Development of Japan in the 20th century. Culture and life of the XX century Japan. The beginning of the post-war reconstruction of Japan

2. Japan in the first half of the twentieth century

By the beginning of the 20th century Japan came up as a rapidly developing state with a significant capitalist sector and lingering vestiges of feudal relations in agriculture.

According to Asian traditions, Japanese monopolies were closely associated with feudal landlords and the monarchy. Even at the beginning of the twentieth century. The bourgeoisie used numerous pre-capitalist forms of exploitation - enslaving hiring of women6 and children, a system of forced hostels of a semi-prison type, etc. The standard of living of workers was much lower than in other countries.

The global economic crisis of 1900 also affected the Japanese economy. It resulted in the ruin of small and medium-sized capitalist enterprises and their absorption by large ones, as a result of which numerous monopolies began to appear in Japan. The predominant form of monopoly associations of finance capital were trusts (dzaibatsu). At that time, such major monopolies as MITSUI, MITSUBISHI, SUMITOMO, YASUDA appeared in the country, which concentrated the lion's share of the national wealth.

The rapid development of capitalism at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. began to be constrained by some objective circumstances and in particular by the almost complete absence of its own raw material base ... At the same time, Japan began to acutely feel the need for markets for its goods and capital investment ...

Trying to go beyond its territory, Japan at the turn of the century begins to actively prepare for future military operations. As such objects, Japan began to consider relatively closely located countries and territories - Korea, China and then Russia. It took several years to prepare for these captures. There was an active militarization of the country, supported by significant financial injections from the state and private companies.

In the war of 1904 - 1905. Japan inflicted heavy defeats on Russia on land and at sea. Russia's further struggle was interrupted by internal revolutionary upheavals. But Japan itself turned out to be severely depleted and was unable to significantly expand and consolidate its victory. Under the Treaty of Portsmouth - 1905 - she received "exclusive rights" in Korea, received land leased by Russia on the Liaodong Peninsula, the South Manchurian Railway. and the southern part of Sakhalin Island.

The outcome of the war untied Japan's hands in Korea. In 1905, the Japanese protectorate treaty was imposed on the Korean government, and from 1910 Korea became a Japanese colony.

In 1909, Japanese troops landed in South Manchuria (Kwantung Province) and in fact forced the Qing court to agree to this annexation.

The Russo-Japanese War and the ongoing militarization of the country contributed to the even faster development of heavy industry, the concentration of capital, and the strengthening of the position of the monopolies. But the country itself still remained agrarian.

In 1901, the Japanese Social Democratic Party was established in Japan, which was banned on the same day. Practically the entire first half of the century was marked by constant actions of the workers. The government dealt with these phenomena and their leaders with extreme cruelty - repressions, numerous executions ...

In August 1914, Japan entered the war with Kaiser's Germany on the side of the Entente countries, but did not conduct military operations. Taking advantage of the situation, Japan began to seize German possessions in the Far East one by one and began to actively oust representatives of the Western capitalist world from the markets of Asia ... The main efforts of Japan were directed at the expansion of China. In 1915, it seized the province of Shandong and issued an ultimatum to China with a number of demands that violated its sovereignty. But China was forced to accept them.

After the end of the First World War, Japan undertook large-scale actions to seize the Russian Primorye, Eastern Siberia and Northern Sakhalin. The intervention in the Russian Far East began, which was accompanied by a cruel attitude towards the civilian population ... However, the actions of the Red Army and the unfolding partisan movement led to the fact that the Japanese in 1922 were forced to withdraw their troops.

At the Versailles Peace Conference in 1919, Japan achieved the transfer to it, in addition to Chinese Shandong, of a mandate for the Caroline, Marshall and Mariana Islands, which had previously been the possession of Germany - the allies' payment for intervention in the Soviet Far East ...

2.1 Japan in the 20-30s 20th century Beginning of the Fascization Process

In 1927, the cabinet of General Tanaka comes to power - a supporter of an aggressive foreign policy and a reactionary domestic policy. Immediately after coming to power, the general formulated his vision of foreign policy, a document that later became known as the Tanaka Memorandum. This document outlined in detail the plans for the future conquests of Japan - the countries of Southeast Asia, India, the capture of Chinese territories (Manchuria and Mongolia), and then all of China. Then it was supposed to capture Russia, war with Europe and the USA ...

It should be noted that the coming to power of Tanaka and the reactionary circles supporting him in Japan was dictated by the deep economic crisis of the late 1920s and early 1920s. 30s A large number of ruined, and especially among the middle urban strata and the middle bourgeoisie.

The 1928 elections turned into a mass pressure on the voters. The elections were held in an atmosphere of corruption, outright bribery of deputies, and the most severe police pressure on democratic deputies. All leftist and trade union organizations were closed. An important factor activation of the entire left wing of the labor movement was participation in election campaign legal proletarian parties. The election campaign of Ronoto, who is closely associated with the Japanese Communist Party, aroused the hatred of the ruling circles. The police dispersed rallies, carried out arrests and expulsions of agitators. And yet, despite the unprecedented terror and arbitrariness, the proletarian parties received about half a million votes in the elections. The only representative of the CPJ who entered the parliament was killed the day after his first speech ...

In March 1928, the deputies of the proletarian parties, in order to expose the policy of the government, created a joint action committee, which, in essence, was supposed to act as a parliamentary faction in the lower house of parliament. The success of the democratic forces in the elections showed the ruling camp that a force is growing in the country capable of fighting against its aggressive policy. At dawn on March 15, 1928, arrests were simultaneously carried out in major centers - Tokyo, Osaka, Kyoto, and then throughout the country. These police repressions were officially directed against the Communist Party of the Communist Party and other opposition organizations. In total, 1,600 workers and trade unionists were imprisoned / History of Japan, 1988, p. 234-235/.

The global economic crisis of 1929-1933, which began in October 1929 with the stock market crash in the United States, hit the Japanese economy especially hard due to the close ties between the Japanese and American markets. This was also aggravated by the general economic weakness of Japan in comparison with other countries, the instability of the economy, and the chronic crisis in industry and agriculture. Agriculture, which played a much greater role in Japan than in other capitalist countries, was among the first branches of the economy to be affected by the crisis. Especially difficult was the situation of sericulture, which in Japan employed about half of all peasant farms. Until 1930, raw silk, mainly exported to the United States, accounted for about 30% of Japanese exports. As a result of the crisis in the United States, the export of Japanese silk was sharply reduced, and as a result of this, a catastrophic drop in prices for it occurred.

The decline in prices for silk, rice and other products resulted in a 40% reduction in agricultural output. The volume of industrial production also decreased significantly, especially in the coal, metallurgical, and cotton industries. The narrowing of the domestic market, as well as the reduction in exports, led not only to a decrease in the level of production, but also to the accumulation of huge commodity stocks.

Faced with serious economic difficulties, the ruling classes of Japan tried to shift the brunt of the crisis onto the working masses. There were mass layoffs and wage cuts. The number of unemployed increases during this period to 3 million. All this was accompanied by the massive ruin of small and medium-sized enterprises / History of Japan, 1988, p. 236/.

Fascization of Japan. The global economic crisis has led to a sharp deterioration in the situation of many segments of the population. The peasantry was especially dissatisfied. The middle bourgeoisie could not stand the competition either, and dissatisfaction with the "old concerns" Mitsui, Mitsubishi, Yasuda grew among these strata. Naturally, there were a lot of people who were dissatisfied with the policy of the government, which was most often formed from parties associated with the same concerns ...

"New concerns" - emerged relatively recently during the First World War and later. Especially quickly began to rise on the wave of military orders in the 20-30s. Most often, these are non-ferrous metallurgy industries, aircraft construction, military plants, etc. They were closely connected with the military circles, although they had a weak financial base, and therefore they waged a sharp struggle with the old financial oligarchy.

"Young officers" - junior and middle-level officer cadres, rapidly growing army and navy ... In their social composition they differed from the generals associated with the old aristocracy, the largest bureaucracy and the "old concerns". They mainly came from the environment of small and medium-sized entrepreneurs and the rural elite - all these layers suffered particular difficulties during the years of the crisis ...

The union of "young officers" and "new concerns" became a Japanese variety of fascism. The broad social base of fascisization was represented by the petty-bourgeois strata - representatives of the small and medium urban and rural bourgeoisie. Their programs and slogans often contained ideas of protecting the emperor from the dominance of the bureaucracy and the financial oligarchy. They had many “democratic” appeals in their arsenal… Anti-capitalist and anti-American appeals were often encountered…

Emphasizing their devotion to the emperor, they demanded the restriction of the activities of the "old concerns", opposed the parliament, the bourgeois-landowner parties, staged conspiracies and terrorist acts ...

But it was the "new concerns", which did not have a sufficient financial base, were vitally interested in the speedy militarization and fascisization of the country, counting on state orders in the future ...

Putschs. The alliance of these "new" forces decided to rid Japan of the "partocrats" by their physical destruction. One of the first casualties was Prime Minister Hanaguchi, followed by President Seiyukai and Inaui's chief of staff.

In 1931, representatives of the "young officers" who were part of the Kwantung Army stationed in China provoked an incident in Manchuria and began military operations in Northeast China. Very soon, Manchuria was captured and the state of Manchukuo, "independent" from China, headed by Emperor Pu Yi, was created there. At the same time, these parts of the Japanese army occupied the so-called Inner Mongolia and intended, under the guise of "autonomy", also to separate it from China ...

The beginning of hostilities in Northeast China was preceded by a slanderous campaign against the USSR and China in the Japanese press, inspired mainly by militarist organizations and the reactionary bureaucracy. The operational plan for the war against the USSR, developed by the Japanese military in 1931, assumed the organization of provocations on the Soviet borders in order to create a pretext for future hostilities.

The capture of Northeast China made it possible for the Japanese militarists, together with the troops of Manchukuo and the White Guard gangs, to carry out provocations and attacks on the borders and in the border regions of the USSR and the MPR. The Chinese Eastern Railway became the object of unheard-of lawlessness of the Japanese authorities. The destruction of the track, the hijacking of rolling stock, shelling and raids on trains, the arrests of Soviet employees and workers made it urgent for the Soviet government to resolve the issue of the CER. In an effort to put an end to tension, stop the period of continuous conflicts in this region, and achieve the establishment of peaceful relations with Japan, Soviet Union in March 1935 he signed an agreement on the sale to the Manchukuo authorities of the CER.

These events sharply worsened Japan's relations with Western countries. The League of Nations condemned this aggression and in 1933 Japan withdrew from it, which in fact was regarded in the world as the emergence of a future hotbed of world war, which in fact will happen ...

In the parliamentary elections in 1936, the workers' parties achieved significant success. This served as a pretext for a new putsch organized by the "young officers" and fascist circles. It was attended by 1,500 people, led by General Araki. Premier Saito, Finance Minister Takahashi and some other prominent officials were killed. Several large administrative centers were captured. However, this putsch was not supported by the army and was soon suppressed.

In 1937, the Konoe cabinet came to power, which was closely associated with the military and financial old concerns and court circles. He was able to achieve the consolidation of the ruling circles on the basis of the implementation of a deep military program and a tough domestic policy. All political parties were dissolved, many leaders of the Communist Party and other democratic forces were imprisoned. At the same time, a wide company of worship to the emperor began ...

The cabinet concluded in 1937 the so-called "anti-Comintern pact" with Nazi Germany. First of all, it was directed against the USSR, as well as against the USA and England in the event of their opposition in the event of a Japanese attack on China.

1937 war with China. On July 7, 1937, the Japanese armed invasion of Northern China began. Then hostilities were extended to the entire territory of China. The country's economy was put at the service of the war, which absorbed huge amounts of money - military spending began to account for 70 - 80% of the budget. This caused serious financial difficulties. The active development of heavy, especially military industry, to the detriment of industries working for the domestic market, could not but lead to a deformation of the economy, to its ever greater adaptation to the needs of an aggressive war. The growth of the military industry, mobilization into the army, roared, however, to some reduction in the unemployed. The officially established working day lasting 12-14 hours, as a rule, was delayed until 14-16 hours.

The situation was also difficult in the Japanese countryside. The crisis state of Agriculture further exacerbated by the war. The mobilization of peasants into the army deprived the countryside of the most able-bodied stratum of the population, the cessation of the supply of industrial goods and chemical goods led to a sharp drop in productivity.

At the same time, having started a war in China, Konoe's cabinet stepped up the fight against anti-militarist and anti-war sentiments in the country. Officially it was called "the movement to mobilize the national spirit." All democratic organizations that, on the eve of the Sino-Japanese war, had taken anti-war positions, were crushed. On December 15, 1937, the police carried out mass arrests of communists, trade union leaders, and representatives of the progressive intelligentsia. The number of those arrested exceeded 10 thousand people / History of Japan, 1988, p. 257, 258/.

The United States and Great Britain, with their policy of non-intervention, actually encouraged Japan to further military actions, hoping that it would start a war against the USSR. In the summer of 1938, Japanese troops attempted to invade Soviet territory in the area of ​​Lake Khasan (near Vladivostok), but after fierce fighting they were driven back. In the spring and summer of 1939, a new conflict now took place on the territory of the MPR, with which the USSR had an agreement and the Soviet-Mongolian troops defeated the Japanese near the Khalkin-Gol River ...

This led to the fact that the next sharp increase in oil prices in the late 70s did not have a significant impact on the Japanese economy. The second half of the 70s and 80s is the transition to a moderate pace model economic development, the most important features of which was the creation of knowledge-intensive production. The main attention began to be paid to industries working for export ...

contradictions. As a result, the Far Eastern outskirts of Russia are also becoming an arena of class struggle, a place where the driving forces of the bourgeois-democratic revolution mature. International situation in the Far East in the second half of the XIX century. Despite the high rates of economic development in the post-reform period, Russia continued to lag behind such capitalist states as England, France, ...

The capitalist development of Japan, and the capture of Fr. Taiwan and the Penghuledao Islands was the beginning of the creation of the Japanese colonial empire. 6. Foreign policy at the beginning of the 20th century. Preparing Japan for World War Japan's international influence was growing. Japan got the European powers and the United States to cancel the unequal treaties. England was the first to refuse such an agreement - July 16, 1894. At the end ...

Human. The process started in Helsinki was continued at subsequent meetings of representatives of the OSCE participating States. However, further actions of the Soviet and American leadership led to the fact that in the second half of the 70s. the process of détente died down and the Cold War resumed. The USSR decided to replace the obsolete SS-4 and SS-4 missiles with new, more powerful SS-20 missiles. The new missiles were...

Japan in the first half of the 19th century

Japan entered the 19th century as a typical feudal state. Since the 18th century, the country was ruled by the Tokugawa dynasty. Back in 1603, the Emperor of Japan gave Tokugawa Ieyasu the rights of shogun (commander in chief). In reality, the power of the emperor was nominal, on his behalf the shogun ruled the country (literally “tamed the savages”). The upper layer of the population were samurai, the second layer - the peasants, the third layer - artisans. Merchants were considered a lower class.

The first Europeans to visit Japan in 1652 were the Portuguese. They were followed by the British and the Dutch. The Japanese bought firearms from them. Worried that foreigners would enslave the country, the shogun declared Japan a "closed country" from the middle of the 17th century.

Japan in the second half of the 19th century

In the 50s and 60s XIX years century Japan was forced to abandon the policy of self-isolation. On the other hand, the feudal lords, fearing popular uprisings, decided to sacrifice the regime of the shogunate under the slogan of restoring imperial power. In 1867, the 15-year-old Mutsuhito was enthroned, and an armed clash broke out between the southern princes acting on behalf of the emperor and the supporters of the shogun in 1868. The shogunate fell. These events entered the history of Japan as the revolution of 1868. As a result of this revolution, the monarchy actually became a bourgeois-landlord monarchy.

In 1868-1873 bourgeois reforms were carried out. Reflecting the interests of the landlord-bourgeois circles, these reforms were aimed at eliminating the country's economic dependence and creating conditions for the development of capitalism. According to the reform:

To prevent the fragmentation of the country, the principalities were liquidated and prefectures were created, subject to the center.

A regular army was created.

In 1871, the caste of the untouchables was abolished.

Samurai were allowed to master any profession.

Free trade was defined.

Introduced a monetary unit - the yen.

The residence of the emperor was transferred from Kyoto to Edo. The new capital was renamed Tokyo. The University of Tokyo was opened.

As a result of the agrarian reform of 1871-1873: 1) the land ownership of princes and samurai was eliminated; 2) the land became the object of sale and purchase. As a result, two-thirds of the arable land was in the hands of landowners, merchants and usurers. This reform created the conditions for the development of capitalism in the countryside, accelerating the process of stratification in society.

After the revolution of 1868, industry began to develop. The specificity of Japan was that, using scientific and technical achievements Western Europe and the United States, the industrial revolution was rapidly carried out. TO late XIX century, the industrial revolution was close to completion. The state, at the expense of the treasury, built industrial enterprises and sold them at a cheap price to private owners. In the 80s of the XIX century, the monopolies of Mitsubishi, Yasuda, Furukawa were formed.

After the implementation of bourgeois reforms, the emperor, relying on an army of the European type, suppressed the actions of the samurai, who were trying to maintain their former status. To tame the mass popular movement in the country, a law “On the Protection of Public Order” was issued. The police received the right to disperse popular demonstrations.

To reduce discontent in the country and prevent possible democratic actions in 1889, the Constitution was adopted. The Emperor wanted this Constitution to perpetuate his power. According to the Constitution:

1) the person of the emperor was declared sacred and inviolable;

2) convocation and dissolution of parliament, hiring and dismissal of high-ranking officials, declaring war and making peace as commander in chief - the emperor reserved all these functions. The upper chamber consisted of deputies appointed by the emperor, and the lower chamber was elected (age limit - 25 years);

3) Parliament adopted laws and approved the budget;

4) the laws adopted by the parliament came into force only after approval by the emperor.

Bourgeois-liberal parties received more seats in the lower house of parliament, constituting the opposition to the government. To split the opposition, the emperor included representatives of the ruling parties in the government.

The limited domestic market of Japan and the lack of raw materials increased the country's predatory appetites. Korea was the first target. In September 1875, fire was opened on Japanese ships from Ganghwa Island, and this became a pretext for war. Japanese troops were sent to Korea. In 1876, the Ganghwa Treaty was concluded, according to which the Japanese were granted immunity and the right to duty-free trade. Korean ports were declared open to the Japanese.

Japan's aggression against Korea has led to a complication of relations with China. With the conclusion of the Tientsin Treaty of 1885, Japan gained time. The Korean problem was solved as a result of the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895.

Japan at the beginning of the 20th century

At the beginning of the 20th century, Japanese capital began to influence China and Korea. One of the features of Japanese monopolies was their development on the basis of usurious and commercial capital. Japanese capitalism had a military-feudal character.

At the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries, political organizations. On the initiative of Prince Ito, the Seiyukai liberal party was created in 1900, and in 1901, under the leadership of Sen Katayama, the Social Democratic Party of Japan was formed.

The struggle for spheres of influence in the Far East led to a deterioration in relations between Russia and Japan. The lease of the Liaodong Peninsula by Russia, the construction of the East China Railway further exacerbated the contradictions.

The Anglo-Japanese Naval Alliance concluded in 1902 was a preparation for war with Russia. In January 1904, in the Korean port of Chemulpo, the Japanese fleet sank Russian ships - the cruiser Varyag and the gunboat Koreets. Thus began the Russo-Japanese War. The Japanese army in August 1904 at Liaoyang defeated the Russians. In February 1905, after a 10-month siege, Port Arthur fell.

In February 1905, near Mukden, the Japanese won again. In May, the Russian squadron was sunk in the Tsushima naval battle.

In August 1905, a peace treaty was concluded in the American city of Portsmouth, according to which: 1) Russia recognized the fact of the capture of Korea by Japan; 2) Japan itself leased the Liaodong Peninsula; 3) The southern part of Sakhalin was given to Japan. Thus, as a result of the Russo-Japanese War, Japan began to reign supreme in South Manchuria and Korea.

In November 1905, Japan gained control of foreign policy Korea. The assassination of Prince Ito by Korean nationalists gave Japan an excellent excuse to occupy Korea entirely. According to the treaty concluded in 1910, Korea fell under the protectorate of Japan.

The mythical first emperor ascended the throne

Emperor Jimmu. 1839-1892

Wikimedia Commons

The information available in the ancient Japanese mythological and historical codes made it possible to establish the date of the accession to the throne of the mythical first emperor Jimmu, from whom the imperial family in Japan supposedly originates. On this day, Jimmu, a descendant of the sun goddess Amaterasu, passed the enthronement ceremony in the capital he founded - in a place called Kashihara. Of course, there is no need to talk about any statehood in Japan at that time, as well as about the existence of Jimmu, and the Japanese themselves. The myth was introduced into everyday life and became part of history. In the first half of the 20th century, Jimmu's enthronement day was public holiday, on the occasion of which the current emperor participated in prayers for the well-being of the country. In 1940, Japan celebrated 2600 years since the founding of the empire. Due to the difficult foreign policy situation, it was necessary to abandon the Olympic Games and World Expo. The symbol of the latter was to be Jimmu's bow and the golden kite, which appeared in the myth:

“Jimmu's army fought with the enemy, fought, but could not defeat him in any way. Then suddenly the sky was overcast with clouds and hail began to fall. And an amazing golden kite flew in, and sat on the upper edge of the sovereign's bow. The kite shone and sparkled, it was like lightning. The enemies saw this and were completely confused, they didn’t even have the strength to fight. ” Nihon shoki, scroll III.

Since the defeat of Japan in 1945 in World War II, Jimmu has been approached very rarely and cautiously due to his image's strong association with militarism.

701

The first legislative code was drawn up

Fragment of the Taihoryo codex. 702 year

National Museum of Japanese History

At the beginning of the 8th century, active work continued in Japan to form institutions of power and develop norms for relations between the state and subjects. The Japanese state model had a Chinese model. The first legislative code of Japan, drawn up in 701 and enacted in 702, was called "Taihoryo". Its structure and individual provisions were based on Chinese monuments of legal thought, but there were also significant differences. Thus, the norms of criminal law in Japanese legislation were developed with much less care, which is also due to the cultural characteristics of the Japanese state: it preferred to delegate responsibility for punishing the guilty and replace the physical punishment of criminals with exile, so as not to incur ritual impurity. kegare caused by death. Thanks to the introduction of the Taihoryo code, historians call Japan in the 8th-9th centuries a "state based on laws." Despite the fact that certain provisions of the code lose their relevance by the time of its creation, no one formally canceled it until the adoption of the first Japanese Constitution in 1889.

710 year

Japan's first permanent capital founded

View of the city of Nara. 1868

The development of statehood required the concentration of the court elite and the creation of a permanent capital. Until that time, each new ruler built a new residence for himself. To remain in a palace defiled by the death of a previous sovereign was considered dangerous. But in the VIII century, the model of the nomadic capital no longer corresponded to the scale of the state. Nara became the first permanent capital of Japan. The place for its construction was chosen based on geomantic Geomancy or Feng Shui- a way of orienting buildings in space, in which they were located in such a way as to obtain maximum amount positive energy and get rid of the negative influence. ideas about the security of space: a river should flow in the east, a pond and a plain must be present in the south, roads should be in the west, and mountains should be in the north. According to the parameters of the enclosing landscape, places will later be selected for the construction of not only cities, but also the estates of aristocrats. The city of Nara in plan was a rectangle with an area of ​​25 square kilometers and copied the structure of the Chinese capital Chang'an. Nine vertical and ten horizontal streets divided the space into quarters of equal area. The central avenue of Suzaku stretched from south to north and rested against the gates of the emperor's residence. Tenno- the title of the Japanese emperor - was also the designation of the North Star, located motionless in the north of the sky. Like a star, the emperor surveyed his possessions, being in the north of the capital. The quarters adjacent to the palace complex had the greatest prestige; removal from the capital to the provinces could serve as a terrible punishment for an official.

769 year

Soft coup attempt

Monk beating a drum. XVIII-XIX centuries

The Library of Congress

The political struggle in Japan took on various forms in different historical periods, but common place was the absence of attempts to take the throne by those who did not belong to the imperial family. The only exception was the monk Dokyo. Being a descendant of the seedy provincial Yuge family, he went from a simple monk to the all-powerful ruler of the country. Dokyo's nomination was all the more surprising because social structure Japanese society rigidly determined the fate of man. When assigning court ranks and distributing state positions, belonging to one or another clan played a decisive role. Dokyo appeared in the staff of court monks in the early 50s. The monks of that time not only learned Chinese literacy, which was necessary for reading the sacred Buddhist texts translated from Sanskrit in China, but also possessed many other useful skills, in particular, healing. For Dokyo, the glory of a skilled healer was established. Apparently, therefore, he was sent in 761 to the sick ex-Empress Koken. The monk not only managed to heal the former empress, but also became her closest adviser. According to the Nihon Ryoiki collection of Buddhist legends, Dokyo from the Yuge clan shared one pillow with the empress and ruled the Celestial Empire. Koken ascends the throne for the second time under the name of Shotoku and, especially for Dokyo, introduces new positions that are not provided for by law and endow the monk with the broadest powers. The empress's confidence in Dokyo was boundless until 769, when Dokyo, using his faith in divination, declared that the deity Hachiman of the Usa temple wished Dokyo to become the new emperor. The empress demanded confirmation of the words of the oracle, and this time Hachiman uttered the following: “From the time of the beginning of our state to our days, it has been determined who will be the sovereign and who will be the subject. And it has not yet happened that a subject became a sovereign. The throne of the sun of heaven must be inherited by the imperial house. Let the unrighteous be expelled.” After the death of the empress in 770, Dokyo was stripped of all ranks and positions and expelled from the capital, and the wary attitude towards the Buddhist church lasted for several more decades. It is believed that the transfer of the capital from Nara to Heian, finally carried out in 794, was also caused by the desire of the state to get rid of the influence of Buddhist schools - not a single Buddhist temple was transferred to the new capital from Nara.

866

Establishing control over the imperial family

Actor Onoe Matsusuke as a samurai of the Fujiwara clan. Print by Katsukawa Sunsho. 18th century

The Metropolitan Museum of Art

The most effective instrument of political struggle in traditional Japan was the acquisition of family ties with the imperial house and the occupation of positions that allowed them to dictate their own will to the ruler. Representatives of the Fujiwara clan succeeded more than others in this, supplying brides to emperors for a long time, and since 866 they have achieved a monopoly right to appoint to the positions of regents. sessho and a little later (since 887) - chancellors campacu. In 866, Fujiwara Yoshifusa becomes the first regent in Japanese history who did not come from an imperial family. The regents acted on behalf of the underage emperors, who did not have their own political will, the chancellors represented the adult rulers. They not only controlled current affairs, but also determined the order of succession to the throne, forcing the most active rulers to abdicate in favor of minor heirs, who, as a rule, had family ties with Fujiwara. The regents and chancellors reach the greatest fullness of power by 967. The period from 967 to 1068 received the name in historiography sekkan jidai -"the era of regents and chancellors". Over time, they lose influence, but positions are not abolished. Japanese political culture is characterized by the nominal preservation of old institutions of power while creating new ones that duplicate their functions.

894

Termination of official relations between Japan and China

Sugawara Michizane. 18th century

The Library of Congress

External contacts of ancient and early medieval Japan with mainland powers were limited. These were mainly exchanges of embassies with the states of the Korean Peninsula, the state of Bohai Bohai(698-926) - the first state of the Tungus-Manchus, located on the territory of Manchuria, Primorsky Krai and in the northern part of the Korean Peninsula. and China. In 894, Emperor Uda convenes officials to discuss the details of another embassy to the Middle Kingdom. middle state- self-name of China.. Officials, however, advise against sending an embassy at all. The influential politician and famous poet Sugawara Michizane especially insisted on this. The main argument was the unstable political situation in China. Since that time, official relations between Japan and China have ceased for a long time. In a historical perspective, this decision had many consequences. The absence of direct cultural influence from the outside leads to the need to rethink the borrowings made in the previous time, and to develop proper Japanese cultural forms. This process is reflected in almost all aspects of life, from architecture to belles-lettres. China is no longer considered a model state, and subsequently, Japanese thinkers, in order to justify the uniqueness and superiority of Japan over the Middle State, will often point to political instability on the mainland and the frequent change of ruling dynasties.

1087

Introduction of the abdication mechanism

The system of direct imperial control is uncharacteristic for Japan. The real policy is carried out by his advisers, regents, chancellors and ministers. This, on the one hand, deprives the ruling emperor of many powers, but, on the other hand, makes it impossible to criticize his person. The emperor, as a rule, exercises the sacred government of the state. There were also exceptions. One of the methods resorted to by emperors to gain political powers was the mechanism of abdication, which allowed the ruler, in the event of transfer of power to a loyal heir to the throne, to exercise control without being bound by ritual obligations. In 1087, Emperor Shirakawa renounces the throne in favor of his eight-year-old son Horikawa, then takes the tonsure, but continues to manage the affairs of the court, already being an ex-emperor. Until his death, which overtook him in 1129, Shirakawa would dictate his will to both the reigning emperors and the regents and chancellors from the Fujiwara family. This type of government, carried out by abdicated emperors, was called insei- "the board from the chapel." Despite the fact that the ruling emperor had a sacred status, the ex-emperor was the head of the clan, and according to Confucian teaching, all the younger members of the clan had to follow his will. The Confucian type of hierarchical relations was also common among the descendants of Shinto deities.

1192

Establishment of dual power in Japan

Battle of the Taira and Minamoto clans. 1862

Museum of Fine Arts, Boston

Military professions, as well as forceful methods of resolving conflicts, did not have special prestige in traditional Japan. Preference was given to civil officials who were literate and able to compose poetry. However, in the 12th century the situation changed. Representatives of provincial military houses enter the political arena, among which Taira and Minamoto had a special influence. Taira managed to achieve the previously impossible - Taira Kiyomori took the position of chief minister and managed to make his grandson emperor. Dissatisfaction with the Taira from other military houses and representatives of the imperial family reaches a climax in 1180, which leads to a protracted military conflict, called the Taira-Minamoto War. In 1185, Minamoto, under the leadership of a talented administrator and ruthless politician Minamoto Yoritomo, wins. However, instead of helping the court aristocrats and members of the imperial family return to power, Minamoto Yoritomo consistently gets rid of competitors, achieves the position of the sole leader of military houses, and in 1192 receives an appointment from the emperor. sei taishogun- "the great commander, the pacifier of the barbarians." From that time until the Meiji Restoration in 1867-1868, a dual power system was established in Japan. Emperors continue to perform rituals, while shoguns, military rulers, carry out real politics, are in charge of foreign relations and often interfere in the internal affairs of the imperial family.

1281

Attempted conquest of Japan by the Mongols

Defeat of the Mongols in 1281. 1835-1836

In 1266, Kublai Khan, who had conquered China and founded the Yuan Empire, sent a message to Japan in which he demanded to recognize Japan's vassalage. He received no answer. Later, to no avail, several more similar messages were sent. Khubilai began preparing a military expedition to the shores of Japan, and in the fall of 1274 the fleet of the Yuan Empire, which also included Korean detachments, with a total number of 30 thousand people, plundered the islands of Tsushima and Iki and reached Hakata Bay. The Japanese troops were inferior to the enemy both in numbers and in armament, but practically did not come to a direct military clash. The oncoming storm scattered the Mongols' ships, as a result of which they had to retreat. Kublai made a second attempt to conquer Japan in 1281. The hostilities lasted a little over a week, after which the events of seven years ago were repeated: the typhoon buried most of the huge Mongol fleet and plans to conquer Japan. These campaigns are associated with the birth of ideas about kamikaze, which literally translates as "divine wind." For a modern person, kamikaze is primarily suicide pilots, but the concept itself is much older. According to medieval notions, Japan was the "country of deities." The Shinto deities that inhabited the archipelago protected it from external harmful influences. This was confirmed by the "divine wind", which twice prevented Khubilai from conquering Japan.

1336

Schism within the imperial household

Ashikaga Takauji. Around 1821

Harvard Art Museum

It is traditionally believed that the Japanese imperial line was never interrupted. This allows us to speak of the Japanese monarchy as the most ancient in the world. In history, however, there were periods of split of the ruling dynasty. The most serious and prolonged crisis, during which Japan was ruled by two sovereigns at the same time, was provoked by Emperor Godaigo. In 1333, the positions of the Ashikaga military house, headed by Ashikaga Takauji, are strengthened. The emperor resorted to his help in the fight against the shogunate. As a reward, Takauji himself wished to take the position of shogun and control the actions of Godaigo. The political struggle takes the form of an open military confrontation, and in 1336 the Ashikaga troops defeat the imperial army. Godaigo was forced to abdicate in favor of a new emperor, the convenient Ashikaga. Unwilling to put up with the circumstances, Godaigo flees to the Yoshino region in Yamato province, where he establishes the so-called Southern Court. Until 1392, two centers of power would exist in parallel in Japan - the Northern Court in Kyoto and the Southern Court in Yoshino. Both courts had their own emperors, appointed their own shoguns, which made it almost impossible to determine the legitimate ruler. In 1391, the shogun Ashikaga Yoshimitsu offers a truce to the Southern Court and promises that from now on the throne will be inherited in turn by representatives of the two lines of the imperial family. The proposal was accepted, and an end to the split was put, but the shogunate did not keep its promise: the throne was occupied by representatives of the Northern Court. In a historical perspective, these events were perceived extremely negatively. Thus, in the history books written during the Meiji period, they preferred to remain silent about the Northern Court, calling the time from 1336 to 1392 the Yoshino period. Ashikaga Takauji was presented as a usurper and opponent of the emperor, while Godaigo was described as an ideal ruler. The split within the ruling house was perceived as an unacceptable event, which should not be remembered once again.

1467

The beginning of the period of feudal fragmentation

Neither the shoguns of the Minamoto dynasty nor the representatives of the Ashikaga dynasty were the sole rulers to whom all the military houses of Japan were subordinate. Often the shogun acted as an arbitrator in disputes that arose between the provincial military. Another prerogative of the shogun was the appointment of military governors in the provinces. Positions became hereditary, which served to enrich individual clans. The rivalry between the military houses for positions, as well as the struggle for the right to be called the head of a particular clan, did not bypass the Ashikaga clan. The inability of the shogunate to resolve the accumulated contradictions resulted in major military clashes that lasted 10 years. The events of 1467-1477 were called "the turmoil of the Onin-Bummei years". Kyoto, the then capital of Japan, was practically destroyed, the Ashikaga shogunate lost its powers, the country lost its central government apparatus. The period from 1467 to 1573 is referred to as the "epoch of the warring provinces". The absence of a real political center and the strengthening of provincial military houses, which begin to issue their own laws and introduce new systems of ranks and positions within their possessions, allow us to speak of feudal fragmentation in Japan of this time.

1543

Arrival of the first Europeans

Portuguese map of Japan. Around 1598

The first Europeans to set foot on Japanese soil were two Portuguese merchants. On the 25th day of the 8th moon in the year 12 Tenbun (1543), a Chinese junk with two Portuguese on board was washed up at the southern tip of the island of Tanegashima. Negotiations between the aliens and the Japanese were conducted in writing. Japanese officials knew how to write in Chinese, but did not understand spoken language. Signs were drawn directly on the sand. It was possible to find out that the junk was accidentally washed up on the shores of Tanegashima by a storm, and these strange people are merchants. Soon they were received at the residence of Prince Tokitaka, the ruler of the island. Among various strange things they brought muskets. The Portuguese demonstrated the ability of firearms. The Japanese were struck by noise, smoke and firepower: the target was hit from a distance of 100 paces. Two muskets were immediately bought, and Japanese blacksmiths were instructed to set up their own production of firearms. As early as 1544, there were several weapons workshops in Japan. Subsequently, contacts with Europeans acquired an intensive character. In addition to weapons, they spread the Christian dogma in the archipelago. In 1549, the Jesuit missionary Francis Xavier arrives in Japan. He and his students carry out active proselytizing activities and convert many Japanese princes to the Christian faith - daimyō. The specificity of the religious consciousness of the Japanese assumed a calm attitude towards faith. The adoption of Christianity did not mean the rejection of Buddhism and the belief in Shinto deities. Subsequently, Christianity in Japan was banned under pain of death, as it undermined the foundations of state power and led to unrest and uprisings against the shogunate.

1573

The beginning of the unification of Japan

Among the historical characters of Japan, perhaps the most recognizable are the generals, called the three great unifiers. These are Oda Nobunaga, Toyotomi Hideyoshi and Tokugawa Ieyasu. It is believed that their actions made it possible to overcome feudal fragmentation and unite the country under the new shogunate, the founder of which was Tokugawa Ieyasu. The beginning of the unification was laid by Oda Nobunaga, an outstanding commander who managed to subdue many provinces thanks to the talent of his commanders and the skillful use of European weapons in battle. In 1573, he expels Ashikaga Yoshiaki, the last shogun of the Ashikaga dynasty, from Kyoto, making possible the establishment of a new military government. According to a proverb known since the 17th century, "Nobunaga kneaded the dough, Hideyoshi baked the cake, and Ieyasu ate it." Neither Nobunaga nor Hideyoshi, who succeeded him, were shoguns. Only Tokugawa Ieyasu succeeded in obtaining this title and ensuring its transmission by inheritance, but without the actions of his predecessors, this would have been impossible.

1592

Attempted military expansion to the mainland

Japanese warlord Kato Kiyomasa hunts a tiger while in Korea. 1896 print

Toyotomi Hideyoshi was not of noble origin, but military merit and political intrigue allowed him to become the most influential person in Japan. After the death of Oda Nobunaga in 1582, Hideyoshi deals with the warlord Akechi Mitsuhide, who betrayed Oda. Revenge for the master greatly increased Toyotomi's authority among the allies united under his command. He manages to subdue the remaining provinces and get closer not only to the heads of the military houses, but also to the imperial family. In 1585, he was appointed to the position of chancellor of the kampaku, which before him was occupied exclusively by representatives of the aristocratic Fujiwara family. Now the legitimacy of his actions was justified not only by weapons, but also by the will of the emperor. After the completion of the unification of Japan, Hideyoshi attempted an outward expansion to the mainland. The last time before that, Japanese troops participated in military campaigns on the mainland back in 663. Hideyoshi planned to conquer China, Korea and India. The plans were not destined to come true. The events from 1592 to 1598 are called the Imjin War. During this period, Toyotomi troops fought unsuccessful battles in Korea. After the death of Hideyoshi in 1598, the expeditionary force was urgently recalled to Japan. Until the end of the 19th century, Japan would not attempt military expansion to the mainland.

October 21, 1600

Completion of the unification of Japan

Shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu. 1873

Art Gallery of Greater Victoria

The founder of the third and last dynasty of shoguns in Japanese history was the commander Tokugawa Ieyasu. The title of sei taishōgun was granted to him by the emperor in 1603. The victory at the Battle of Sekigahara on October 21, 1600 allowed him to take the position of head of the Tokugawa military houses. All military houses that fought on the side of the Tokugawa began to be called fudai daimyo, and the opponents tozama daimyō. The former received fertile lands and the opportunity to hold public office in the new shogunate. The possessions of the latter were confiscated and redistributed. Tozama daimyo were also deprived of the opportunity to take part in government, which led to dissatisfaction with the policies of the Tokugawa. It is the people from among the tozama daimyo who will become the main force of the anti-shogun coalition, which will carry out the Meiji restoration in 1867-1868. The Battle of Sekigahara ended the unification of Japan and made possible the establishment of the Tokugawa shogunate.

1639

Issuance of a decree on the closure of the country

Scheme of the siege of Hara Castle during the suppression of the uprising in Shimabara. 17th century

Wikimedia Commons

The period of rule of the shoguns of the Tokugawa dynasty, also called the Edo period (1603-1867) after the name of the city (Edo - modern Tokyo), where the residence of the shoguns was located, is characterized by relative stability and the absence of serious military conflicts. Stability was achieved, among other things, by refusing external contacts. Starting with Toyotomi Hideyoshi, the Japanese military rulers have pursued a consistent policy of restricting the activities of Europeans in the archipelago: Christianity is prohibited, the number of ships that are allowed to arrive in Japan is limited. Under the Tokugawa shoguns, the process of closing the country is completed. In 1639, a decree was issued according to which no Europeans were allowed to be in Japan, with the exception of a limited number of Dutch merchants. A year earlier, the shogunate had had to face difficulties in suppressing a peasant uprising in Shimabara, which took place under Christian slogans. From now on, the Japanese were also forbidden to leave the archipelago. The seriousness of the shogunate's intentions was confirmed in 1640, when the crew of a ship that arrived in Nagasaki from Macau to resume relations was arrested. 61 people were executed, and the remaining 13 were sent back. The policy of self-isolation will last until the middle of the 19th century.

1688

The beginning of the cultural heyday of Japan

Map of the city of Edo. 1680

East Asian Library - University of California, Berkeley

During the reign of the Tokugawa shoguns, urban culture and entertainment flourished. A surge of creative activity occurred during the years of Genroku (1688-1704). At this time, the playwright Chikamatsu Monzaemon, who later received the nickname "Japanese Shakespeare", the poet Matsuo Basho, a reformer of the haiku genre, as well as the writer Ihara Saikaku, nicknamed the Europeans "Japanese Boccaccio", creates his works. Saikaku's works were of a secular nature and described the everyday life of the townspeople, often in a humorous manner. The Genroku years are considered the golden age of theater kabuki and puppet theater bunraku. At this time, not only literature, but also crafts are actively developing.

1868

Meiji Restoration and Modernization of Japan

Japanese imperial family. Chromolithograph by Torahiro Kasai. 1900

The Library of Congress

The rule of military houses, which lasted more than six centuries, was put to an end in the course of events that came to be known as the Meiji Restoration. A coalition of warriors from the domains of Satsuma, Choshu and Tosa forced Tokugawa Yoshinobu, the last shogun in Japanese history, to return supreme power to the emperor. Since that time, an active modernization of Japan began, accompanied by reforms in all spheres of life. Western ideas and technologies are beginning to be actively assimilated. Japan is embarking on the path of Westernization and industrialization. Transformations during the reign of Emperor Meiji took place under the motto Wakon Yosai -"Japanese spirit, Western technology", which reflected the specifics of Japanese borrowing of Western ideas. At this time, universities were opened in Japan, a system of compulsory primary education was introduced, the army was being modernized, and the Constitution was adopted. During the reign of Emperor Meiji, Japan becomes an active political player: it annexes the Ryukyu archipelago, develops the island of Hokkaido, wins the Sino-Japanese and Russo-Japanese wars, annexes Korea. After the restoration of imperial power, Japan managed to participate in more military conflicts than during the entire period of the rule of military houses.

September 2, 1945

Surrender in World War II, beginning of the American occupation

View of Hiroshima after August 6, 1945

The Library of Congress

Second World War ended on September 2, 1945, after the act of complete and unconditional surrender of Japan was signed aboard the American battleship Missouri. Until 1951, the American military occupation of Japan will last. During this time, there is a complete reassessment of the values ​​that have been established in the Japanese mind since the beginning of the century. Such a once unshakable truth as the divine origin of the imperial family is also subject to revision. On January 1, 1946, on behalf of Emperor Showa, a decree was issued on the construction of a new Japan, containing a provision called "self-proclaimed emperor by a man." This decree also sets out the concept of Japan's democratic transformation and rejection of the idea that "the Japanese people are superior to other peoples and their destiny is to rule the world." On November 3, 1946, the new Japanese Constitution was adopted, which came into force on May 3, 1947. According to Article 9, Japan henceforth renounced "for all time from war as the sovereign right of the nation" and proclaimed the renunciation of the creation of armed forces.

1964

The beginning of the post-war reconstruction of Japan

Post-war Japanese identity was built not on the idea of ​​superiority, but on the idea of ​​the uniqueness of the Japanese. In the 1960s, a phenomenon called nihonjinron -"Thinking about the Japanese". Numerous articles written within the framework of this trend demonstrate the uniqueness of Japanese culture, the peculiarities of Japanese thinking, and admire the beauty of Japanese art. Climb national identity and soul-searching were accompanied by world-class events in Japan. In 1964, Japan became the host of the Summer Olympic Games, which were held in Asia for the first time. Preparations for their holding included the construction of urban infrastructure facilities that have become the pride of Japan. Between Tokyo and Osaka, the Shinkansen bullet trains, now known throughout the world, were launched. The Olympics has become a symbol of the return of the changed Japan to the world community.

The coup d'état in Japan in 1867-1868 and the Meiji reforms paved the way for the creation of a society based on market relations in Japan. The restructuring of society in a European way, while preserving the national traditions of the Japanese people, was the further main goal. Emperor Mutsuhito abolished laws and regulations that hindered the development of productive forces. Japan was open to all countries of the world. First of all, a single monetary unit was introduced.

Customs and other barriers on the borders of individual counties were removed. These measures have opened a wide path to trade and economic relations throughout the country. On the roads, guard posts were eliminated to control the migration of peasants to the cities created to detain and return them, because industry was interested in the influx of labor from the countryside. These events contributed to the development of the domestic market of Japan, the development of industrial sectors. In 1869, it was officially announced that all strata, i.e., feudal landowners, samurai, peasants, artisans and merchants, were equal.

On a national scale, there was a centralized government. A law on universal military service was passed.

In the years 1871-1878, reforms were carried out in the field of agriculture, allowing the free purchase and sale of land, it was allowed to plant any kind of crops on the purchased land. The tax in the form of a share of the harvest was replaced by a cash tax. A law was passed preventing the division of land into small plots.

The role of the state in the development of industry

No matter how difficult the conditions, market relations developed rapidly in Japan. Japan was the first in the East to take advantage of the practice of Europe, using advanced industrial technology that had been created for a long time in Europe and which Japan inherited in finished form. The state followed the path of charity for the development of industry.

First of all, Japan developed rapidly textile industry. In 1890, its share was 45% of all industries. Over a quarter of a century, 1,300 industrial enterprises were built, which were initially leased to wealthy industrialists, and later began to be sold at half price and even for 10-15% of their original cost. There was a merging of banking and industrial capital. Japan, in terms of the pace of development of industry and capital, developed ten times faster than Russia at that time.

Features of the development of Japan

In Japan, monopoly capitalism was intertwined with the remnants of the feudal monarchy. In this respect, Japan was similar to Russia. In contrast to England, France, and the USA, power in Japan was concentrated not in the hands of the bourgeoisie, but in the hands of the landlord bourgeoisie.
Japan simultaneously began to rebuild the army and navy. The Japanese government paid special attention to the development of heavy industry. As a result, in 1900-1913, in terms of production, Japan overtook Italy and approached France. Industry, trade and banks were concentrated in the country, monopolies appeared.

Social life

In Japan, the development of capitalism proceeded simultaneously with the separation of the peasants from the land. Only 1/3 of the peasants who received land under the agrarian reform could keep it. Those who could not stand the competition were forced to lease the land. The rest, having moved to the city, turned into hired workers. Industrialists, using advanced production, brought the country to a new stage of development. The number of industrial enterprises increased every year.

The economic situation of the workers of these enterprises was very difficult, as wages were very low. The enterprises were not responsible for safety. In addition, Japanese workers had neither political nor social rights. The working class began to unite in trade unions. The advanced stratum of Japanese society fought for the creation of a parliament.

Constitution of 1889

Economic reforms caused the growth of the bourgeoisie and its political strengthening. The bourgeoisie began to lay claim to the leadership of the state.
The government decided to give in. Finally, in 1889, a new constitution was approved, based on the model of the Prussian constitution. A bicameral parliament was created in the country, consisting of an upper (house of peers) and a lower (house of representatives) chambers.

The constitution not only retained all the prerogatives of the emperor, but also granted him even more rights and powers. For example, he retained the right to convene parliament, open it, dissolve it, replace laws with a simple royal decree, and be the Supreme Commander of the troops; he was given the right to declare war, conclude peace. According to the constitution, the Council of Ministers was accountable only to the emperor.

All decisions of the parliament were to be discussed in the Privy Council under the emperor. The right to vote, which was determined from the age of 25, was limited by property qualification. Despite all the shortcomings, the very adoption of a constitution in a country as rich in medieval traditions as Japan was a big event.

Foreign policy

The impoverishment of the population complicated the sale of manufactured goods. This situation pushed the ruling circles of Japan to seize the territories of neighboring states. Japan began to arm itself for this purpose. The aggressive thoughts of Japan were directed to Korea, China, the basin Pacific Ocean. Soon Japan began aggressive wars. In 1879, Japan, despite the resistance of China, captured the island of Ryukyu. In 1875, Japan separated the Kuril Islands from Russia, annexing South Sakhalin. In 1876, Korea was declared an "open" country for the Japanese. Japanese goods were sold duty-free. Thus, Korea was taken out from under the influence of China. The main goal was the annexation of Korea.

Japanese-Chinese warrior 1894-1895

In 1894, Japan organized palace coup in Seoul, set up a Japanese-worshipping government, and disarmed the capital's garrison. These events led to the start of the Sino-Japanese War. The transport ships of the Chinese navy were sunk. At the same time, Japanese troops attacked Chinese military units stationed in Korea without declaring war. In 1894, Chinese troops were defeated near Pyongyang. This opened the way for Japan to hegemony in the Far East. The military forces of Japan, provided with modern weapons, organized an attack both from land and from the sea, inflicting a defeat on the Chinese troops. In 1895, the Shimonoseki Treaty was concluded, according to which China recognized the independence of Korea, gave Japan the Liaodong Islands, Taiwan, Penghu (Pescador), and was also forced to pay Japan a large indemnity.

According to the agreement, Japan received the right to build industrial enterprises for its trade in China. (China was declared "open" to Japanese industry and was becoming a territory dominated by Japanese entrepreneurs.) Japan's goal now was to defeat Russia, its main rival in the Far East.

In 1895, Japan adopted a 10-year rearmament program. Japan achieved the conclusion of agreements ensuring the non-intervention of the great states in the event of a war with Russia. Thus, Russia was isolated before the inevitable war. The victory in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904 demonstrated the military and economic power of Japan.

In 1910, Japan, using military force, captured Korea. The Japanese governor-general in Korea had unlimited power. To maintain colonial rule, Japan deployed large military forces in Korea.

Japan has now turned its attention to China. The robbery of China by all European states and the United States called on Japan to also take advantage of the wealth of this country, which led to a deterioration in Japan's relations with the United States and England. Japan has become a dangerous enemy in the Far East. Thus, Japan was drawn deeper and deeper into the abyss of a new war.

Annexation (Latin annexio - accession) - accession by force of all or part of the territory of another state.
Contribution (lat. contributio) - the amount forcibly paid by the defeated state to the victorious state.

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Japan in the late 19th - early 20th century Updated: January 27, 2017 By: admin

Of all the Asian countries, only Japan developed as an independent state. She aspired to power and prosperity in order to take a prominent place among the European powers. To this end, the imperial government borrowed from the West its scientific, technical, economic and political achievements. At the beginning of the XX century. Japan was already considered as great a power as, for example, England, France or Russia.

Industrial engineering

After the Meiji revolution, favorable opportunities were created in the country for entrepreneurial activity. The necessary capital was possessed only by rich merchant and banking houses, who were in no hurry to invest in the construction of factories and plants. Habitual trading operations and usury brought them considerable income without additional effort and risk. Under these conditions, the state played a special role.

The old road between Edo and Kyoto is one of the paintings in the 53 Stations of the Tokaido Road series, 1833. Ando Hiroshige (1797-1858). Outstanding engraver. Influenced European painters, especially Van Gogh

The so-called "exemplary enterprises" were built at the expense of the treasury. But they turned out to be profitable. Therefore, in 1880, most of the "exemplary enterprises" were sold at low prices to private individuals, which, of course, stimulated entrepreneurial activity.

As a result, in a short period of time (70-90s of the 19th century), Japan acquired railways and telegraph communications, arsenals and a fleet, and modern industry. In three decades, the country has traveled a path that took several centuries for European states.

Constitution of 1889

In the early 80s. In Japan, a movement for a constitution unfolded. Its participants were private entrepreneurs, yesterday's samurai, who adapted to the new conditions, representatives of the Japanese intelligentsia, who received a European education, and even individual immigrants from princely families. The imperial government made a concession, and on February 11, 1889, the text of the constitution was published.

Japan created a constitutional monarchy. The emperor had practically unlimited power. His person was proclaimed "sacred and inviolable." The government was not responsible to the created parliament. At any moment and without explanation, the emperor could suspend the work of parliament, dissolve it and convene a new one. An insignificant part of the population enjoyed the right to vote - men over 25 years old, who paid a high tax. The constitution formally proclaimed freedom of speech, correspondence, press, assembly, and association. It significantly strengthened the monarchical system and lasted until 1946.

Influence of Western culture

In the Meiji era, there were changes not only in the field of economics and politics, but also in cultural life. In 1871, a course was proclaimed to overcome feudal backwardness, to create an "enlightened civilization" in the country. The Japanese persistently borrowed the achievements of Western culture, science and technology. The youth went to study in Europe, the United States of America. Conversely, foreign specialists were widely attracted to Japan. Japanese university professors were English, American, French and Russian. Some fans of everything European even offered to take English language as national.

"Views of barbarian countries" - the name of the engraving. It depicts the Port of London as seen by the famous Japanese artist Yoshitoro.

An integral part of the reforms was the school reform. Primary and secondary schools, universities were opened in the country. The law of 1872 made four years of education compulsory. Already in the early 80s. among young Japanese it was difficult to meet an illiterate.

By the end of the XIX century. the best works of Western European and Russian literature become known to the Japanese. Japanese writers created a new literature that was different from the medieval one. More and more portrayed real life and the inner world of man. The genre of the novel is gaining particular popularity. The largest writer of that time was Roka Tokutomi, who was under the influence of L. Tolstoy. Fame brought him the novel "Kuroshivo", translated into Russian. In 1896, cinema was brought to Japan, and after 3 years, Japanese-made films appeared.

New in the lifestyle of Japanese society

Under the influence of the West, a variety of innovations entered the way of life of the Japanese. Instead of the traditional lunar calendar the common European Gregorian was introduced. Sunday was declared a holiday. Railway communication and telegraph communications, publishing houses and printing houses appeared. Large brick houses and European-style shops were built in the cities.

The changes also affected the appearance of the Japanese. The government wanted the Japanese to look civilized in the eyes of Europeans. In 1872, the emperor and his entourage dressed in European clothes. After that, it began to spread among the urban population and much more slowly among the rural population. But it was not uncommon to see a man in a kimono and trousers. Especially difficult was the transition to European shoes, which differed from traditional Japanese.

Old customs were banned only because the Europeans considered them barbaric. For example, general public baths, tattoos and others.

European hairstyles gradually came into fashion. Instead of the traditional Japanese (long hair twisted into a bun at the top), a mandatory short haircut. The government believed that it was more suitable for the citizens of a renewed Japan. The military were the first to part with the bunches and put on their uniforms. However, the civilians were in no hurry. It wasn't until the emperor cut his hair in 1873 that three-quarters of Tokyo's male population followed suit.

The Japanese borrowed from the Europeans the practice of eating meat products, from which they traditionally abstained. But everything changed after the opinion spread that the Europeans achieved great success due to the calorie content of meat food.

The borrowing of Western culture sometimes developed into a negative attitude towards one's own - national. There were cases of destruction of historical monuments and burning of ancient temples. But Japan's fascination with everything European was short-lived.

Rise of nationalism

Already in the 80s. naive admiration for the West disappeared, and from the mid-90s. Japan was taken over by a wave of nationalism. Nationalists opposed borrowing from Europe. They extolled the Japanese nation in every possible way and called for expansion into the countries of Southeast Asia under the pretext of protecting this region from the West.

At school, children were brought up in the spirit of national exclusivity and boundless devotion to the emperor. Schoolchildren were instilled with a sense of conviction in Japan's "sacred right" to dominate Asia. Even school lunches resembled the Japanese national flag. Pickled plums were laid out on white rice in the form of a red circle of the sun.

The ruling circles of the country used the idea of ​​national superiority of the Japanese over other peoples to pursue an aggressive policy in the Far East and Southeast Asia.

External expansion

Japan looked longingly at its closest neighbors - Korea and China. There she could find raw materials, markets, which the rapidly developing industry so needed. The warlike samurai spirit also pushed her towards an aggressive foreign policy.

An intensified penetration into Korea began, which was officially considered a vassal of China. This was the main reason for the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, as a result of which the islands of Taiwan and Penghuledao were ceded to Japan. Japanese victory in Russo-Japanese War 1904-1905 allowed her to turn South Manchuria and Korea into her protectorates, to obtain the right to own South Sakhalin. During the First World War, Japan seized the Pacific islands - the possessions of Germany and further strengthened its position in China.

Within a few decades, Japan became one of the world's leading powers. An aggressive foreign policy will eventually lead this country to defeat and the national catastrophe of 1945.

THIS IS INTERESTING TO KNOW

The history of Japanese railways began on September 12, 1872, when the first passenger train left Tokyo for Yokohama. The dignitaries invited to this celebration climbed into the cars in the same way as a Japanese used to enter a house: before stepping on the bandwagon, each of them mechanically took off his shoes. When, fifty-seven minutes later, the admiring dignitaries disembarked in Yokohama, they were surprised and annoyed to find that no one had bothered to transport and place their shoes on the platform in advance.

References:
V. S. Koshelev, I. V. Orzhehovsky, V. I. Sinitsa / The World History New time XIX - early. XX century., 1998.