continued until the invasion of the Mongols. There was no order in the inheritance of the Kyiv table, and it passed from hand to hand depending on the balance of power of the fighting princely groups and, to a large extent, on the attitude towards them from the powerful Kyiv boyars and the Black Hoods. In the context of the all-Russian struggle for Kyiv, the local boyars sought to end the strife and to political stabilization in their principality. In 1113, the boyars’ invitation of Vladimir Monomakh to Kyiv (bypassing the then accepted order of succession) was a precedent used later by the boyars to justify their “right” to choose a strong and pleasing prince and conclude a “row” with him that protected them territorially. corporate interests. The boyars who violated this series of princes were eliminated by going over to the side of his rivals or by conspiracy (as, perhaps, Yuri Dolgoruky was poisoned, overthrown, and then killed in 1147 during a popular uprising, Igor Olgovich Chernigov, unpopular among the people of Kiev). As more and more princes were drawn into the struggle for Kyiv, the Kyiv boyars resorted to a peculiar system of princely duumvirate, inviting representatives from two of several rival princely groups as co-rulers to Kyiv, which for some time achieved the much-needed Kyiv land relative political balance.
As Kyiv loses the all-Russian significance of individual rulers of the strongest principalities, who have become “great” in their lands, the appointment of their henchmen in Kyiv, “handmaids”, begins to satisfy.
Princely strife over Kyiv turned Kyiv land into an arena of frequent hostilities, during which cities and villages were ruined, and the population was driven into captivity. Kyiv itself was subjected to cruel pogroms both by the princes who entered it as victors and by those who left it as a vanquished and returned to their "homeland". All this predetermined the emerging from the beginning of the XIII century. the gradual decline of the Kyiv land, the outflow of its population to the northern and northwestern regions of the country, which suffered less from princely strife and were virtually inaccessible to the Polovtsians. Periods of temporary strengthening of Kyiv in the reign of such prominent politicians and organizers of the fight against the Polovtsy, like Svyatoslav Vsevolodich of Chernigov (1180-1194) and Roman Mstislavich Volynsky (1202-1205), alternated with the rule of colorless, kaleidoscopically succeeding princes. Daniil Romanovich Galitsky, in whose hands Kyiv passed shortly before Batu took it, had already limited himself to appointing his posadnik from the boyars.

Vladimir-Suzdal Principality

Until the middle of the XI century. The Rostov-Suzdal land was ruled by posadniks sent from Kyiv. Her real “reigning” began after she went to the younger “Yaroslavich” - Vsevolod Pereyaslavlsky - and was assigned to his descendants as their tribal “volost” In the XII-XIII centuries. The Rostov-Suzdal land experienced an economic and political upsurge, which made it one of the strongest principalities in Rus'. The fertile lands of the Suzdal "Opole", boundless forests, cut through by a dense network of rivers and lakes, along which ancient and important trade routes ran to the south and east, the availability of iron ore available for mining - all this favored the development of agriculture, cattle breeding, rural and forest industries , crafts and trade.In the acceleration of economic development and the political rise of this forest region great importance had a rapid increase in its population at the expense of the inhabitants of the southern Russian lands, subjected to Polovtsian raids. XI-XII centuries large princely and boyar (and then church) landownership developed and strengthened here, absorbing communal lands and involving peasants in personal feudal dependence. In the XII - XIII centuries. almost all the main cities of this land arose (Vladimir, Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, Dmitrov, Starodub, Gorodets, Galich, Kostroma, Tver, Nizhny Novgorod, etc.), built by the Suzdal princes on the borders and within the principality as stronghold fortress and administrative points and built up with trade and craft settlements, the population of which was actively involved in political life. Under 1147, the annals first mentioned Moscow, a small border town built by Yuri Dolgoruky on the site of the estate of the boyar Kuchka, confiscated by him.
In the early 30s of the XII century, during the reign of Monomakh's son Yuri Vladimirovich Dolgoruky (1125-1157), the Rostov-Suzdal land gained independence. The military-political activity of Yuri, who intervened in all princely strife, stretching out his “long arms” to cities and lands far from his principality, made him one of the central figures in the political life of Rus' in the second third of the 11th century. Started by Yuriy and continued by his successors, the struggle with Novgorod and the wars with Volga Bulgaria marked the beginning of the expansion of the principality's borders towards the Dvina and the Volga-Kama lands. Under the influence of the Suzdal princes fell Ryazan and Murom, "pulled" earlier to Chernigov.
The last ten years of Dolgoruky's life were spent in an exhausting and alien to the interests of his principality struggle with the southern Russian princes for Kyiv, the reign in which, in the eyes of Yuri and the princes of his generation, was combined with the "elder" in Rus'. But already the son of Dolgorukiy, Andrei Bogolyubsky, having captured Kyiv in 1169 and brutally robbed it, transferred it to the control of one of his vassal princes, “handmaids”, which testified to a turning point on the part of the most far-sighted princes in their attitude towards Kyiv, which had lost its significance. all-Russian political center.
The reign of Andrei Yuryevich Bogolyubsky (1157 - 1174) was marked by the beginning of the struggle of the Suzdal princes for the political hegemony of their principality over the rest of the Russian lands. The ambitious attempts of Bogolyubsky, who claimed the title of Grand Duke of all Rus', to completely subjugate Novgorod and force other princes to recognize his supremacy in Rus' failed. However, it was in these attempts that the tendency to restore the state-political unity of the country on the basis of the subordination of specific princes to the autocratic ruler of one of the strongest principalities in Rus' was reflected.
With the reign of Andrei Bogolyubsky, the revival of the traditions of the power policy of Vladimir Monomakh is associated. Relying on the support of the townspeople and the nobility-druzhinniks, Andrei severely cracked down on the recalcitrant boyars, expelled them from the principality, confiscated their estates. To be even more independent from the boyars, he moved the capital of the principality from a relatively new city - Vladimir-on-Klyazma, which had a significant trade and craft settlement. It was not possible to finally suppress the boyar opposition to the “autocratic” prince, as Andrei was called by his contemporaries. In June 1174, he was killed by boyar conspirators.
The two-year strife unleashed after the murder of Bogolyubsky by the boyars ended with the reign of his brother Vsevolod Yuryevich the Big Nest (1176-1212), who, relying on the townspeople and the retinue layers of the feudal lords, severely cracked down on the rebellious nobility and became the sovereign ruler in his land. During his reign, the Vladimir-Suzdal land reached its highest prosperity and power, playing a decisive role in the political life of Rus' at the end of the 12th - beginning of the 13th centuries. Spreading his influence on other Russian lands, Vsevolod skillfully combined the power of arms (as, for example, in relation to the Ryazan princes) with skillful politics (in relations with the South Russian princes and Novgorod). The name and power of Vsevolod were well known far beyond the borders of Rus'. The author of The Tale of Igor's Campaign proudly wrote about him as the most powerful prince in Rus', whose numerous regiments could scatter the Volga with oars, and scoop water from the Don with helmets, on whose name alone "all countries trembled" and the rumor about which "filled the whole earth."
After the death of Vsevolod, an intensive process of feudal fragmentation began in the Vladimir-Suzdal land. The strife of the numerous sons of Vsevolod over the grand ducal table and the distribution of principalities led to a gradual weakening of the grand ducal power and its political influence on other Russian lands. Nevertheless, until the invasion of the Mongols, the Vladimir-Suzdal land remained the strongest and most influential principality in Rus', which retained political unity under the leadership of the Grand Duke of Vladimir. When planning an aggressive campaign against Rus', the Mongol-Tatars associated the result of the surprise and power of their first strike with the success of the entire campaign as a whole. And it is no coincidence that North-Eastern Rus' was chosen as the object of the first strike.

Chernigov and Smolensk principalities

These two large principalities under the Dnieper had much in common in the economy and political system with other southern Russian principalities, which were ancient centers of culture. Eastern Slavs. Here already in the IX-XI centuries. a large princely and boyar land ownership was formed, cities grew rapidly, becoming centers of handicraft production, serving not only the surrounding rural districts, but having developed external relations. Extensive trade relations, especially with the West, had the Smolensk principality, in which the upper reaches of the Volga, Dnieper and Western Dvina converged - the most important trade routes of Eastern Europe.
Allocation of the Chernihiv land in an independent principality occurred in the second half of the XI century. in connection with its transfer (together with the Muromo-Ryazan land) to the son of Yaroslav the Wise, Svyatoslav, for whose descendants it was assigned. Even at the end of the XI century. the ancient ties between Chernigov and Tmutarakan, cut off by the Polovtsians from the rest of the Russian lands and falling under the sovereignty of Byzantium, were interrupted. At the end of the 40s of the 11th century. The Chernihiv principality was divided into two principalities: Chernigov and Novgorod-Seversk. At the same time, the Muromo-Ryazan land became isolated, falling under the influence of the Vladimir-Suzdal princes. Smolensk land separated from Kyiv at the end of the 20s of the XII century, when it went to the son of Mstislav I, Rostislav. Under him and his descendants (“Rostislavichs”), the Smolensk principality expanded territorially and strengthened.
The median, connecting position of the Chernigov and Smolensk principalities among other Russian lands involved their princes in all the political events that took place in Rus' in the 12th-13th centuries, and above all in the struggle for their neighboring Kyiv. The Chernigov and Seversk princes, indispensable participants (and often initiators) of all princely strife, were especially active in politics, unscrupulous in the means of combating their opponents and more often than other princes resorted to an alliance with the Polovtsy, with whom they devastated the lands of their rivals. It is no coincidence that the author of The Tale of Igor's Campaign called the founder of the dynasty of Chernigov princes Oleg Svyatoslavich "Gorislavich", the first to start "forging sedition with a sword" and "sowing" the Russian land with strife.
The grand princely power in the Chernihiv and Smolensk lands could not overcome the forces of feudal decentralization (zemstvo nobility and rulers of small principalities), and as a result, these lands at the end of the 12th - first half of the 13th centuries. fragmented into many small principalities, only nominally recognizing the sovereignty of the great princes.

Polotsk-Minsk land

The Polotsk-Minsk land showed early tendencies towards separation from Kyiv. Despite the unfavorable soil conditions for agriculture, the socio-economic development of the Polotsk land proceeded at a high pace due to its favorable location at the crossroads of the most important trade routes along the Western Dvina, Neman and Berezina. Lively trade relations with the West and neighboring Baltic tribes (Livs, Lats, Curonians, etc.), who were under the sovereignty of the Polotsk princes, contributed to the growth of cities with a significant and influential trade and craft stratum in them. A large-scale feudal economy with developed agricultural crafts, the products of which were also exported abroad, also developed here early.
At the beginning of the XI century. Polotsk land went to the brother of Yaroslav the Wise, Izyaslav, whose descendants, relying on the support of the local nobility and townspeople, fought for the independence of their “fatherland” from Kyiv for more than a hundred years with varying success. Polotsk land reached its greatest power in the second half of the 11th century. in the reign of Vseslav Bryachislavich (1044-1103), but in the XII century. it began an intensive process of feudal fragmentation. In the first half of the XIII century. it was already a conglomeration of petty principalities, only nominally recognizing the power of the Grand Duke of Polotsk. These principalities, weakened by internal strife, faced a difficult struggle (in alliance with the neighboring and dependent Baltic tribes) with the German crusaders who invaded the Eastern Baltic. From the middle of the XII century. The Polotsk land became the object of an offensive by the Lithuanian feudal lords.

Galicia-Volyn land

Galicia-Volyn land stretched from the Carpathians and the Dniester-Danube Black Sea region in the south and southwest to the lands of the Lithuanian Yotvingian tribe and Polotsk land in the north. In the west, it bordered on Hungary and Poland, and in the east, on Kyiv land and the Polovtsian steppe. The Galicia-Volyn land was one of the oldest centers of plowed agricultural culture of the Eastern Slavs. Fertile soils, mild climate, numerous rivers and forests, interspersed with steppe spaces, created favorable conditions for the development of agriculture, cattle breeding and various crafts, and at the same time the early development of feudal relations, large feudal princely and boyar land ownership. Handicraft production reached a high level, the separation of which from agriculture contributed to the growth of cities, of which there were more than in other Russian lands. The largest of them were Vladimir-Volynsky, Przemysl, Terebovl, Galich, Berestye, Holm, Drogichin and others. A significant part of the inhabitants of these cities were artisans and merchants. The second trade route from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea (Vistula-Western Bug-Dniester) and overland trade routes from Rus' to the countries of South-Eastern and Central Europe passed through the Galicia-Volyn land. The dependence of the Dniester-Danube lower land on Galich made it possible to control the European navigable trade route along the Danube with the East.
Galician land until the middle of the XII century. was divided into several small principalities, which in 1141 were united by Przemysl prince Vladimir, Volodarevich, who moved his capital to Galich. The highest flourishing and power Galician Principality reached under his son Yaroslav Osmomysl (1153-1187) - a major statesman of that time, who highly raised the international prestige of his principality and successfully defended in his policy all-Russian interests in relations with Byzantium and the European states neighboring Russia. The author of The Tale of Igor's Campaign dedicated the most pathetic lines to the military power and international authority of Yaroslav Osmomysl. After the death of Osmomysl, the Principality of Galicia became the scene of a long struggle between the princes and the oligarchic aspirations of the local boyars. Boyar landownership in the Galician land was ahead of the princely in its development and significantly exceeded the latter in its size. The Galician “great boyars”, who owned huge estates with their own fortified castle cities and had numerous military retainers-vassals, resorted to conspiracies and rebellions in the fight against princes they did not like, entered into an alliance with the Hungarian and Polish feudal lords.
The Volhynian land became isolated from Kyiv in the middle of the 12th century, having secured itself as a tribal “fatherland” for the descendants of the Kyiv Grand Duke Izyaslav Mstislavich. Unlike the neighboring Galician land, a large princely domain formed early in Volhynia. Boyar land ownership grew mainly due to princely grants to the serving boyars, whose support allowed the Volyn princes to start an active struggle to expand their "fatherland". In 1199, the Volyn prince Roman Mstislavich managed to unite the Galician and Volyn lands for the first time, and with his occupation in 1203, Kyiv, under his rule, was the whole of South and South-Western Rus' - a territory equal to the large European states of that time. The reign of Roman Mstislavich was marked by the strengthening of the all-Russian and international position of the Galicia-Volyn region
land, successes in the fight against the Polovtsy, the fight against the recalcitrant boyars, the rise of Western Russian cities, crafts and trade. Thus, the conditions were prepared for the flourishing of South-Western Rus' during the reign of his son Daniil Romanovich.
The death in 1205 in Poland of Roman Mstislavich led to a temporary loss of the achieved political unity of Southwestern Rus', to a weakening of princely power in it. In the struggle against princely power, all groups of the Galician boyars united, unleashing a devastating feudal war that lasted over 30 years.
The boyars colluded with the Hungarian and
Polish feudal lords, who managed to seize the Galician land and part of Volhynia. In the same years, there was an unprecedented case in Rus' when the boyar Vodrdislav Kormilich reigned in Galich. The national liberation struggle against the Hungarian and Polish invaders, which ended in their defeat and expulsion, served as the basis for restoring and strengthening the position of princely power. Relying on the support of the cities, the serving boyars and the nobility, Daniil Romanovich established himself in Volhynia, and then, having occupied Galich in 1238, and Kyiv in 1240, he again united all of South-Western Rus' and the Kievan land.

Novgorod feudal republic

A special political system, different from the principalities-monarchies, developed in the XII century. in Novgorod land, one of the most developed Russian lands. The ancient core of the Novgorod-Pskov land was the land between Ilmen and Lake Peipus and along the banks of the Volkhov, Lovat, Velikaya, Mologa and Msta rivers, which were divided geographically into "pyatinas", and
in the administrative - into "hundreds" and "graveyards". Novgorod "suburbs" (Pskov, Ladoga, Staraya Russa, Velikie Luki, Bezhichi, Yuriev, Torzhok) served as important trading posts on trade routes and military strongholds on the borders of the land. The largest suburb, which occupied a special, autonomous position in the system of the Novgorod Republic (the “younger brother” of Novgorod), was Pskov, which was distinguished by a developed handicraft and its own trade with the Baltic states, German cities, and even with Novgorod itself. In the second half of the XIII century. Pskov actually became an independent feudal republic.
From the 11th century active Novgorodian colonization of Karelia, Podvinya, Prionezhye and the vast northern Pomorye, which became Novgorod colonies, began. Following the peasant colonization (from the Novgorod and Rostov-Suzdal lands) and the Novgorod trade and fishing people, the Novgorod feudal lords also moved there. In the XII - XIII centuries. there were already the largest patrimonial possessions of the Novgorod nobility, who jealously did not allow feudal lords from other principalities to penetrate into these areas and create princely landed property there.
In the XII century. Novgorod was one of the largest and most developed cities in Rus'. The rise of Novgorod was facilitated by its exceptionally advantageous location at the beginning of trade routes important for Eastern Europe, linking the Baltic Sea with the Black and Caspian Seas. This predetermined a significant share of intermediary trade in Novgorod's trade relations with other Russian lands, with Volga Bulgaria, the Caspian and Black Sea regions, the Baltic states, Scandinavia and North German cities. The trade of Novgorod relied on the handicraft and various trades developed in the Novgorod land. Novgorod artisans, distinguished by their wide specialization and professional skills, worked mainly to order, but some of their products went to the city market, and through merchants-buyers to foreign markets. Craftsmen and merchants had their own territorial (“Ulichansky”) and professional associations (“hundreds”, “brothers”), which played a significant role in the political life of Novgorod. The most influential, uniting the top of the Novgorod merchants, was the association of wax merchants (“Ivanskoye Sto”), who were mainly engaged in foreign trade. The Novgorod boyars also actively participated in foreign trade, effectively monopolizing the most profitable trade in furs, which they received from their possessions "in the Dvina and Pomorye and from specially equipped trading and fishing expeditions to the Pechersk and Yugorsk lands.
Despite the predominance of the trade and craft population in Novgorod, the basis of the economy of the Novgorod land was Agriculture and related industries. Due to unfavorable natural conditions grain farming was unproductive and bread was a significant part of Novgorod's imports. Grain stocks in the estates were created at the expense of food rent collected from smerds and used by the feudal lords for speculation in frequent lean years of famine, to entangle the working people in usurious bondage. In a number of areas, the peasants, in addition to the usual rural trades, were engaged in the extraction of iron ore and salt.
In the Novgorod land, a large boyar, and then a church landownership early developed and became dominant. The specifics of the position of the princes in Novgorod, sent from Kyiv as princes-governors, which excluded the possibility of turning Novgorod into a principality, did not contribute to the formation of a large princely domain, thereby weakening the position of princely power in the fight against the oligarchic aspirations of the local boyars. Already the end! in. the Novgorod nobility largely predetermined the candidacies of the princes sent from Kyiv. So, in 1102, the boyars refused to accept the son of the Kyiv Grand Duke Svyatopolk to Novgorod, threatening the latter: “if your son has two heads, then eat him.”
In 1136, the rebellious Novgorodians, supported by the Pskovians and Ladoga residents, expelled Prince Vsevolod Mstislavich, accusing him of "neglecting" the interests of Novgorod. In the Novgorod land liberated from the power of Kyiv, a peculiar political system was established, in which the republican governing bodies stood side by side with and above the princely power. However, the Novgorod feudal lords needed the prince and his retinue to fight against the anti-feudal uprisings of the masses and to protect Novgorod from external danger. In the first period after the uprising of 1136, the scope of the rights and activities of the princely power did not change, but they acquired a service-executive character, were subject to regulation and were placed under the control of the posadnik (primarily in the field of court, which the prince began to administer together with the posadnik). As the political system in Novgorod acquired an increasingly pronounced boyar-oligarchic character, the rights and sphere of activity of princely power were steadily reduced.
The lowest level of organization and management in Novgorod was the association of neighbors - "convicted" with elected elders at the head. Five urban districts - "ends" formed self-governing territorial-administrative and political units, which also had special Konchan lands in collective feudal ownership. At the ends, their veche gathered, electing the Konchan elders.
The city veche meeting of free citizens, owners of city yards and estates was considered the highest body of power, representing all ends. The bulk of the urban plebs, who lived on the lands and estates of the feudal lords in the position of tenants or bonded and feudal-dependent people, were not entitled to participate in the issuance of veche sentences, but thanks to the publicity of the veche, which met on Sophia Square or Yaroslav's Court, could follow the course of the veche debate and with her stormy reaction she often exerted a certain amount of pressure on the Vechnikovs. Veche considered the most important issues of internal and foreign policy, invited the prince and entered into a series with him, elected the posadnik, who was in charge of administration and court and controlled the activities of the prince, and the thousandth, who led the militia and had a special significance in Novgorod, the commercial court.
In the entire history of the Novgorod Republic, the positions of posadnik, Konchansky elders and thousandths were occupied only by representatives of 30-40 boyar families - the elite of the Novgorod nobility ("300 golden belts").
In order to further strengthen the independence of Novgorod from Kyiv and turn the Novgorod bishopric from an ally of princely power into one of the instruments of their political domination, the Novgorod nobility managed to elect (since 1156) the Novgorod bishop, who, as the head of a powerful feudal church hierarchy, turned soon one of the first dignitaries of the republic.
The veche system in Novgorod and Pskov was a kind of feudal "democracy", one of the forms of the feudal state, in which the democratic principles of representation and election of officials at the veche created the illusion of "people's power", the participation of "all Novgorodgorod in governance, but where in reality all the fullness of power was concentrated in the hands of the boyars and the privileged elite of the merchant class. Taking into account the political activity of the city plebs, the boyars skillfully used the democratic traditions of Konchan self-government as a symbol of Novgorod liberty, covering their political dominance and providing them with the support of the city plebs in the struggle against princely power.
Political history Novgorod in the XII - XIII centuries. It was distinguished by the complex interweaving of the struggle for independence with the anti-feudal actions of the masses and the struggle for power between the boyar groups (representing the boyar families of the Sofia and Trade sides of the city, its ends and streets). The boyars often used the anti-feudal actions of the urban poor to remove their rivals from power, dulling the anti-feudal character of these actions to the point of reprisals against individual boyars or officials. The largest anti-feudal movement was the uprising in 1207 against the posadnik Dmitry Miroshkinich and his relatives, who burdened the city people and peasants with arbitrary exactions and usurious bondage. The rebels destroyed the city estates and villages of Miroshkinichi, confiscated their debt bondages. The boyars, hostile to the Miroshkinichs, took advantage of the uprising to remove them from power.
Novgorod had to wage a stubborn struggle for its independence with the neighboring princes, who sought to subjugate the rich "free" city. The Novgorod boyars skillfully used the rivalry between the princes to choose among them strong allies. At the same time, rival boyar groups drew the rulers of neighboring principalities into their struggle. The most difficult for Novgorod was the struggle with the Suzdal princes, who enjoyed the support of an influential group of Novgorod boyars and merchants, connected by trade interests with North-Eastern Russia. important tool political pressure on Novgorod in the hands of the Suzdal princes was the cessation of the supply of grain from North-Eastern Rus'. The positions of the Suzdal princes in Novgorod were significantly strengthened when their military assistance to the Novgorodians and Pskovians became decisive in repelling the aggression of the German Crusaders and Swedish feudal lords, who were striving to capture the western and northern Novgorod territories.

In modern historiography, the title "Kyiv princes" is used to designate a number of rulers of the Kyiv principality and the Old Russian state. The classical period of their reign began in 912 with the reign of Igor Rurikovich, who was the first to bear the title of "Grand Duke of Kyiv", and lasted until about the middle of the 12th century, when the collapse of the Old Russian state began. Let's take a brief look at the most prominent rulers during this period.

Oleg the Prophet (882-912)

Igor Rurikovich (912-945) - the first ruler of Kyiv, called the "Grand Duke of Kyiv." During his reign, he conducted a number of military campaigns, both against neighboring tribes (Pechenegs and Drevlyans), and against the Byzantine kingdom. The Pechenegs and the Drevlyans recognized the supremacy of Igor, but the Byzantines, militarily better equipped, put up stubborn resistance. In 944, Igor was forced to sign a peace treaty with Byzantium. At the same time, the terms of the agreement were beneficial for Igor, since Byzantium paid a significant tribute. A year later, he decided to attack the Drevlyans again, despite the fact that they had already recognized his authority and paid tribute to him. Igor's warriors, in turn, got the opportunity to cash in on the robberies of the local population. The Drevlyans ambushed in 945 and, having captured Igor, executed him.

Olga (945-964)- The widow of Prince Rurik, who was killed in 945 by the Drevlyane tribe. She headed the state until her son, Svyatoslav Igorevich, became an adult. It is not known exactly when she transferred power to her son. Olga was the first of the rulers of Rus' to accept Christianity, while the whole country, the army and even her son were still pagans. Important facts of her reign were the subjugation of the Drevlyans who killed her husband Igor Rurikovich. Olga established the exact amount of taxes that the lands subject to Kyiv had to pay, systematized the frequency of their payment and the timing. An administrative reform was carried out, dividing the lands subordinate to Kyiv into clearly defined units, each of which was headed by a princely official "tiun". Under Olga, the first stone buildings appeared in Kyiv, Olga's tower and the city palace.

Svyatoslav (964-972)- the son of Igor Rurik and Princess Olga. A characteristic feature of the reign was that Olga actually ruled most of his time, first because of Svyatoslav's minority, and then because of his constant military campaigns and absence in Kyiv. Assumed power around 950. He did not follow the example of his mother, and did not accept Christianity, which was then unpopular among the secular and military nobility. The reign of Svyatoslav Igorevich was marked by a series of continuous conquest campaigns that he carried out against neighboring tribes and state formations. The Khazars, Vyatichi, the Bulgarian kingdom (968-969) and Byzantium (970-971) were attacked. The war with Byzantium brought heavy losses to both sides, and ended, in fact, in a draw. Returning from this campaign, Svyatoslav was ambushed by the Pechenegs and was killed.

Yaropolk (972-978)

Vladimir the Saint (978-1015)- Kyiv prince, best known for the baptism of Rus'. He was a prince of Novgorod from 970 to 978, when he seized the throne of Kyiv. During his reign, he continuously conducted campaigns against neighboring tribes and states. He conquered and annexed to his state the tribes of the Vyatichi, Yatvyag, Radimichi and Pechenegs. He carried out a number of state reforms aimed at strengthening the power of the prince. In particular, he began minting a single state coin, replacing the previously used Arab and Byzantine money. With the help of invited Bulgarian and Byzantine teachers, he began to spread literacy in Rus', forcibly sending children to study. He founded the cities of Pereyaslavl and Belgorod. The main achievement is the baptism of Rus', carried out in 988. The introduction of Christianity as the state religion also contributed to the centralization of the Old Russian state. The resistance of various pagan cults, then widespread in Rus', weakened the power of the Kyiv throne and was brutally suppressed. Prince Vladimir died in 1015 during another military campaign against the Pechenegs.

SvyatopolkCursed (1015-1016)

Yaroslav the Wise (1016-1054) is the son of Vladimir. He feuded with his father and seized power in Kyiv in 1016, driving his brother Svyatopolk away. The reign of Yaroslav is represented in history by traditional raids on neighboring states and internecine wars with numerous relatives who claimed the throne. For this reason, Yaroslav was forced to temporarily leave the throne of Kyiv. He built the churches of Hagia Sophia in Novgorod and Kyiv. It is to her that the main temple in Constantinople is dedicated, therefore the fact of such a construction spoke of the equality of the Russian church with the Byzantine one. As part of the confrontation with the Byzantine Church, he independently appointed the first Russian Metropolitan Hilarion in 1051. Yaroslav also founded the first Russian monasteries: the Kiev Caves Monastery in Kyiv and the Yuryev Monastery in Novgorod. For the first time he codified feudal law by issuing a code of laws "Russian Truth" and a church charter. Spent great job on the translation of Greek and Byzantine books into Old Russian and Church Slavonic, he constantly spent large sums on the correspondence of new books. He founded a large school in Novgorod, in which the children of elders and priests learned to read and write. He strengthened diplomatic and military ties with the Varangians, thus securing the northern borders of the state. He died in Vyshgorod in February 1054.

SvyatopolkCursed (1018-1019)- secondary interim rule

Izyaslav (1054-1068)- son of Yaroslav the Wise. According to his father's will, he sat on the throne of Kyiv in 1054. Throughout almost the entire reign, he was at enmity with his younger brothers Svyatoslav and Vsevolod, who sought to seize the prestigious Kyiv throne. In 1068, the troops of Izyaslav were defeated by the Polovtsians in a battle on the Alta River. This led to the Kyiv uprising in 1068. At the veche meeting, the remnants of the defeated militia demanded that they be given weapons in order to continue the fight against the Polovtsy, but Izyaslav refused to do this, which forced the people of Kiev to revolt. Izyaslav was forced to flee to the Polish king, his nephew. With the military help of the Poles, Izyaslav regained the throne for the period 1069-1073, was again overthrown, and ruled for the last time from 1077 to 1078.

Vseslav Charodey (1068-1069)

Svyatoslav (1073-1076)

Vsevolod (1076-1077)

Svyatopolk (1093-1113)- the son of Izyaslav Yaroslavich, before taking the throne of Kyiv, he periodically headed the Novgorod and Turov principalities. Start Kyiv principality Svyatopolk was marked by the invasion of the Polovtsy, who inflicted a serious defeat on the troops of Svyatopolk in the battle near the Stugna River. This was followed by several more battles, the outcome of which is not known for certain, but in the end, peace was concluded with the Polovtsy, and Svyatopolk took the daughter of Khan Tugorkan as his wife. The subsequent reign of Svyatopolk was overshadowed by the continuous struggle between Vladimir Monomakh and Oleg Svyatoslavich, in which Svyatopolk usually supported Monomakh. Svyatopolk also repelled the constant raids of the Polovtsians led by the khans Tugorkan and Bonyak. He died suddenly in the spring of 1113, possibly by poisoning.

Vladimir Monomakh (1113-1125) was a prince of Chernigov when his father died. He had the right to the Kyiv throne, but gave it to his cousin Svyatopolk, because he did not want war at that time. In 1113, the people of Kiev raised an uprising, and, having thrown Svyatopolk, they invited Vladimir to the kingdom. For this reason, he was forced to accept the so-called "Charter of Vladimir Monomakh", which alleviates the situation of the city's lower classes. The law did not affect the foundations of the feudal system, but regulated the conditions of enslavement and limited the profits of usurers. Under Monomakh, Rus' reached the peak of its power. The Minsk principality was conquered, and the Polovtsy were forced to migrate east of the Russian borders. With the help of an impostor who pretended to be the son of the previously killed Byzantine emperor, Monomakh organized an adventure aimed at placing him on the Byzantine throne. Several Danubian cities were conquered, but success could not be further developed. The campaign ended in 1123 with the signing of peace. Monomakh organized the publication of improved editions of The Tale of Bygone Years, which have survived in this form to this day. Monomakh also created several works on his own: the autobiographical Ways and Fishes, the code of laws “the charter of Vladimir Vsevolodovich” and “Instructions of Vladimir Monomakh”.

Mstislav the Great (1125-1132)- the son of Monomakh, formerly the prince of Belgorod. He ascended the throne of Kyiv in 1125 without resistance from the other brothers. Among the most outstanding deeds of Mstislav, one can name a campaign against the Polovtsians in 1127 and the sacking of the cities of Izyaslav, Strezhev and Lagozhsk. After a similar campaign in 1129, the Principality of Polotsk was finally annexed to the possessions of Mstislav. In order to collect tribute, several campaigns were made in the Baltic states, against the Chud tribe, but they ended in failure. In April 1132, Mstislav died suddenly, but managed to transfer the throne to Yaropolk, his brother.

Yaropolk (1132-1139)- Being the son of Monomakh, he inherited the throne when his brother Mstislav died. At the time of coming to power, he was 49 years old. In fact, he controlled only Kyiv and its environs. By his natural inclinations he was a good warrior, but he did not possess diplomatic and political abilities. Immediately after the assumption of the throne, the traditional civil strife began, connected with the succession to the throne in the Principality of Pereyaslavl. Yuri and Andrei Vladimirovich expelled Vsevolod Mstislavich from Pereyaslavl, who was imprisoned there by Yaropolk. Also, the situation in the country was complicated by the frequent raids of the Polovtsy, who, together with the allied Chernigov, plundered the outskirts of Kyiv. The indecisive policy of Yaropolk led to a military defeat in the battle on the Supoy River with the troops of Vsevolod Olgovich. The cities of Kursk and Posemye were also lost during the reign of Yaropolk. This development of events further weakened his authority, which was used by the Novgorodians, who announced their separation in 1136. The result of the reign of Yaropolk was the actual collapse of the Old Russian state. Formally, only the Principality of Rostov-Suzdal retained submission to Kyiv.

Vyacheslav (1139, 1150, 1151-1154)