Content

Introduction
I. Reforms of Peter I
1.1. Economic transformation
1.2. Church reform
1.3. Changes in the field of culture, science and life
II. Reforms of Catherine II
Conclusion

Introduction
In the reign of Peter the Great, reforms were carried out in all areas of the state life of the country. Many of these transformations go back to the 17th century. The socio-economic transformations of that time served as the prerequisites for Peter's reforms, the task and content of which was the formation of the nobility and bureaucracy of absolutism.
Peter turned Russia into a truly European country (at least, as he understood it) - it is not for nothing that the expression “cut a window to Europe” has become so often used. Milestones on this path were the conquest of access to the Baltic, the construction of a new capital - St. Petersburg, active intervention in European politics.
Peter's activity created all the conditions for a wider acquaintance of Russia with the culture, lifestyle, and technologies of European civilization.
One more important feature Peter's reforms was that they affected all sectors of society, in contrast to the previous attempts of Russian rulers. The construction of the fleet, the Northern War, the creation of a new capital - all this became the business of the whole country.
The reforms of Catherine II were also aimed at creating a powerful absolute state. The policy pursued by her in the 1960s and early 1970s was called the policy of enlightened absolutism. This policy brought the moment of transition of public life to a new, more progressive formation.
The time of Catherine II was the time of the awakening of scientific, literary and philosophical interests in Russian society, the time of the birth of the Russian intelligentsia.

I. Reforms of Peter I

Economic transformation
During the Petrine era, the Russian economy, and above all industry, made a giant leap. At the same time, the development of the economy in the first quarter of the XVIII century. It followed the path outlined by the previous period. In the Muscovite state of the XVI-XVII centuries. There were large industrial enterprises - Cannon Yard, Printing Yard, arms factories in Tula, a shipyard in Dedinovo, etc. Peter's policy in relation to economic life was characterized by a high degree of command and protectionist methods.
In agriculture, opportunities for improvement were drawn from the further development of fertile lands, the cultivation of industrial crops that provided raw materials for industry, the development of animal husbandry, the advancement of agriculture to the east and south, as well as the more intensive exploitation of the peasants. The increased needs of the state for raw materials for Russian industry led to the widespread use of crops such as flax and hemp. The decree of 1715 encouraged the cultivation of flax and hemp, as well as tobacco, mulberry trees for silkworms. The decree of 1712 ordered the creation of horse breeding farms in the Kazan, Azov and Kyiv provinces, sheep breeding was also encouraged.
In the Petrine era, the country was sharply divided into two zones of feudal economy - the lean North, where the feudal lords transferred their peasants to quitrent, often letting them go to the city and other agricultural areas to earn money, and the fertile South, where the nobles - landowners sought to expand corvee .
The state duties of the peasants also increased. Cities were built by their forces) 40 thousand peasants worked for the construction of St. Petersburg), manufactories, bridges, roads; annual recruiting was carried out, old fees were increased and new ones were introduced. The main goal of Peter's policy all the time was to obtain the largest possible financial and human resources for state needs.
Two censuses were carried out - 1710 and 1718. According to the 1718 census, the "soul" of the male sex became the unit of taxation, regardless of age, from which the poll tax was levied in the amount of 70 kopecks per year (from state peasants 1 rub. 10 kop. in year). This streamlined the tax policy and sharply raised state revenues.
In industry, there was a sharp reorientation from small peasant and handicraft farms to manufactories. Under Peter, at least 200 new manufactories were founded, he encouraged their creation in every possible way. State policy was also aimed at protecting the young Russian industry from Western European competition by introducing very high customs duties (Customs Charter of 1724).
The Russian manufactory, although it had capitalist features, but the use of mainly the labor of peasants - possession, ascribed, quitrent, etc. - made it a serf enterprise. Depending on whose property they were, manufactories were divided into state, merchant and landowner. In 1721, industrialists were granted the right to buy peasants to secure them to the enterprise (possession peasants).
State state-owned factories used the labor of state peasants, bonded peasants, recruits and free hired craftsmen. They mainly served heavy industry - metallurgy, shipyards, mines. The merchant manufactories, which produced mainly consumer goods, employed both sessional and quitrent peasants, as well as civilian labor. Landlord enterprises were fully provided by the forces of the serfs of the landowner.
Peter's protectionist policy led to the emergence of manufactories in various industries, often appearing in Russia for the first time. The main ones were those who worked for the army and navy: metallurgical, weapons, shipbuilding, cloth, linen, leather, etc. encouraged entrepreneurial activity, favorable conditions were created for people who created new manufactories or rented state ones.
There are manufactories in many industries - glass, gunpowder, paper, canvas, paint, sawmill and many others. A huge contribution to the development of the metallurgical industry of the Urals was made by Nikita Demidov, who enjoyed the special favor of the king. The emergence of the foundry industry in Karelia on the basis of the Ural ores, the construction of the Vyshevolotsky Canal, contributed to the development of metallurgy in new areas, brought Russia to one of the first places in the world in this industry. At the beginning of the XVIII century. About 150 thousand poods of cast iron were smelted in Russia, in 1725 - more than 800 thousand poods (from 1722 Russia exported cast iron), and by the end of the 18th century. - more than 2 million pounds.
By the end of the reign of Peter in Russia there was a developed diversified industry with centers in St. Petersburg, Moscow, and the Urals. The largest enterprises were the Admiralty shipyard, Arsenal, St. Petersburg powder factories, metallurgical plants in the Urals, Khamovny yard in Moscow. There was a strengthening of the all-Russian market, the accumulation of capital thanks to the mercantilist policy of the state. Russia supplied competitive goods to world markets: iron, linen, potash, furs, caviar.
Thousands of Russians were trained in Europe in various specialties, and, in turn, foreigners - weapons engineers, metallurgists, locksmiths were hired into the Russian service. Thanks to this, Russia was enriched with the most advanced technologies in Europe.
As a result of Peter's policy in the economic field, a powerful industry was created in an extremely short period of time, capable of fully meeting military and state needs and not dependent on imports in anything.

1.2. Church reform

Peter's church reform played an important role in establishing absolutism. In the second half of the XVII century. The positions of the Russian Orthodox Church were very strong; it retained administrative, financial and judicial autonomy in relation to the royal power. The last patriarchs Joachim (1675-1690) and Adrian (1690-1700) pursued a policy aimed at strengthening these positions.
Church policy of Peter, as well as his policy in other areas of public life. It was aimed primarily at the most efficient use of the church for the needs of the state, and more specifically, at squeezing money out of the church for state programs, primarily for the construction of the fleet. After Peter's journey as part of the great embassy, ​​he is also occupied with the problem of the complete subordination of the church to his authority.
turn to new policy occurred after the death of Patriarch Adrian. Peter orders to conduct an audit for the census of the property of the Patriarchal House. Taking advantage of the information about the revealed abuses, Peter cancels the election of a new patriarch, at the same time entrusting Metropolitan Stefan Yavorsky of Ryazan with the post of "locum tenens of the patriarchal throne." In 1701, the Monastery Order was formed - a secular institution for managing the affairs of the church. The church begins to lose its independence from the state, the right to dispose of its property.
Peter, guided by the enlightening idea of ​​the public good, which requires the productive work of all members of society, launches an offensive against monks and monasteries. In 1701, the royal decree limited the number of monks: for permission to be tonsured, now you need to apply to the Monastic order. Subsequently, the king had the idea to use the monasteries as shelters for retired soldiers and beggars. In the decree of 1724, the number of monks in the monastery is directly dependent on the number of people they look after.
The existing relationship between the church and the authorities required a new legal formalization. In 1721, Feofan Prokopovich, a prominent figure in the Petrine era, drew up the Spiritual Regulations, which provided for the destruction of the institution of the patriarchate and the formation of a new body - the Spiritual College, which was soon renamed the "Holy Government Synod", officially equalized in rights with the Senate. Stefan Yavorsky became president, Feodosy Yanovsky and Feofan Prokopovich became vice presidents.
The creation of the Synod was the beginning of the absolutist period of Russian history, since now all power, including church power, was concentrated in the hands of Peter. A contemporary reports that when Russian church leaders tried to protest, Peter pointed them to the Spiritual Regulations and said: “Here is the spiritual patriarch for you, and if you don’t like him, then here you are (throwing a dagger on the table) a damask patriarch.”
The adoption of the Spiritual Regulations actually turned the Russian clergy into state officials, especially since a secular person, the chief prosecutor, was appointed to supervise the Synod.
The reform of the church was carried out in parallel with the tax reform. Records and classification of priests were carried out, and their lower layers were transferred to the capitation salary. According to the consolidated statements of the Kazan, Nizhny Novgorod and Astrakhan provinces (formed as a result of the division of the Kazan province), only 3044 priests out of 8709 (35%) were exempt from tax. A stormy reaction among the priests was caused by the Resolution of the Synod of May 17, 1722, in which the clergy were charged with the obligation to violate the secrecy of confession if they had the opportunity to communicate any information important to the state.
As a result of the church reform, the church lost a huge part of its influence and turned into a part of the state apparatus, strictly controlled and managed by secular authorities.

1.3. Changes in the field of culture, science and life.
The process of Europeanization of Russia in the era of Peter the Great is the most controversial part of the Petrine reforms. Even before Perth, the prerequisites for broad Europeanization were created, ties with foreign countries were noticeably strengthened, Western European cultural traditions gradually penetrate into Russia, even barbering goes back to the pre-Petrine era. In 1687, the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy was opened - the first institution of higher education in Russia. Yet Peter's work was revolutionary. V.Ya. Ulanov wrote: “What was new in the formulation of the cultural question under Peter the Great was that now culture was called upon as a creative force not only in the field of special technology, but also in its broad cultural and everyday manifestations, and not only in application to the chosen society ... but also in relation to the broad masses of the people.
The most important stage in the implementation of the reforms was the visit of Peter as part of the Great Embassy of a number of European countries. Upon his return, Peter sent many young nobles to Europe to study various specialties, mainly to master the marine sciences. The tsar also took care of the development of education in Russia. In 1701, in Moscow, in the Sukharev Tower, the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences was opened, headed by a professor at the University of Aberdeen, a Scot Forvarson. One of the teachers of this school was Leonty Magnitsky, the author of "Arithmetic ...". In 1711, an engineering school appeared in Moscow.
Peter strove to overcome as soon as possible the Tatar-Mongol yoke disunity between Russia and Europe. One of its appearances was a different chronology, and in 1700 Peter transferred Russia to a new calendar - the year 7208 becomes 1700, and the celebration of the New Year is postponed from September 1 to January 1.
In 1703, the first issue of the Vedomosti newspaper, the first Russian newspaper, was published in Moscow; in 1702, the Kunsht troupe was invited to Moscow to create a theater.
There were important changes in the life of the nobles, which remade the Russian nobility “in the image and likeness” of the European one. In 1717, the book “An Honest Mirror of Youth” was published - a kind of textbook of etiquette, and from 1718 there were Assemblies - noble assemblies modeled on European ones.
However, we must not forget that all these transformations came exclusively from above, and therefore were quite painful for both the upper and lower strata of society.
Peter sought to make Russia a European country in every sense of the word and gave great importance even the smallest details of the process.

II. Reforms of Catherine II

As a result of the latter in the XVIII century. palace coup, carried out on June 28, 1762, the wife of Perth III, who became Empress Catherine II (1762-1796), was elevated to the Russian throne.
Catherine II began her reign with the confirmation of the Manifesto on the Liberty of the Nobility and generous gifts to the participants in the coup. Having proclaimed herself the successor of the cause of Peter I, Catherine directed all her efforts to create a powerful absolute state.
In 1763, the Senate reform was carried out in order to streamline the work of the Senate, which had long turned into a bureaucratic institution. The Senate was divided into six departments with clearly defined functions for each of them. In 1763-1764. the secularization of church lands was carried out, which was associated with a reduction (from 881 to 385) in the number of monasteries. Thus, the economic viability of the church was undermined, which from now on became completely dependent on the state. The process of turning the church into a part of the state apparatus begun by Peter I was completed.
The economic base of the state has been significantly strengthened. In 1764, the hetmanship in Ukraine was liquidated, management passed to the new Little Russian Collegium, located in Kyiv and headed by Governor-General P.A. Rumyantsev. This was accompanied by the transfer of the mass of ordinary Cossacks to the position of peasants, serfdom began to spread to Ukraine.
Catherine received the throne illegally and only thanks to the support of noble officers, she sought support in the nobility, realizing the fragility of her position. A whole series of decrees expanded and strengthened the class rights and privileges of the nobility. The Manifesto of 1765 on the implementation of the General Land Survey for the nobility was assigned a monopoly right to own land, it also provided for the sale to the nobles of 5 kopecks. for a tithe of lands and wastelands.
The nobility was assigned super-preferential conditions for promotion to officer ranks, and funds for the upkeep of estates of the nobility increased significantly. educational institutions. At the same time, the decrees of the 60s consolidated the omnipotence of the landowners and the complete lack of rights of the peasants. According to the Decree of 1767, any, even just, complaint of the peasants against the landowners was declared the gravest state crime.
So the landowner's power under Catherine II acquired wider legal boundaries.
Unlike her predecessors, Catherine II was a major and intelligent politician, a clever politician. Being well educated, familiar with the works of the French enlighteners, she understood that it was no longer possible to rule by the old methods. The policy pursued by her in the 60s - early 70s. called the policy of enlightened absolutism. The socio-economic basis of the policy of enlightened absolutism was the development of a new capitalist order that destroyed the old feudal relations.
The policy of enlightened absolutism was a natural stage in state development and, despite the half-heartedness of the reforms carried out, brought the moment of transition of social life closer to a new, more progressive formation.
Within two years, Catherine II drew up a program of new legislation in the form of a mandate for the convened commission to draw up a new Code, since the Code of 1649 was outdated. The "mandate" of Catherine II was the result of her previous reflections on enlightenment literature and a peculiar perception of the ideas of the French and German enlighteners. "Instruction" concerned all the main parts state structure, management, supreme power, the rights and obligations of citizens, estates, to a greater extent legislation and the court. In Nakaz, the principle of autocratic rule was substantiated: “The Sovereign is autocratic; for no other, as soon as the power united in his person, can act similarly to the space of such a great state ... ”A guarantee against despotism, according to Catherine, was the assertion of the principle of strict legality, as well as the separation of the judiciary from the executive and the continuous transformation associated with it legal proceedings, liquidating obsolete feudal institutions.
Program economic policy inevitably brought to the fore the peasant question, which was of great importance in the conditions of serfdom. The nobility showed itself as a reactionary force (with the exception of individual deputies), ready to defend the feudal order by any means. Merchants and Cossacks thought about acquiring privileges to own serfs, and not about softening serfdom.
In the 1960s, a number of decrees were issued that dealt a blow to the prevailing system of monopolies. By decree of 1762, calico factories and sugar factories were allowed to open freely. In 1767, the freedom of urban crafts was declared, which was of great importance. Thus, the laws of the 60-70s. created favorable conditions for the growth of peasant industry and its development into capitalist production.
The time of Catherine II was the time of the awakening of scientific, literary and philosophical interests in Russian society, the time of the birth of the Russian intelligentsia. And although it covered only a small part of the population, it was an important step forward. In the reign of Catherine, the first Russian charitable institutions also appeared. Catherine's time is the heyday of Russian culture, this is the time of A.P. Sumarokova, D.I. Fonvizina, G.I. Derzhavin, N.I. Novikova, A.N. Radishcheva, D.G. Levitsky, F.S. Rokotova, etc.
In November 1796, Catherine passed away. Her son Pavel (1796-1801) reigned on the throne. Under Paul I, a course was established to strengthen absolutism, maximize the centralization of the state apparatus, and strengthen the personal power of the monarch.

Conclusion
The main result of the set of Peter's reforms was the establishment of absolutism in Russia, the crown of which was the change in 1721 of the title of the Russian monarch - Perth declared himself emperor, and the country began to be called Russian Empire. Thus, what Peter was going for all the years of his reign was formalized - the creation of a state with a coherent system of government, a strong army and navy, a powerful economy that had an impact on international politics. As a result of Peter's reforms, the state was not bound by anything and could use any means to achieve its goals. As a result, Peter came to his ideal state structure - a warship, where everything and everything is subject to the will of one person - the captain, and managed to bring this ship out of the swamp into the stormy waters of the ocean, bypassing all the reefs and shoals.
The role of Peter the Great in the history of Russia can hardly be overestimated. No matter how one relates to the methods and style of carrying out transformations, one cannot but admit that Peter the Great is one of the most famous figures in world history.
All the reforms of Catherine II were also aimed at creating a powerful absolutist state. The policy pursued by her was called "the policy of enlightened absolutism."
On the one hand, Catherine proclaimed the progressive truths of enlightenment philosophy (especially in the chapters on legal proceedings and economics), on the other hand, she confirmed the inviolability of the autocratic-serf system. While strengthening absolutism, it preserved autocracy, introducing only adjustments (greater freedom of economic life, some foundations of the bourgeois legal order, the idea of ​​the need for enlightenment), which contributed to the development of the capitalist way of life.
The undoubted merit of Catherine was the introduction of widespread public education.

Bibliography.
1. Soloviev S.M. On the history of the new Russia. - M.: Enlightenment, 1993
2. Anisimov E.V. Time of Peter's reforms. - L .: Lenizdat, 1989
3. Anisimov E.V., Kamensky A.B. Russia in the 18th - the first half of the 19th century: History. Document. - M.: MIROS, 1994
4. Pavlenko N.I. Peter the Great. - M.: Thought, 1990

In art, there is a process of regulation, complete subordination and control by the royal authorities. Created back in 1648, the Academy of Painting and Sculpture is now officially administered by the first minister of the king. In 1671 the Academy of Architecture was founded. Control is established over all kinds of artistic life. Classicism officially becomes the leading style of all art.

In classicism of the second half of the XVII century. there is no sincerity and depth of Lorrain's paintings, the high moral ideal of Poussin. This is an official direction, adapted to the requirements of the court and, above all, the king himself, art regulated, unified, painted according to a set of rules, what and how to depict, which is what Lebrun's special treatise is devoted to.

Architecture.

Large structures are being created in the country to glorify the king.

Louis Levo Palace of Vaux-le-Vicomte. Versailles.

Jules Adrouin Mansart. Supervised the expansion of the palace at Versailles. Vendom Square. Cathedral of the Invalides

.

Claude Perrault. Louvre.

François Blondel. Triumphal Arch

Ticket 17

Art of Byzantium (5th-7th century) Byzantine art is a historical-regional type of art included in the historical type of medieval art.

658 BC Byzantium was founded by Greek colonists on an island between the Golden Horn and the Sea of ​​Marmara. Leader Byzantium - the city of Byzantium. Thanks to good geographic location Byzantium began to occupy one of the most prominent and important places among the Greek policies.

periodization

early Christian period(the so-called pre-Byzantine culture, I-III centuries); Church of San Apolinare

early Byzantine period, the "golden age" of Emperor Justinian I (527-565), the architecture of the Church of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople (architects Anthimius from Traal and Isidore from Miletus, the peak of the development of arched-vaulted structures 527g) and Ravenna mosaics (VI-VII centuries), sculptures ( good donkey) + illustrating books (including church ones); Church of San Vitale 526-547, octagon in plan, encaustic iconography (Christ Pantokrator).

Early Byzantine period construction of various monastic ensembles and temples. The most characteristic are such types of temples as longitudinally basilic and cross-domed.

basilica- a type of building of a rectangular shape, which consists of an odd number (1, 3 or 5) of naves of different heights.

In a multi-nave basilica, the naves are separated by longitudinal rows of columns or pillars, with independent coverings. Central nave - usually wider and larger in height, illuminated by windows of the second tier

iconoclastic period(VIII-early IX century). Emperor Leo III the Isaurian (717-741), founder of the Isaurian dynasty, issued an Edict banning icons. This period was called "dark time" - largely by analogy with a similar stage in the development of Western Europe; (Church of St. Irene 4c, Istanbul) the first mosaics were destroyed

period of the Macedonian Renaissance(867-1056) Considered to be the classical period of Byzantine art. XI century was the highest point of prosperity. Information about the world was drawn from the Bible and from the works of ancient authors. The harmony of art was achieved through strict regulation; Icon restoration.

period of conservatism under the emperors of the Comnene dynasty (1081-1185) of the Hellenistic tradition (1261-1453). Canonical iconography.

The term Byzantine art denotes not only the art of the eastern part of the Roman Empire, but also a specific style, since this style grew out of certain trends, the emergence of which can be attributed to the reign of Constantine and even earlier.

Cross-domed church- an architectural type of a Christian temple, formed in Byzantium and in the countries of the Christian East in the 5th-8th centuries. It became dominant in the architecture of Byzantium from the 9th century and was adopted by the Christian countries of the Orthodox confession as the main form of the temple. In the classic version, it is a rectangular volume, the center of which is divided by 4 pillars into 9 cells. The ceiling is cross-shaped cylindrical vaults, and above the central cell, on spring arches, rises a drum with a dome.

Mosaic Justinian with retinue.

18) QUESTION 1

Italian art developed within the framework of local schools. Tuscan, Lombard, Venetian schools have developed in architecture, in the style of which new trends are often combined with local traditions. AT fine arts, primarily in painting, several schools were also formed - Florentine, Umbrian, northern Italian, Venetian - with their own unique stylistic features. Brunelleschi, Donatello, Masaccio - three Florentine geniuses - opened a new era in architecture and fine arts. Having created the original design of the dome of the Florentine Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore, the foundling shelter (Ospedale degli Innocenti), the Church of San Lorenzo
Philippe Brunelleschi (1377-1446) gave a powerful impetus to the innovative development of Italian architecture. An octagonal dome with a diameter of 42 m majestically rose above the Gothic cathedral, becoming a symbol of the power of the city and the strength of the human mind. In the buildings of Brunelleschi in Florence - the Pazzi Chapel,

in contrast to the aspiration of the building upwards, characteristic of Gothic, Brunelleschi first created the lower floor of the facade in the form of a light portico, which unfolded horizontally in its entire width and adjoins the square. The projects of Leon Battista Alberti were marked by innovation: in the Palazzo Rucellai

in Florence, he first used the division of the three tiers of the facade with pilasters of different orders,
The Venetian architecture of the Renaissance was distinguished by its originality. It took shape later than in Tuscany, in the last decades of the 15th century. Local Gothic traditions were combined in it with Renaissance features. The Venetians appreciated the elegance and colorfulness of buildings. The palaces of the patrician nobility standing on stilts were decorated with loggias, fine stone carvings, multi-colored inlays, bricks were faced with imported marble. The features of the new architecture were manifested not only in secular buildings, but also in church architecture, most clearly in the church of San Zaccaria.
The outstanding Florentine sculptor Donatello (c. 1386-1466) became a true reformer of the art of sculpture. He was the first to create a free-standing statue, not related to architecture, was the author of the first equestrian monument - a monument to the condottiere Gattamelata in Padua,
embodied in stone and bronze the beauty of the naked human body (the relief of the singing pulpit of the Florence Cathedral, the statue of David). Spiritual images of his relief "Annunciation"

The formation and development of Renaissance painting was a complex process. Even in the first third of the XIV century. the great artist Giotto in his frescoes in the Arena Chapel in Padua
he places figures that acquire volume in a three-dimensional, albeit shallow, space.
The birth of a new, actually Renaissance painting is connected, however, with the name of another outstanding Florentine - Masaccio (1401-1428/29). His frescoes in the Brancacci Chapel in the Church of Santa Maria del Carmine in Florence
became a school for many generations of artists. In the frescoes by Masaccio depicting the expulsion from paradise of Adam and Eve and scenes from the life of the Apostle Peter, executed by Beato Angelico. In his work, which was influenced by Masaccio, along with Renaissance features, the traditions of medieval art were still preserved. Creating his fresco "Procession of the Magi" in the Medici Palace

Subtle, spiritualized images of the Madonnas were created by Sandro Botticelli (1445-1510). In his work, their delicate and fragile beauty draws close to the images of the ancient goddess of love Venus. In "Spring"
the artist depicts Venus against the backdrop of a fabulous garden, along with the goddess of fertility Flora, strewn with flowers, three dancing graces and other characters of ancient mythology. In "The Birth of Venus"
In the last decades of the fifteenth century along with the Florentine school of painting, schools and trends in Central (Umbria) and Northern (Lombardy, Venice) Italy, which have their own special style, are formed. The beginning of the Umbrian school of painting was laid by the work of one of the greatest masters of Central Italy, Piero della Francesca (c. 1420-1492). He was the author of a treatise on perspective, an outstanding muralist who created the frescoes "The Arrival of the Queen of Sheba to King Solomon"

,

and others in the church of San Francesco in Arezzo, and the greatest colorist who was able to convey the beauty of color harmonies in a light-air environment. His images are heroized, they are imbued with majesty, epic calm. The artist's humanistic ideas about man found expression in portraits painted around 1465 of the Duke of Urbino, Federigo da Montefeltro, and his wife, Battista Sforza. Pietro Perugino also belonged to the Umbrian school, famous for the soft poetry of his works, including the lyrical type of Madonnas, Pinturicchio, who created heartfelt landscape images, images of interiors and multi-figured compositions in the paintings of the library of the Siena Cathedral, Luca Signorelli, whose severe creativity was characterized by sharp graphic the beginning, the skill of transferring the naked human body.

1. The main trends in art of the 20th century.

Modernism artistic trends, in the second half of the 19th century in the form of new forms of creativity, where the free view of the master prevailed, free to change the visible world at his discretion, following a personal impression, an inner idea or a mystical dream.

In Russian aesthetics, "modern" means an artistic style that historically preceded modernism. late XIX- the beginning of the 20th century, so it is necessary to distinguish between these two concepts in order to avoid confusion.

Abstractionism- an artistic direction that was formed in the art of the first half of the 20th century, completely refusing to reproduce the forms of the real visible world. The founders of abstractionism are considered to be W. Kandinsky, P. Mondrian and K. Malevich. In abstractionism, two clear directions can be distinguished: geometric abstraction, based mainly on clearly defined configurations (Malevich, Mondrian), and lyrical abstraction, in which the composition is organized from freely flowing forms (Kandinsky). abstract expressionism- a school of drawing quickly and on large canvases with strokes of brushes dripping paints onto the canvas.

Piet Mondrian

"The Mill in the Sunlight" 1908 Gray Tree 191 Evolution 1911

Alexei Mikhailovich (1645-1676)

Alexei Mikhailovich survived a turbulent era of "riots" and wars, rapprochement and discord with Patriarch Nikon. Under him, the possessions of Russia are expanding both in the east, in Siberia, and in the west. There is an active diplomatic activity.

Much has been done in the area domestic policy. A course was pursued towards the centralization of administration, the strengthening of autocracy. The backwardness of the country dictated the invitation of foreign specialists in manufacturing, military affairs, the first experiments, attempts at transformation (establishing schools, regiments of the new system, etc.).

In the middle of the XVII century. increased tax burden. The treasury felt the need for money both for the maintenance of the growing apparatus of power, and in connection with the active foreign policy(wars with Sweden, the Commonwealth). According to the figurative expression of V.O. Klyuchevsky, "the army seized the treasury." The government of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich increased indirect taxes, raising the price of salt by 4 times in 1646. However, the increase in the tax on salt did not lead to the replenishment of the treasury, as the solvency of the population was undermined. The salt tax was abolished in 1647. It was decided to collect arrears for three recent years. The entire amount of the tax fell on the population of the "black" settlements, which caused discontent among the townspeople. In 1648 it culminated in an open uprising in Moscow.

In early June 1648, Alexei Mikhailovich, who was returning from a pilgrimage, received a petition from the Moscow population demanding that the most mercenary representatives of the tsarist administration be punished. However, the demands of the townspeople were not satisfied, and they began to smash merchant and boyar houses. Several major dignitaries were killed. The tsar was forced to expel the boyar B. I. Morozov, who headed the government, from Moscow. With the help of bribed archers, whose salaries were increased, the uprising was crushed.

The uprising in Moscow, called the "salt riot", was not the only one. For twenty years (from 1630 to 1650) uprisings took place in 30 Russian cities: Veliky Ustyug, Novgorod, Voronezh, Kursk, Vladimir, Pskov, Siberian cities.

Cathedral Code of 1649“Fear for the sake of civil strife from all black people,” as Patriarch Nikon later wrote, the Zemsky Sobor was convened. Its meetings were held in 1648-1649. and ended with the adoption of the "Council Code" of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. It was the largest Zemsky Cathedral in the history of Russia. It was attended by 340 people, most of whom (70%) belonged to the nobility and the top tenants.

The "Cathedral Code" consisted of 25 chapters and contained about a thousand articles. Printed in an edition of two thousand copies, it was the first Russian legislative monument published in a typographical way, and remained valid until 1832 (naturally, with changes). It was translated into almost all European languages.

The first three chapters of the "Code" dealt with crimes against the church and royal power. Any criticism of the church and blasphemy was punishable by burning at the stake. Persons accused of treason and insulting the honor of the sovereign, as well as boyars, governors, were executed. Those who "will come en masse and in conspiracy, and learn whom to rob or beat" were ordered to "execute to death without any mercy." A person who unsheathed a weapon in the presence of the king was punished by cutting off his hand.

The "Cathedral Code" regulated the performance of various services, the ransom of prisoners, customs policy, the position of various categories of the population in the state .. It provided for the exchange of estates, including the exchange of estates for patrimonies. Such a transaction was required to be registered in the Local Order. The "Council Code" limited the growth of church land ownership, which reflected the tendency for the church to be subordinate to the state.

The most important section of the "Cathedral Code" was Chapter XI "Court on the Peasants": an indefinite search for fugitive and taken away peasants was introduced, peasant transitions from one owner to another were prohibited. This meant the legal registration of the system of serfdom. Simultaneously with the privately owned peasants, serfdom extended to the black-haired and palace peasants, who were forbidden to leave their communities. In the event of flight, they were also subject to an indefinite investigation.

Chapter XIX of the "Cathedral Code" "On the townspeople" made changes in the life of the city. The "white" settlements were liquidated, their population was included in the settlement. All urban population had to bear the tax on the sovereign. Under pain of death, it was forbidden to move from one settlement to another and even marry women from another settlement, i.e. the population of the settlement was assigned to a certain city. Citizens received a monopoly on trade in cities. The peasants did not have the right to keep shops in the cities, but could only trade from carts and in the malls.

By the middle of the XVII century. Russia, having restored the economy, could focus on solving the problems of foreign policy. In the northwest, the primary concern was to regain access to the Baltic Sea. In the west, the task was to return the Smolensk, Chernigov and Novgorod-Seversky lands lost during the period of the Polish-Lithuanian intervention. The solution to this problem was aggravated in connection with the struggle of the Ukrainian and Belarusian peoples for reunification with Russia. In the south, Russia constantly had to repel the incessant raids of the Crimean Khan, a vassal of powerful Turkey.

In the 40-50s of the 17th century, the Zaporizhzhya Sich became the center of the struggle against foreign enslavers. To protect against the raids of the Crimean Tatars, here, behind the Dnieper rapids, the Cossacks built a special system of fortifications from cut down trees - "notches" (hence the name of this territory). Here, in the lower reaches of the Dnieper, a kind of Cossack republic was formed, a free military brotherhood headed by elected kosh and kuren chieftains.

The Commonwealth, wanting to attract the Cossacks to their side, began to compile special lists - registers. A Cossack, recorded in the register, was called a registered one, was considered in the service of the Polish king and received a salary. In accordance with the established order, the hetman was at the head of the Zaporizhian army. In 1648, Bogdan Khmelnytsky was elected hetman of the Zaporizhzhya Sich, who received the traditional signs of power: a mace, a bunchuk and a military seal.

He showed himself early as a talented leader. The Cossacks elected him to the post of military clerk (one of the most important in the Zaporozhian Sich).

Like many other residents of Ukraine, Bohdan Khmelnytsky experienced cruelty and injustice on the part of foreign enslavers. So, the Polish gentry Chaplinsky attacked the farm of B. Khmelnitsky, plundered the house, burned the apiary and the threshing floor, marked his ten-year-old son to death, and took away his wife. In 1647, B. Khmelnitsky openly opposed the Polish government.

B. Khmelnitsky understood that the fight against the Commonwealth would require a huge effort, and therefore, from the first steps of his activity, he advocated an alliance with Russia, seeing in it a true ally of Ukraine. However, urban uprisings were raging in Russia at that time, and, moreover, it was still not strong enough to enter into confrontation with the Commonwealth. Therefore, at first, Russia limited itself to providing Ukraine with economic assistance and diplomatic support.

Having announced the general mobilization of the gentry, the Commonwealth moved its troops against the army of B. Khmelnitsky. In the summer of 1649 near Zborov (Prykarpattya) B. Khmelnytsky defeated the Polish army. The Polish government was forced to conclude the Zborow peace. According to this agreement, the Commonwealth recognized B. Khmelnitsky as the hetman of Ukraine.

The Zborow peace was in fact a temporary truce. In the summer of 1651, the superior forces of the Polish magnates met with the troops of B. Khmelnitsky. The defeat near Berestechko and the defeat of individual uprisings by punitive expeditions forced B. Khmelnitsky to conclude peace under difficult conditions near the White Church.

On October 1, 1653, war was declared on Poland. An embassy headed by the boyar Buturlin left for Ukraine. January 8, 1654 in the city of Pereyaslavl (now Pereyaslav-Khmelnitsky) a Rada (Council) was held. Ukraine was admitted to the Russian state. Russia recognized the electivity of the hetman, the local court and other authorities that had been established during liberation war. The tsarist government confirmed the class rights of the Ukrainian nobility. Ukraine received the right to establish diplomatic relations with all countries except Poland and Turkey, and to have registered troops of up to 60 thousand people. Taxes were supposed to go to the royal treasury. The reunification of Ukraine with Russia was of great historical significance. It liberated the people of Ukraine from national and religious oppression, saved them from the danger of being enslaved by Poland and Turkey. It contributed to the formation of the Ukrainian nation. The reunification of Ukraine with Russia led to a temporary weakening of serf relations on the Left Bank (serfdom was legally introduced in Ukraine in the second half of the 18th century).

The reunification of Left-bank Ukraine with Russia was an important factor strengthening of the Russian statehood. Thanks to the reunification with Ukraine, Russia managed to return the Smolensk and Chernigov lands, which made it possible to start a struggle for the Baltic coast. In addition, a favorable prospect was opening up for expanding Russia's ties with other Slavic peoples and Western states.

The Commonwealth did not recognize the reunification of Ukraine with Russia. Russo-Polish war became inevitable. The war was marked by the success of the Russian and Ukrainian troops. Russian troops occupied Smolensk, Belarus, Lithuania; Bohdan Khmelnitsky - Lublin, a number of cities in Galicia and Volhynia.

Sweden opened military operations against it. The Swedes took Warsaw and Krakow. Poland was on the brink of destruction.

Alexei Mikhailovich, counting on the royal throne, announced to the warrior Sweden (1656-1658). A Russian-Polish truce was signed.

Russia's successes were crossed out by the betrayal of the Ukrainian hetman I. Vyhovsky, who replaced B. Khmelnitsky, who died in 1657. I. Vyhovsky agreed to a secret alliance with Poland against Russia.

In 1658, a Russian-Swedish truce was concluded for three years, and in 1661, the Kardis (near Tartu) peace. Russia returned the territories conquered during the war. The Baltic remained with Sweden. The problem of access to the Baltic Sea remained a top priority, the most important task of foreign policy.

The exhausting, protracted Russian-Polish war ended in 1667 with the conclusion of the Andrusovsky (near Smolensk) truce for thirteen and a half years. Russia abandoned Belarus, but left behind Smolensk and the Left-Bank Ukraine. Kyiv, located on the right bank of the Dnieper, was transferred to Russia for two years (after the end of this period, it was never returned). Zaporozhye came under the joint control of Ukraine and Poland.

17-18 - the system of colonialism is formed. Spain/Portugal are the old colonial powers, England/France/Holland are the new ones, there is a struggle between all corners of the globe. According to Ado's textbook, the colonial policy of this time was associated with the process of "primitive accumulation of capital" and the development of manufacturing capitalism in Western Europe. The formation of the world capitalist market, the accumulation of wealth in the colonies, the development of manufacturing production there, the merciless exploitation of the colonies, the colonies are considered as a factor that helped the development of the countries of Europe and the industrial revolution, etc. All this is not entirely true. The attitude towards colonies in European countries is far from being economic, but mixed - the medieval principle “a state is strong if it has colonies” is preserved. So far, the colonies (except for North America, but here the question of the colony) are treated only as the territories of the state and a particularly developed colonial-exploiting system has not been observed. The first war, as a result of which provisions on colonies appeared in the peace treaty, was the War of the Spanish Succession, the first major colonial war was the Spanish-Portuguese War of 1735-37. The main international events take place in Europe - in the colonies of some there are no serious settlements yet, especially in Asia. Why are colonies not thought of as an economic category? This is proved by the texts of international treaties. Even as a result of the War of the Spanish Succession, the colonies were given little status. And after the Seven Years' War - the same thing (despite the extensive conquests in the colonial sphere of England). To some extent, the Egyptian campaign of Napoleon can be considered the first attempt at a colonial war - but, again, conditionally.

So what does Ado write? He writes about the direct robbery of the colonies, direct coercion (slavery and serfdom), the spread of the slave trade, the markets and sources of raw materials, the opportunities for non-equivalent (in favor of the mother countries) trade. characteristic feature he considers the creation of monopoly campaigns. Gradually, this policy became obsolete - as objectionable to the bourgeoisie. The colonial rivalry between the old and new colonial powers and within these groupings is intensifying. Ado raises the idea of ​​a world capitalist market.

Spanish-Portuguese colonial system of the 17th-18th centuries. Ado speaks of the "feudal" nature of the appropriation of wealth - they were selected and spent on "great power policy." There were major differences between the Portuguese and Spanish systems. On the territory of Brazil at the time of the Portuguese colonization (mid-16th century), there was almost no settled agricultural population. Indian tribes were quickly pushed inland or exterminated. The Portuguese began to use imported labor in the form of black slaves from Africa. Plus, in Brazil there is a huge role of commercial capital.

The Spanish colonies - Mexico, Peru, Ecuador - are a different system. Agricultural societies (albeit at an early level) were here. Colonizing these spaces, the Spaniards adapted, for example, Indian agricultural communities in these regions for colonization. The labor service of community members was used in favor of the state. Some taxes and duties were retained, the elders of the communities - caciques - became "conductors of colonial policy." The Spanish "feudal tax collection" system of administration was introduced. The result is a synthesis of Spanish elements and elements of the local population. English/French colonization in America is a migrant character. Plantation economy, Negro slaves. Spanish colonization - noble accumulation, which did not contribute to the accumulation of "initial capital" in Spain itself. Precious metals from the New World actively participated in the process of their exchange for industrial goods and "turned into capital" in England and Holland, leaving Spain. In those areas where the indigenous population had been exterminated since the beginning of colonization, the system of exploitation of the Spaniards was reminiscent of the Portuguese system. Cuba, north of South America. The organizer of production on the plantations is "commercial capital", the use of slave labor.

Dutch colonial system. Its formation was determined by the needs of "initial accumulation" and the formation of capitalist relations in England, France and Holland. East India and West India companies. Cape Colony (1652, West Africa), Sunda, Moluccas, Java, Malacca (1641), Ceylon (1658), New Amsterdam (now New York, 1622), 1634 - the island of Curacao. 1667 - the island of Suriname. The system of harsh exploitation of the indigenous population. "Serf exploitation of the local peasantry", its control with the help of local feudal lords.

Anglo-Dutch rivalry. England began a systematic seizure of the colonies from 1665 - it seized Jamaica from Spain. The beginning of the state colonial policy. 1696 Administration for the administration of the West Indies. Use of the slave labor system. 1652-54 - the first Anglo-Dutch war, the reason - the Navigation Act of 1651 (directed against the Dutch intermediary trade). Holland was defeated, the act recognized and paid the monetary costs. The second Anglo-Dutch war - 1664-67, Holland transferred New Amsterdam to England, the British abandoned naval bases in the Moluccas. The third Anglo-Dutch war - 1672-74, France entered it. 1688-97 - a new Anglo-Dutch war. By the beginning of the 18th century, the Dutch colonial system breaks down - Anglo-French rivalry comes to the fore.

French colonial system and Anglo-French rivalry. Henry IV and Richelieu laid the foundations of the French colonial system. The development of Canada - Quebec, 1608, Montreal, 1642. 1682 - Louisiana, 1718 - New Orleans. Islands in the West Indies. Senegal. Since 1701 - Pondicherry in India. After the War of the Spanish Succession, France ceded Acadia (Nova Scotia), Newfoundland and Asiento to England (see MO tickets - the right to import slaves into South America). Under the terms of the Peace of Paris in 1763, England received Florida, part of Honduras, the islands of Tobago, San Vincent, Grenada, and Dominica. England gradually won. The Anglo-Dutch War of 1780-84, Holland lost its position as a great colonial and maritime power. Under the terms of the Peace of Paris in 1783, England annexed part of the Dutch colonies in India, in 1795, captured Ceylon.

And at the same time - a very great progress in agronomic science, see physiocrats and cameralists

On the issue of capitalism and agriculture - in Braudel's "Games of Exchange" France also appears

An important point - absolute power is not the subject of the "classical" theory of absolutism! See ticket number 9 for more information. Bodin also did not speak of the absolute power of the monarch in the sense in which it is most commonly understood. Absolutism was a much more complex system.

Here it is necessary to understand - such a division is logical, but not entirely competent. The myth of absolutism was evidently in operation even then. According to Henshall, England and France did not fundamentally differ in anything serious, and the “parliamentary sign of England” is, in fact, a myth.

But here it is not a fact - see Henshall. He does not consider the monarchy of the last Bourbons enlightened-absolutist. And in general refutes this thesis itself.

According to Henshall, this process was connected with the fact that they stopped convening the States General, they were considered cumbersome and ineffective, and consultations moved to a lower - provincial-state - level.

Than, according to a number of historians, he signed his own death warrant. The monarchy still failed to reform, and public opinion also became opposed to the powers of the monarch. The unfinished reform shook the foundations of royal power.

And here there is some discrepancy between the lectures and Henshall - Henshall, on the contrary, believes that the States General tried to solve the problems of the old order, and not break it.

In historiography, the point of view is now more and more popular that “exploitation” was not so difficult, and plantation farming was far from unprofitable.

Ado here also mentions taxes as a significant source, but there is a certain issue with them - part of the US population generally wanted to remove them or significantly reduce them, since the issue of tax dependence on the mother country was very painful for the colonies in North America.

Russian history. Factor analysis. Volume 2. From the end of the Troubles to the February Revolution Nefedov Sergey Alexandrovich

1.10. Traditions and Westernization in the Second Half of the 17th Century

Returning to the description of the role of the technological (diffusion) factor, it is necessary, first of all, to give a brief description of the ratio of Eastern and Western components in Russian society of the 17th century, in its social and material culture. Europeans who visited Russia during this period were struck by the difference between Russian customs and practices from those familiar to them. “To this day, they have few European features, and Asian ones predominate,” noted the Tuscan ambassador Jacob Reitenfels in 1680. - Cut clothes, splendor at public celebrations, the usual way housekeeping, methods of governing the state, the whole system of life, finally, resonates with them with more Asian unbridledness than European education ... ”Reitenfels describes the eastern customs of Russians: they tend to sleep after dinner, take food from dishes with their fingers, kiss each other or kiss each other when they meet they make deep bows, constantly practice horseback riding and archery, and, like Persians, spend their free time playing checkers. “Neglecting stone houses, they quite rightly believe that it is much healthier, due to severe and constant cold weather, to lock themselves in wooden ones, like the Tatars and Chinese.” The Dutch traveler Jan Streis wrote that there are many public baths in Moscow, similar to Turkish and Persian ones, that, due to the dress law, everyone must dress according to the pattern assigned to him, that “they write on their knees, even if there is a table in front of them”, that women “ kept locked up, almost like Turkish women.” The court physician of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, Samuel Collins, adds that “they revere the beauty of women for their fatness,” that women, in order to please their husbands, blacken their teeth and the whites of their eyes.

The veneration of the king also belonged to the Eastern customs. “Greeting the king, they usually prostrate themselves with their whole bodies on the ground,” notes J. Reitenfels: this was the Chinese custom of “petition”, “kou tou”. The same kneeling was demanded from Western ambassadors, giving them fur coats in return, according to Eastern custom. The Muscovites revered the tsar on an equal footing with God: “The Muscovites constantly openly declare everywhere that everything is possible and everything is known to God and the tsar, that only to God and the tsar they are ready to give everything that they have the best, and even life itself.”

At the beginning of the 17th century, the customs of the royal court did not differ from those of the people, and Muscovites reacted sensitively to cases of their violation: when it became known that False Dmitry did not sleep after dinner, a rumor immediately spread that the tsar was “replaced”. For Mikhail Fedorovich, Italian craftsmen built a stone palace, but he preferred to live in wooden mansions, finding them healthier. Alexei Mikhailovich was so devout that he stood in the service for 5-6 hours and beat a thousand prostrations. In 1648, the tsar officially forbade working on Sundays and holidays, obliged everyone to go to church and fast, and also forbade playing cards and chess, ordered the destruction of musical instruments, etc. At the same time, smoking, growing and selling tobacco were banned . In 1675, Alexei Mikhailovich ordered to announce to the courtiers that they "do not adopt foreign German and other izvychay, do not cut their hair on their heads, and also do not wear dresses, caftans and hats, and therefore they did not order their people to wear." The summer palace built by the tsar in Kolomenskoye looked like a Russian tower: it was decorated with carvings and weathervanes and painted inside by the Russian icon painter Fyodor Ushakov and the Armenian Ivan Saltanov. The royal throne of Alexei Mikhailovich was made by Persian craftsmen, and the crown was brought from Constantinople. However, the palace was full of mirrors and clocks - these were the first signs of European cultural influence.

European cultural influence made its way through economic innovations. Under Aleksei Mikhailovich, B. I. Morozov acted as the initiator of these innovations; in his vast economy, he experimented with various crops and mastered new trades for those times: he raised fish in artificial ponds, was engaged in gardening, and created horse factories. The innovative spirit of this entrepreneur is well reflected in the case that occurred in 1651: having learned that Colonel Crafoord had seeds of a new Pancake week brought from Europe, Morozov offered him the best lands and sent several peasants to study with Crafoord. With the help of German monks, winemaking was started in Astrakhan, and in 1658 more than a thousand buckets of red wine were delivered to the court from there. In 1659, Morozov met the famous Slavic educator Yuri Krizhanich, who in his treatise "Politics" gives a lot of socio-economic recommendations in the spirit of the Enlightenment. “Why am I not young, what else could I learn!” Morozov exclaimed after a conversation with Krizhanich.

A. I. Zaozersky believes that Morozov passed on the spirit of innovative entrepreneurship to his pupil, Tsar Alexei: Alexei had repeatedly visited the Pokrovskoye estate of Morozov and was aware of the economic experiments being carried out there. In those days, botanical gardens were all the rage in Europe. Marselis brought the king a gift from the Duke of Holstein - garden roses from the Gottford garden; Vinius took out seedlings of peach, apricot, almond, Spanish cherry. In 1662, ambassadors on their way to England were ordered to bring "all sorts of seeds" from there. In 1664–1665, the tsar founded his own experimental farm, the Izmailovo estate; messengers were sent to bring from various places seeds or seedlings of grapes, mulberries, cotton, madder dye grass, walnut and many other cultures. Attempts to breed mulberries and cotton, of course, ended in failure, but the experiments continued: manufactory production of linen fabrics was mastered, a morocco factory, two glass and three iron factories were built.

Experiments and innovations soon went beyond the tsarist economy. Back in 1657, the king ordered his Dutch emissary Gebdon to hire "the most learned alchemists, silver, copper and iron miners." Starting in 1666, the hired "miners" went on expeditions to explore ores in various regions of the country. Trade projects were put forward, as early as 1663 the Moscow ambassador tried to negotiate with the Duke of Courland on sending ships to India. The negotiations ended in failure, then the Moscow government began to look for trade routes in the south. The trade route through the Caspian Sea has long attracted the attention of Western merchants, who asked Moscow for permission to organize the transit of Persian silk to Europe. In 1663, with the "great embassy" a large trading expedition was sent to Persia, which brought goods worth 80 thousand rubles.

In 1665–1667, A. L. Ordin-Nashchokin, “the boyar of royal and state embassy affairs,” became the head of the Moscow government. Ordin-Nashchokin arranged for the Posolsky Prikaz to regularly translate foreign newspapers (from time to time they had been translated before) and send a large number of books. At this time, translations of Polish books were published in a multitude; if in the first half of the 17th century only 13 books were translated from European languages, then in the second half - 114 books. Following the translated fiction, the first Russian novels appear, for example, "The Story of the Russian Nobleman Frol Skobeev."

One of Ordin-Nashchokin's closest associates was the Dutch merchant Johann van Sweden, who lived in Moscow. Van Sveden built the first paper mill in Russia and the first cloth factory. In 1665, Ordin-Nashchokin entrusted van Sweden with the organization of a regular postal service, and in 1667 with the construction of the first ship for the Caspian fleet. Previously, antediluvian “royal beads” floated in the Caspian, the lining of which was knitted with a bast, without nails, so these boats were only suitable for one or two voyages. Now it was supposed to start a real merchant fleet, and the first ship of this fleet, the Eagle, was built in the spring of 1669; he went down the Volga to Astrakhan, but was captured here by Razin's Cossacks. Nevertheless, Ordin-Nashchokin signed an agreement with an Armenian company on the transit of Persian silk through Russia, and over time this trade became quite significant. During the reign of Sophia, Prince V.V. Golitsyn built two frigates that delivered silk from Shemakha to Astrakhan.

The second person in the government of the 1660s was the devious Bogdan Matveyevich Khitrovo, a friend of the tsar and the closest attorney for his personal affairs. Like Ordin-Nashchokin, Khitrovo was a "Westernizer" and was said to receive a lot of money from the Dutch. Under the influence of Khitrovo, the tsar appointed the West Slavic educator Simeon of Polotsk as an educator of his children, who taught them Latin and Polish, and even writing poetry. Polotsky was one of the first Russian church philosophers and poets (he wrote in Church Slavonic), at one time he ran a school in the Spassky Monastery, which introduced young diplomats and officials from the Secret Order to Polish culture. Polotsky also contributed to the spread of Western painting, at that time the first royal ceremonial portraits and landscapes appeared, which decorated not only houses, but also park alleys.

After the death of Alexei Mikhailovich, the disciple of Simeon of Polotsk, Tsar Fedor Alekseevich (1676–1682), ascended the throne. The young Tsar Fyodor was married to the Polish noblewoman Agafya Grushetskaya, he knew Latin and Polish and was a fan of Polish culture. Fedor ordered the courtiers to wear Polish caftans; it was a symbolic act of cultural reorientation from East to West, and the tsarist chronicler Adamov clearly conveyed the ideological meaning of the reform: "He ordered the Russian people to wear excellent clothes from the Tatars." The new tsar tried to force the Muscovites to build stone houses, ordered the restoration of the Slavic-Latin school in the Spassky Monastery and appointed another student of Polotsky, Sylvester Medvedev, as its head.

In 1682, the death of Tsar Fyodor, the serious illness of his brother Ivan, and the infancy of another heir, Peter, caused a crisis of autocracy. Boyar groups again entered the arena, starting a struggle for power under the guise of supporting Tsar Peter or Tsar Ivan. Moscow streltsy intervened in this struggle, dissatisfied with the abuses of their initial people and fearing the dissolution of the streltsy army (streltsy regiments outside Moscow had already been transformed into soldiers). Prince Khovansky, exciting the archers, shouted that "both you and us will be given into captivity to a foreign enemy, Moscow will be destroyed, and the Orthodox faith will be destroyed." It was traditionalist reaction, directed against military reform carried out according to a foreign model.

The only representative of the royal family who was able to maintain the authority of the authorities in the situation of the beginning of anarchy was Princess Sophia. She took refuge with her brothers in the Trinity-Sergius Lavra, called for help from the local militia and led the archers to obedience. Thus, at a critical moment, the monarchy found support in the nobility; Sophia's other support was the boyar aristocracy. Due to her position, Sophia could not exercise autocracy and therefore sought the support of the nobility, in in large numbers handing out duma ranks. Contemporaries testify that Sophia ruled together with the boyars.

The boyars, like the archers, were not interested in preserving the regiments of the “foreign system”. The government was forced to make concessions to the traditionalists: about four hundred foreign officers (about a third) were fired, and only the Russified "Germans" who were accepted "by choice" remained in the service. On the other hand, the nobility took advantage of the weakness of the central government and, already during the gathering at the Trinity-Sergius Lavra, presented it with their estate demands, primarily related to strengthening the investigation of fugitive serfs. Another concession to the nobility was the decree of 1684, which established that estates (even large ones) after the death of their owner remain in the family and are divided among the heirs in addition to their local salaries - despite the fact that the heirs did not earn this increase. The decree of 1688 allowed the sale of patrimonial peasants without land; decrees in 1688 and 1690 authorized the right of owners to exchange both fiefdoms and estates. By the end of the 17th century, the distinction between the estate and the estate was almost erased; estates were inherited through the male line, given to widows and unmarried girls "to feed" and sometimes even sold.

Sophia's traditionalist policy was forced. Like her brother, Tsar Fedor, Sophia studied with Simeon of Polotsk; according to some reports, the princess spoke Polish. After the death of Polotsky, the place of Sophia's confessor and mentor was taken by another supporter of rapprochement with the West, Sylvester Medvedev. Sophia's first assistant in public affairs (and her lover) was the head of the Ambassadorial Department, the well-known "Westernizer" Prince V.V. Golitsyn. According to de la Neuville, Golitsyn knew the Polish language, he allowed foreigners free entry into Russia, allowed the nobles to send their children to study in Poland, allowed the Jesuits into the country and often talked with them. There were rumors that Golitsyn intended to make Sylvester Medvedev patriarch in order to unite the Greek and Latin churches. These plans (or rumors about them) aroused the furious protest of Patriarch Joachim, who became the main enemy of Golitsyn and Sophia.

In 1687-1689, during the war with Turkey, Golitsyn was forced to turn again to hiring foreign officers in order to complete the 75,000-strong army of the “foreign system”. The nobility (according to the Polish model) was assigned to regular companies headed by captains and cornets. Protesting against these innovations, princes B. F. Dolgorukov and Yu. A. Shcherbatov appeared at the review, dressed together with their people in a black mourning dress. Later, Patriarch Joachim joined the protest of the nobility, who publicly predicted the misfortune of the army, infected by the presence of officers of other faiths. The campaign really ended in failure - and the patriarch immediately recalled his prophecy.

The failure of the Crimean campaigns shook the position of Sophia and Golitsyn. When a conflict broke out between Sophia and Tsar Peter in 1689, Patriarch Joachim and many princes (including the Dolgorukovs and Shcherbatovs) immediately went over to the side of the young tsar. Thus - oddly enough - Peter's victory was due to the support of the traditionalist party. According to M. M. Bogoslovsky, the tsar "in this struggle was still much more a symbol than an active person with his own initiative." Absorbed by his amusements, the tsar did not engage in state affairs, and power ended up in the hands of Patriarch Joachim and traditionalist boyars, relatives of Peter's mother Natalia Naryshkina. De la Neuville wrote that "those who rejoiced at the fall of Golitsyn soon repented of his death, since the Naryshkins, who are now ruling them, being uneducated and rude, began ... to destroy everything that this great man introduced new ..." Sylvester Medvedev was executed, the Jesuits had to leave Russia, the regiments of the "foreign system" were disbanded, and most of the foreign officers were fired.

Ultimately, boyar rule had a severe impact on the discipline of the nobility and the condition of the regiments of the “foreign system”. In 1695, during the first campaign against Azov, only 14,000 soldiers were on alert; the rest of the 120,000th army consisted of warriors of the "Russian system", that is, from archers and local militia. Subsequently, in 1717, Prince Ya. F. Dolgoruky told Peter that his father, by organizing regular troops, showed him the way, “yes, according to him, all his senseless institutions were ruined,” so Peter had to do everything again and in a better condition lead.

Thus, the weakening of the autocracy was due mainly to random factors, but it opened the way for a traditionalist reaction and led to the fact that the results of the second military revolution were partly lost.

This text is an introductory piece. From the book General History. History of the New Age. 7th grade author Burin Sergey Nikolaevich

§ 13. England in the second half of the 17th century The period of the Cromwellian RepublicThe monarchs of Europe took hostility to the revolutionary events in England, especially the execution of the king. Even the republican Netherlands provided shelter to the son of the executed Charles I. And in distant Russia, Tsar Alexei

From the book Book 2. The Secret of Russian History [New Chronology of Russia. Tatar and Arabic in Russia. Yaroslavl as Veliky Novgorod. ancient english history author

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From the book Jewish Moscow author Gessen Julius Isidorovich

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