Reforms 60 70 years of the 19th century conclusion. The era of great reforms in Russia (60s of the XIX century). Education reform

Peasant Reform .............................................. .1

Liberal Reforms of the 60s-70s.......................................4

Establishment of zemstvos............................................ .4

Self-government in cities........................................ 6

Judicial reform............................................ 7

Military reform............................................... .8

Education reforms............................... ....10

Church in the period of reforms................................................. 11 Conclusion .......... ....................................…........ .13

Peasant reform .

Russia on the eve of the abolition of serfdom . The defeat in the Crimean War testified to the serious military-technical lag of Russia from the leading European states. There was a threat of the country sliding into the category of minor powers. The government could not allow this. Along with the defeat came the understanding that the main reason for Russia's economic backwardness was serfdom.

The enormous costs of the war seriously undermined the monetary system of the state. Recruitment, the seizure of livestock and fodder, the growth of duties ruined the population. And although the peasants did not respond to the hardships of the war with mass uprisings, they were in a state of intense expectation of the tsar's decision to abolish serfdom.

In April 1854, a decree was issued on the formation of a reserve rowing flotilla ("sea militia"). With the consent of the landowner and with a written obligation to return to the owner, serfs could also be recorded in it. The decree limited the flotilla formation area to four provinces. However, he stirred up almost all of peasant Russia. A rumor spread in the villages that the emperor was calling volunteers for military service and for this he freed them forever from serfdom. Unauthorized registration in the militia resulted in a mass exodus of peasants from the landowners. This phenomenon took on an even broader character in connection with the manifesto of January 29, 1855, on the recruitment of warriors into the land militia, covering dozens of provinces.

The atmosphere in the "enlightened" society has also changed. According to the figurative expression of the historian V. O. Klyuchevsky, Sevastopol hit stagnant minds. “Now the question of the emancipation of serfs is on everyone’s lips,” wrote the historian K. D. Kavelin, “they talk about it loudly, even those who previously could not hint at the fallibility of serfdom without causing nervous attacks think about it.” Even the tsar's relatives - his aunt, Grand Duchess Elena Pavlovna, and younger brother Konstantin - advocated for the transformation.

Preparation of the peasant reform . For the first time, on March 30, 1856, Alexander II officially announced the need to abolish serfdom to representatives of the Moscow nobility. At the same time, knowing the mood of the majority of the landowners, he emphasized that it is much better if this happens from above than to wait until it happens from below.

On January 3, 1857, Alexander II formed a Secret Committee to discuss the issue of abolishing serfdom. However, many of its members, former Nicholas dignitaries, were ardent opponents of the liberation of the peasants. They hindered the work of the committee in every possible way. And then the emperor decided to take more effective measures. At the end of October 1857, Vilna Governor-General V. N. Nazimov, who in his youth was Alexander's personal adjutant, arrived in St. Petersburg. He brought the appeal of the nobles of the Vilna, Kovno and Grodno provinces to the emperor. They asked permission to discuss the issue of freeing the peasants without giving them land. Alexander took advantage of this request and on November 20, 1857, sent Nazimov a rescript on the establishment of provincial committees from among the landlords to prepare draft peasant reforms. On December 5, 1857, St. Petersburg Governor-General P. I. Ignatiev received a similar document. Soon the text of the rescript sent to Nazimov appeared in the official press. Thus, the preparation of the peasant reform became public.

During 1858, "committees for improving the life of landlord peasants" were established in 46 provinces (officials were afraid to include the word "liberation" in official documents). In February 1858, the Secret Committee was renamed the Main Committee. Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolayevich became its chairman. In March 1859 Editorial Commissions were established under the Main Committee. Their members were engaged in the consideration of materials coming from the provinces, and drawing up on their basis a general draft law on the emancipation of the peasants. General Ya. I. Rostovtsev, who enjoyed the emperor's special confidence, was appointed chairman of the commissions. He attracted to his work supporters of reforms from among the liberal officials and landowners - N. A. Milyutin, Yu. F. Samarin, V. A. Cherkassky, Ya. ". They advocated the release of the peasants with a land allotment for redemption and their transformation into small landowners, while the landownership was preserved. These ideas were fundamentally different from those expressed by the nobles in the provincial committees. They believed that even if the peasants were to be liberated, then without land. In October 1860, the editorial commissions completed their work. The final preparation of the reform documents was transferred to the Main Committee, then they were approved by the State Council.

The main provisions of the peasant reform. On February 19, 1861, Alexander II signed a manifesto “On granting serfs the rights of the status of free rural inhabitants and on the organization of their life”, as well as the “Regulations on peasants who have emerged from serfdom”. According to these documents, the peasants, who previously belonged to the landowners, were declared legally free and received general civil rights. When they were released, they were given land, but in a limited amount and for ransom on special conditions. The land allotment, which the landowner provided to the peasant, could not be higher than the norm established by law. Its size ranged from 3 to 12 acres in various parts of the empire. If by the time of liberation there was more land in peasant use, then the landowner had the right to cut off the surplus, while land of better quality was taken from the peasants. According to the reform, the peasants had to buy the land from the landowners. They could get it for free, but only a quarter of the allotment determined by law. Until the redemption of their land plots, the peasants found themselves in the position of temporarily liable. They had to pay dues or serve corvee in favor of the landowners.

The size of allotments, dues and corvées were to be determined by an agreement between the landowner and the peasants - Charters. The temporary state could last for 9 years. At this time, the peasant could not give up his allotment.

The amount of the ransom was determined in such a way that the landowner would not lose the money that he had previously received in the form of dues. The peasant had to immediately pay him 20-25% of the value of the allotment. To enable the landowner to receive the redemption sum at a time, the government paid him the remaining 75-80%. The peasant, on the other hand, had to repay this debt to the state for 49 years with an accrual of 6% per annum. At the same time, calculations were made not with each individual, but with the peasant community. Thus, the land was not the personal property of the peasant, but the property of the community.

Peace mediators, as well as provincial presences for peasant affairs, consisting of the governor, government official, prosecutor and representatives of local landlords, were supposed to monitor the implementation of the reform on the ground.

The reform of 1861 abolished serfdom. The peasants became free people. However, the reform preserved serfdom remnants in the countryside, primarily landownership. In addition, the peasants did not receive full ownership of the land, which means they did not have the opportunity to rebuild their economy on a capitalist basis.

Liberal reforms of the 60-70s

Establishment of zemstvos . After the abolition of serfdom, a number of other transformations were required. By the beginning of the 60s. the former local administration showed its complete failure. The activities of the officials appointed in the capital who led the provinces and districts, and the detachment of the population from making any decisions, brought economic life, health care, and education to extreme disorder. The abolition of serfdom made it possible to involve all segments of the population in solving local problems. At the same time, when establishing new governing bodies, the government could not but take into account the moods of the nobles, many of whom were dissatisfied with the abolition of serfdom.

On January 1, 1864, an imperial decree introduced the "Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions", which provided for the creation of elective zemstvos in the counties and provinces. Only men had the right to vote in the elections of these bodies. Voters were divided into three curia (categories): landowners, city voters and elected from peasant societies. Owners of at least 200 acres of land or other real estate in the amount of at least 15 thousand rubles, as well as owners of industrial and commercial enterprises that generate income of at least 6 thousand rubles a year, could be a voter in the landowning curia. The small landowners, uniting, put forward only representatives in the elections.

The voters of the city curia were merchants, owners of enterprises or trading establishments with an annual turnover of at least 6,000 rubles, as well as owners of real estate worth from 600 rubles (in small towns) to 3,600 rubles (in large cities).

Elections but the peasant curia were multi-stage: at first, rural assemblies elected representatives to volost assemblies. Electors were first elected at volost gatherings, who then nominated representatives to county self-government bodies. At district assemblies, representatives from the peasants were elected to the provincial self-government bodies.

Zemstvo institutions were divided into administrative and executive. Administrative bodies - zemstvo assemblies - consisted of vowels of all classes. Both in the counties and in the provinces, vowels were elected for a period of three years. Zemstvo assemblies elected executive bodies - zemstvo councils, which also worked for three years. The range of issues that were resolved by zemstvo institutions was limited to local affairs: the construction and maintenance of schools, hospitals, the development of local trade and industry, etc. The legitimacy of their activities was monitored by the governor. The material basis for the existence of zemstvos was a special tax, which was imposed on real estate: land, houses, factories and trade establishments.

The most energetic, democratically minded intelligentsia was grouped around the Zemstvos. The new self-government bodies raised the level of education and public health, improved the road network and expanded agronomic assistance to the peasants on a scale that the state power was incapable of. Despite the fact that representatives of the nobility prevailed in the zemstvos, their activities were aimed at improving the situation of the broad masses of the people.

Zemstvo reform was not carried out in the Arkhangelsk, Astrakhan and Orenburg provinces, in Siberia, in Central Asia - where there was no noble land ownership or was insignificant. Poland, Lithuania, Belarus, Right-bank Ukraine, the Caucasus did not receive local governments either, since there were few Russians among the landowners.

self-government in cities. In 1870, following the example of the Zemstvo, a city reform was carried out. It introduced all-estate self-government bodies - city dumas, elected for four years. Vowels of the Dumas elected for the same period permanent executive bodies - city councils, as well as the mayor, who was the head of both the thought and the council.

The right to choose new governing bodies was enjoyed by men who had reached the age of 25 and paid city taxes. All voters, in accordance with the amount of fees paid in favor of the city, were divided into three curia. The first was a small group of the largest owners of real estate, industrial and commercial enterprises, who paid 1/3 of all taxes to the city treasury. The second curia included smaller taxpayers, contributing another 1/3 of the city fees. The third curia consisted of all the other taxpayers. At the same time, each of them elected an equal number of vowels to the city duma, which ensured the predominance of large owners in it.

The activity of city self-government was controlled by the state. The mayor was approved by the governor or the minister of the interior. The same officials could impose a ban on any decision of the city duma. To control the activities of city self-government in each province, a special body was created - the provincial presence for city affairs.

City self-government bodies appeared in 1870, first in 509 Russian cities. In 1874, the reform was introduced in the cities of Transcaucasia, in 1875 - in Lithuania, Belarus and Right-Bank Ukraine, in 1877 - in the Baltic states. It did not apply to the cities of Central Asia, Poland and Finland. For all the limitations, the urban reform of the emancipation of Russian society, like the Zemstvo one, contributed to the involvement of broad sections of the population in solving management issues. This served as a prerequisite for the formation of civil society and the rule of law in Russia.

Judicial reform . The most consistent transformation of Alexander II was the judicial reform carried out in November 1864. In accordance with it, the new court was built on the principles of bourgeois law: the equality of all classes before the law; publicity of the court"; independence of judges; competitiveness of prosecution and defense; irremovability of judges and investigators; electivity of some judicial bodies.

According to the new judicial statutes, two systems of courts were created - world and general. The magistrates' courts heard petty criminal and civil cases. They were created in cities and counties. Justices of the peace administered justice alone. They were elected by zemstvo assemblies and city councils. High educational and property qualifications were established for judges. At the same time, they received rather high wages - from 2200 to 9 thousand rubles a year.

The system of general courts included district courts and judicial chambers. Members of the district court were appointed by the emperor on the proposal of the Minister of Justice and considered criminal and complex civil cases. Consideration of criminal cases took place with the participation of twelve jurors. The juror could be a citizen of Russia aged 25 to 70 years old with an impeccable reputation, living in the area for at least two years and owning real estate in the amount of 2 thousand rubles. Jury lists were approved by the governor. Appeals against the District Court's decision were made to the Trial Chamber. Moreover, an appeal against the verdict was allowed. The Judicial Chamber also considered cases of malfeasance of officials. Such cases were equated with state crimes and were heard with the participation of class representatives. The highest court was the Senate. The reform established the publicity of trials. They were held openly, in the presence of the public; newspapers printed reports on trials of public interest. The competitiveness of the parties was ensured by the presence at the trial of the prosecutor - the representative of the prosecution and the lawyer defending the interests of the accused. In Russian society, there was an extraordinary interest in advocacy. Outstanding lawyers F. N. Plevako, A. I. Urusov, V. D. Spasovich, K. K. Arseniev, who laid the foundations of the Russian school of lawyer-orators, became famous in this field. The new judicial system retained a number of vestiges of estates. These included volost courts for peasants, special courts for the clergy, military and senior officials. In some national areas, the implementation of judicial reform dragged on for decades. In the so-called Western Territory (Vilna, Vitebsk, Volyn, Grodno, Kyiv, Kovno, Minsk, Mogilev and Podolsk provinces), it began only in 1872 with the creation of magistrates' courts. Justices of the peace were not elected, but appointed for three years. District courts began to be created only in 1877. At the same time, Catholics were forbidden to hold judicial office. In the Baltics, the reform began to be implemented only in 1889.

Only at the end of the XIX century. judicial reform was carried out in the Arkhangelsk province and Siberia (in 1896), as well as in Central Asia and Kazakhstan (in 1898). Here, too, justices of the peace were appointed, who simultaneously performed the functions of investigators, the jury trial was not introduced.

military reforms. Liberal transformations in society, the desire of the government to overcome backwardness in military area, as well as cut military spending necessitated fundamental reforms in the army. They were conducted under the leadership of Minister of War D. A. Milyutin. In 1863-1864. reform began military educational institutions. General education was separated from special education: future officers received general education in military gymnasiums, and professional training in military schools. The children of the nobility studied mainly in these educational institutions. For those who did not have a secondary education, cadet schools were created, where representatives of all classes were admitted. In 1868, military progymnasiums were created to replenish the cadet schools.

In 1867 the Military Law Academy was opened, in 1877 the Naval Academy. Instead of recruitment sets, all-class military service was introduced. According to the charter approved on January 1, 1874, persons of all classes from the age of 20 (later - from the age of 21) were subject to conscription. The total service life for the ground forces was set at 15 years, of which 6 years - active service, 9 years - in reserve. In the fleet - 10 years: 7 - valid, 3 - in reserve. For persons who received an education, the term of active service was reduced from 4 years (for those who graduated from elementary schools) to 6 months (for those who received higher education).

The only sons and the only breadwinners of the family were released from service, as well as those recruits whose older brother was serving or had already served a term of active service. Those exempted from conscription were enlisted in the militia, which was formed only during the war. Clerics of all faiths, representatives of some religious sects and organizations, the peoples of the North, Central Asia, part of the inhabitants of the Caucasus and Siberia were not subject to conscription. Corporal punishment was abolished in the army, punishment with rods was retained only for fines), food was improved, barracks were re-equipped, and literacy was introduced for soldiers. There was a rearmament of the army and navy: smooth-bore weapons were replaced by rifled ones, the replacement of cast-iron and bronze guns with steel ones began; The rapid-fire rifles of the American inventor Berdan were adopted for service. The system of combat training has changed. A number of new charters, manuals, manuals were issued, which set the task of teaching soldiers only what was needed in the war, significantly reducing the time for drill training.

As a result of the reforms, Russia received a massive army that met the requirements of the times. The combat readiness of the troops has significantly increased. The transition to universal military service was a serious blow to the class organization of society.

Reforms in the field of education. The education system has also undergone a significant restructuring. In June 1864, the “Regulations on Primary Public Schools” were approved, according to which such educational establishments could open public institutions and individuals. This led to the establishment of elementary schools various types- state, zemstvo, parochial, Sunday, etc. The term of study in them did not exceed, as a rule, three years.

Since November 1864, gymnasiums have become the main type of educational institution. They were divided into classical and real. In the classical, a large place was given to the ancient languages ​​- Latin and Greek. The term of study in them was at first seven years, and from 1871 - eight years. Graduates of classical gymnasiums had the opportunity to enter universities. Six-year real gymnasiums were called upon to prepare "for occupations in various branches of industry and trade."

The main attention was paid to the study of mathematics, natural science, technical subjects. Access to universities for graduates of real gymnasiums was closed, they continued their studies at technical institutes. The foundation was laid for women's secondary education - women's gymnasiums appeared. But the amount of knowledge given in them was inferior to what was taught in the men's gymnasiums. The gymnasium accepted children "of all classes, without distinction of rank and religion", however, at the same time, high tuition fees were set. In June 1864, a new charter for the universities was approved, restoring the autonomy of these educational institutions. The direct management of the university was entrusted to the council of professors, who elected the rector and deans, approved curricula, and resolved financial and personnel issues. Women's higher education began to develop. Since gymnasium graduates did not have the right to enter universities, higher women's courses were opened for them in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kazan, and Kyiv. Women began to be admitted to universities, but as volunteers.

Orthodox Church in the period of reforms. Liberal reforms also affected the Orthodox Church. First of all, the government tried to improve the financial situation of the clergy. In 1862, a Special Presence was created to find ways to improve the life of the clergy, which included members of the Synod and senior officials of the state. Public forces were also involved in solving this problem. In 1864, parish guardianships arose, consisting of parishioners, who not only focused on the study of mathematics, natural science, and technical subjects. Access to universities for graduates of real gymnasiums was closed, they continued their studies at technical institutes.

The foundation was laid for women's secondary education - women's gymnasiums appeared. But the amount of knowledge given in them was inferior to what was taught in the men's gymnasiums. The gymnasium accepted children "of all classes, without distinction of rank and religion", however, at the same time, high tuition fees were set.

In June 1864, a new charter for the universities was approved, restoring the autonomy of these educational institutions. The direct management of the university was entrusted to the council of professors, who elected the rector and deans, approved curricula, and resolved financial and personnel issues. Women's higher education began to develop. Since gymnasium graduates did not have the right to enter universities, higher women's courses were opened for them in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kazan, and Kyiv. Women began to be admitted to universities, but as volunteers.

Orthodox Church in the period of reforms. Liberal reforms also affected the Orthodox Church. First of all, the government tried to improve the financial situation of the clergy. In 1862, a Special Presence was created to find ways to improve the life of the clergy, which included members of the Synod and senior officials of the state. Public forces were also involved in solving this problem. In 1864, parish guardianships arose, consisting of parishioners, who not only managed the affairs of the parish, but also had to help improve the financial situation of clergy. In 1869-79. incomes of parish priests increased significantly due to the abolition of small parishes and the establishment of an annual salary, which ranged from 240 to 400 rubles. Old-age pensions were introduced for the clergy.

The liberal spirit of the reforms carried out in the field of education also touched church educational institutions. In 1863, graduates of theological seminaries received the right to enter universities. In 1864, the children of the clergy were allowed to enroll in gymnasiums, and in 1866, in military schools. In 1867, the Synod passed resolutions on the abolition of the heredity of parishes and on the right to enter seminaries for all Orthodox without exception. These measures destroyed class partitions and contributed to the democratic renewal of the clergy. At the same time, they led to the departure from this environment of many young, gifted people who joined the ranks of the intelligentsia. Under Alexander II, the Old Believers were legally recognized: they were allowed to register their marriages and baptisms in civil institutions; they could now hold certain public positions and freely travel abroad. At the same time, in all official documents, adherents of the Old Believers were still called schismatics, they were forbidden to hold public office.

Conclusion: During the reign of Alexander II in Russia, liberal reforms were carried out that affected all parties public life. Thanks to the reforms, significant segments of the population received the initial skills of management and public work. The reforms laid down traditions, albeit very timid ones, of civil society and the rule of law. At the same time, they retained the estate advantages of the nobles, and also had restrictions for the national regions of the country, where free popular will determines not only the law, but also the personality of the rulers, in such a country political assassination as a means of struggle is a manifestation of the same spirit of despotism, the destruction of which in Russia we set as our task. The despotism of the individual and the despotism of the party are equally reprehensible, and violence is justified only when it is directed against violence.” Comment on this document.

The emancipation of the peasants in 1861 and the subsequent reforms of the 1960s and 1970s became a turning point in Russian history. This period was called the era of "great reforms" by liberal figures. Their result was the creation necessary conditions for the development of capitalism in Russia, which allowed her to go the pan-European path.

The country has rapidly increased economic development began the transition to a market economy. Under the influence of these processes, new sections of the population were formed - the industrial bourgeoisie and the proletariat. Peasant and landlord farms were increasingly drawn into commodity-money relations.

The appearance of zemstvos, city self-government, democratic transformations in the judicial and educational systems testified to the steady, although not so fast, movement of Russia towards the foundations of civil society and the rule of law.

However, almost all reforms were inconsistent and incomplete. They retained the estate advantages of the nobility and state control over society. On the national outskirts of the reforms were implemented in an incomplete manner. The principle of the autocratic power of the monarch remained unchanged.

Foreign policy The government of Alexander II was active in almost all main areas. Diplomatic and military Russian state managed to solve the foreign policy tasks facing him, to restore his position as a great power. At the expense of the Central Asian territories, the boundaries of the empire expanded.

The era of "great reforms" has become a time of transformation of social movements into a force capable of influencing power or resisting it. Fluctuations in the government's course and the inconsistency of the reforms led to an increase in radicalism in the country. The revolutionary organizations embarked on the path of terror, striving to raise the peasants to the revolution through the assassination of the tsar and high officials.

By the middle of the 19th century. Russia's lagging behind the advanced capitalist states in the economic and socio-political spheres was clearly manifested. International events (the Crimean War) showed a significant weakening of Russia in the foreign policy field as well. Therefore, the main goal of the internal policy of the government in the second half of the 19th century. was bringing the economic and socio-political system of Russia in line with the needs of the time. In domestic politics Russia, second half of the 19th century. three stages are distinguished: 1) the second half of the 50s - the beginning of the 60s - the preparation and implementation of the peasant reform; 2) - 60-70s carrying out liberal reforms; 3) 80-90s economic modernization, strengthening of statehood and social stability by traditional conservative administrative methods. The defeat in the Crimean War played the role of an important political prerequisite for the abolition of serfdom, because it demonstrated the backwardness and rottenness of the country's socio-political system. Russia has lost international prestige and nearly lost influence in Europe. Eldest son of Nicholas 1 - Alexander 11 ascended the throne in 1855. He was quite well prepared for the management of the state. He received an excellent education and upbringing. His mentor was the poet Zhukovsky and he influenced the formation of the personality of the future tsar. From a young age, Alexander joined the military service and by the age of 26 he became a “full general”. Traveling in Russia and Europe expanded the horizons of the heir. His father attracted him to public service. He was in charge of the activities of the Secret Committees on the Peasant Question.

And the 36-year-old emperor was psychologically and practically prepared to become the initiator of the liberation of the peasants as the first person in the state. That's why he went down in history as tsar "Liberator". His phrase about “it is better to abolish serfdom from above than to wait until it begins to be abolished from below” meant that the ruling circles finally came to the idea of ​​the need to reform the state. Members of the royal family, representatives of the highest bureaucracy took part in the preparation of the reforms - Minister of Internal Affairs Lanskoy, Deputy Minister of Internal Affairs - Milyutin, Adjutant General Rostovtsev. After the abolition of the kr.prav, it became necessary to change local government in 1864. zemstvo reform. Zemstvo institutions (zemstvos) were created in provinces and districts. These were elected bodies from representatives of all estates. The entire population was divided into 3 electoral groups - curia. 1 curia - landowners with > 2 acres of land or owners of real estate from 15,000 rubles; 2 curia - urban, urban industrialists and merchants with a turnover of at least 6,000 rubles / year were allowed here; 3 curia - rural. For the rural curia, the elections were multistage. The curiae were dominated by landowners. Zemstvos were deprived of any political functions.

The scope of their activities was limited to solving economic issues of local importance: the arrangement and maintenance of communication lines, zemstvo schools and hospitals, care for trade and industry. The zemstvos were under the control of the central and local authorities, who had the right to suspend any decision of the zemstvo assembly. Despite this, the zemstvos played a huge role in the development of education and health care. And they became the centers of the formation of the liberal noble and bourgeois opposition. The structure of zemstvo institutions: It is a legislative and executive body. The chairmen were local marshals of the nobility. Provincial and county assemblies worked independently of each other. They met only once a year to coordinate actions. Executive bodies - provincial and district councils were elected at zemstvo meetings. Solved the problem of tax collection, while a certain% remained in place. Zemstvo institutions were subordinate only to the Senate. The governor did not interfere in the activities of local institutions, but only monitored the legality of actions.

urban reform. (1870) “City position”created all-estate bodies in the cities - city dumas and city councils headed by the mayor. They dealt with the improvement of the city, took care of trade, provided educational and medical needs. The leading role belonged to the big bourgeoisie. It was under the strict control of the government administration.

The candidacy of the mayor was approved by the governor.

Electivity was granted for 3 curiae: 1 - industrialists and merchants (1/3 of taxes), 2 - medium-sized entrepreneurs (1/3), 3 - all the population of the mountains. Of the 707 provinces, 621 received a ref. MSU. The competencies are the same, the disadvantages are the same.

Judicial reform:

1864 - New court statutes promulgated.

Provisions:

the estate system of courts was abolished

all were declared equal before the law

publicity was introduced

competitiveness of legal proceedings

presumption of innocence

irremovability of judges

one system legal proceedings

a court of two types was created: 1. Magistrates' courts - they considered minor civil cases, the damage in which did not exceed 500 rubles. Judges were elected at county assemblies and approved by the senate. 2. General courts were of 3 types: Criminal and grave - in district court. Particularly important state and political crimes were considered in judicial chamber. The highest court was Senate. Judges in general courts were appointed by the tsar, and jurors were elected at provincial assemblies.

Flaws: small class courts continued to exist - for the peasants. For political processes, a Special Presence of the Senate was created, meetings were held behind closed doors, which violated the attack of publicity.

Military reform: 1874 - Charter on military service on the all-class military service of men who have reached the age of 20. The term of active service was established in the ground forces - 6 years, in the navy - 7 years. Recruiting was abolished. The terms of active military service were determined by the educational qualification. Persons with higher education served 0.5 years. To raise the competence of the top military leadership, the military ministry was transformed into general staff. The whole country was divided into 6 military regions. The army was reduced, military settlements were liquidated. In the 60s, the rearmament of the army began: the replacement of smooth-bore weapons with rifled ones, the introduction of steel artillery pieces, the improvement of the horse park, the development of the military steam fleet. For the training of officers, military gymnasiums, cadet schools and academies were created. All this made it possible to reduce the size of the army in peacetime and, at the same time, to increase its combat effectiveness.

They were exempted from military duty if there was 1 child in the family, if they had 2 children, or if elderly parents were on his payroll. Cane discipline was abolished. Humanization of relations in the army has passed.

Reform in the field of education: 1864 In fact, an accessible all-estate education was introduced Along with state schools, zemstvo, parish, Sunday and private schools arose. Gymnasiums were divided into classical and real ones. The curriculum in gymnasiums was determined by universities, which created the possibility of a system of succession. During this period, secondary education for women was developed, and women's gymnasiums began to be created. Women are beginning to be admitted to universities as free students. University arr. Alexander 2 gave the universities more freedom:

students could create student orgs

received the right to create their own newspapers and magazines without censorship

all volunteers were admitted to the universities

students were given the right to choose a rector

stud self-management was introduced in the form of a council of a fact

corporative systems of students and teachers were created.

Significance of the reforms:

contributed to the more rapid development of capitalist relations in Russia.

contributed to the beginning of the formation of bourgeois freedoms in the Russian society (freedom of speech, personality, organizations, etc.). The first steps were taken to expand the role of the public in the life of the country and turn Russia into a bourgeois monarchy.

contributed to the formation of civic consciousness.

contributed to the rapid development of culture and education in Russia.

The initiators of the reforms were some top government officials, the “liberal bureaucracy”. This explained the inconsistency, incompleteness and narrowness of most of the reforms. The logical continuation of the reforms of 60-70 could be the adoption of moderate constitutional proposals developed in 1881 by the Minister of Internal Affairs Loris-Melikov. They assumed the development of local self-government, the involvement of zemstvos and cities (with an advisory vote) in the discussion of national issues. But the assassination of Alexander II changed the course of the government. And the proposal of Loris-Melikov was rejected. The reforms gave impetus to the rapid growth of capitalism in all areas industry. A free labor force appeared, the process of capital accumulation became more active, the domestic market expanded and ties with the world grew. Features of the development of capitalism in the industry of Russia had a number of features: 1) Industry wore multilayered character, i.e. large-scale machine industry coexisted with manufacturing and small-scale (handicraft) production. Also observed 2) uneven distribution of industry across the territory of Russia. Highly developed areas of St. Petersburg, Moscow. Ukraine 0 - highly developed and undeveloped - Siberia, middle Asia, Far East. 3) Uneven development by industry. Textile production was the most advanced in terms of technical equipment, heavy industry (mining, metallurgical, oil) was rapidly gaining momentum. Mechanical engineering was poorly developed. Characteristic for the country was state intervention in the industrial sector through loans, government subsidies, government orders, financial and customs policies. This laid the foundation for the formation of a system of state capitalism. The insufficiency of domestic capital caused an influx of foreign capital. Investors from Europe were attracted by cheap labor, raw materials and, consequently, the possibility of making high profits. Trade. In the second half of the 18th century completed the formation of the all-Russian market. The main commodity was agricultural products, primarily bread. Trade in manufactured goods grew not only in the city, but also in the countryside. Iron ore and coal were widely sold. Wood, oil. Foreign trade - bread (export). Cotton was imported (imported) from America, metals and cars, luxury goods from Europe. Finance. The State Bank was created, which received the right to issue banknotes. State funds were distributed only by the Ministry of Finance. A private and state credit system took shape, it contributed to the development of the most important industries (railway construction). Foreign capital was invested in banking, industry, railway construction and played a significant role in the financial life of Russia. Capitalism in Russia was established in 2 stages. 60-70 years were the 1st stage, when the restructuring of industry was going on. 80-90 economic recovery.

Description of the presentation Liberal reforms of the 60-70s of the 19th century on slides

Plan for studying the topic 1. The reasons for the reforms of the 60–70s. 19th century 2. Reforms of local self-government. a) Zemstvo reform b) City reform 3. Judicial reform. 4. Reforms of the education system. a) School reform. b) University reform 5. Military reform.

Reforms of Alexander II (1855 - 1881) Peasant (1861) Zemskaya (1864) City (1870) Judicial (1864) Military (1874) Education (1863 -1864)

*Historians of the 19th - early 20th centuries. these reforms were rated as great (K. D. Kavelin, V. O. Klyuchevsky, G. A. Dzhanshiev). * Soviet historians considered them incomplete and half-hearted (M. N. Pokrovsky, N. M. Druzhinina, V. P. Volobuev).

Name The content of the reform Their significance Their shortcomings Peasant (1861) Zemskaya (1864) City (1870) Judicial (1864) Military (1874)

6 Peasant reform: Manifesto and Regulations February 19, 1861 Results of the peasant reform Opened the way for the development of bourgeois relations in Russia Was unfinished, gave rise to social antagonisms (contradictions) "Will" without land

Reforms Their meaning Their shortcomings Peasant (1861) Turning point, the line between feudalism and capitalism. Created the conditions for the approval of the capitalist way of life as the dominant one. Preserved serf remnants; the peasants did not receive land in full ownership, they had to pay a ransom, they lost part of the land (cuts).

The reform of local self-government in 1864 introduced the "Regulations on zemstvo institutions". Local self-government bodies, zemstvos, were created in uyezds and provinces.

9 Zemskaya reform (Zemskaya reform (1864). “Regulations on the provinces). “Regulations on provincial and county zemstvo institutions” and county zemstvo institutions” Content of the reform Creation of provincial and county zemstvos - elected bodies of local self-government in rural areas Functions of zemstvos Maintenance of local schools, hospitals; construction of local roads; organization of agricultural statistics, etc.

11 Zemskaya reform (Zemskaya reform (1864).). “Regulations on provincial “Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions” and district zemstvo institutions” The structure of zemstvo institutions on a qualification basis on a class basis, gathered annually

Zemstvo reform Representatives of all estates worked together in the Zemstvo, including in its permanent bodies (upravas). But the nobles still played the leading role, looking down on the "male" vowels. And the peasants often treated participation in the work of the zemstvo as a duty and elected short-receivers to the vowels. Zemstvo assembly in the province. Engraving after a drawing by K. A. Trutovsky.

Curia - categories into which voters were divided according to property and social characteristics in pre-revolutionary Russia during elections.

Zemstvo reform 1 vowel (deputy) for landowning and peasant curia was elected from every 3 thousand peasant allotments. According to the city curia - from the owners of property equal in value to the same amount of land. How many votes of peasants was equal to the voice of a landowner with 800 dessiatins. if the shower allotment was 4 des. ? In this case, 1 vote of the landowner = 200 votes of the peasants. Why, when the zemstvo bodies were created, was not equal suffrage provided for peasants, townspeople and landowners? Because in this case, the educated minority would “sink” into the illiterate, ignorant peasant masses. ?

Zemstvo reform Zemstvo assemblies met once a year: district assemblies for 10 days, provincial assemblies for 20 days. Estate composition of Zemstvo assemblies? Why was the share of peasants among the provincial councilors noticeably lower than among the county ones? Nobles Merchants Peasants Other Uyezd zemstvo 41, 7 10, 4 38, 4 9, 5 Provincial zemstvo 74, 2 10, 9 10, 6 4, 3 The peasants were not ready to deal with provincial affairs far from their daily needs. And getting to the provincial town was far and expensive.

Zemstvo reform Zemstvo assembly in the provinces. Engraving after a drawing by K. A. Trutovsky. Zemstvos received the right to invite specialists in certain sectors of the economy - teachers, doctors, agronomists - Zemstvo employees were introduced at the level of counties and provinces Zemstvos not only solve local economic affairs, but are also actively involved in the political struggle

Your comments. Zemstvos. The Moscow nobleman Kireev wrote about the zemstvos: “We, the nobles, are vowels; merchants, philistines, clergy - consonants, peasants - mute. Explain what the author wanted to say?

Zemstvo reform Zemstvos dealt exclusively with economic issues: the construction of roads, fighting fires, agronomic assistance to peasants, the creation of food supplies in case of crop failure, the maintenance of schools and hospitals. For this collected zemstvo taxes. Zemstvo assembly in the province. Engraving after a drawing by K. A. Trutovsky. 1865? What groups are the vowels of the zemstvos divided into in K. Trutovsky's drawing?

Thanks to zemstvo doctors, rural residents received qualified medical care for the first time. The zemsky doctor was a generalist: a therapist, surgeon, dentist, obstetrician. Sometimes operations had to be done in a peasant's hut. Off-road in the Tver province. Country doctor. Hood. I. I. Tvorozhnikov.

Zemstvo reform Teachers played a special role among the zemstvo employees. What do you think this role was? Zemsky teacher not only taught children arithmetic and literacy, but often was the only literate person in the village. The arrival of the teacher in the village. Hood. A. Stepanov. ? Thanks to this, the teacher became a bearer of knowledge and new ideas for the peasants. It was among the zemstvo teachers that there were especially many liberal and democratically minded people.

Zemstvo reform In 1865–1880. in Russia there were 12 thousand rural zemstvo schools, and in 1913 - 28 thousand. Zemstvo teachers taught more than 2 million peasant children, including girls, to read and write. True, primary education never became compulsory. The training programs were developed by the Ministry of Education. Lesson in the zemstvo school of the Penza province. 1890s ? What, judging by the photograph, distinguished the zemstvo school from the state or parish?

23 Zemskaya reform (Zemskaya reform (1864).). “Regulations on provincial“Regulations on provincial and county zemstvo institutions”and county zemstvo institutions” Significance contributed to the development of education, health, local improvement; became centers of the liberal social movement Restrictions were initially introduced in 35 provinces (by 1914 they operated in 43 out of 78 provinces) were not sodaned volost zemstvos acted under the control of the administration (governors and the Ministry of Internal Affairs)

Zemskaya (1864) The most energetic, democratic intelligentsia grouped around the zemstvos. The activity was aimed at improving the situation of the masses. Estates of the elections; the range of issues addressed by the zemstvos is limited. Reforms Their importance Their shortcomings

The city reform began to be prepared in 1862, but because of the assassination attempt on Alexander II, its implementation was delayed. The city regulation was adopted in 1870. The City Duma remained the highest body of city self-government. Elections were held in three curiae. Curia were formed on the basis of a property qualification. A list of voters was compiled in descending order of the amount of city taxes they paid. Each curia paid 1/3 of taxes. The first curia was the richest and smallest, the third the poorest and most numerous. ? What do you think: city elections were held on an all-estate or non-estate basis?

City reform City self-government: Voters of the 1st curia Voters of the 2nd curia Voters of the 3rd curia. City Council (administrative body) City government (executive body) elects the Mayor

City reform The head of city self-government was the elected mayor. In large cities, a nobleman or a rich guild merchant was usually chosen as the head of the city. Like zemstvos, city dumas and councils were in charge of exclusively local landscaping: paving and street lighting, maintaining hospitals, almshouses, orphanages and city schools, taking care of trade and industry, organizing water supply and urban transport. Samara Mayor P. V. Alabin.

28 City reform of 1870 – – “City regulation”

City (1870) Contributed to the involvement of the general population in management, which served as a prerequisite for the formation of civil society and the rule of law in Russia. The activity of city self-government was controlled by the state. Reforms Their importance Their shortcomings

Judicial reform - 1864 Zemstvo assembly in the province. Engraving after a drawing by K. A. Trutovsky. Principles of legal proceedings Inconsistency - the decision of the court does not depend on the class of the accused Election - the justice of the peace and the jury Publicity - the public could attend the court sessions, the press could report on the progress of the trial Independence - the administration could not influence the judges Competitiveness - the participation of the prosecutor in the trial (prosecution) and lawyer (defence)

33 Judicial Reform 1864 Judge appointed by the Ministry of Justice (principle of irremovability of judges) Sentencing in accordance with the law on the basis of the jury's verdict Basis for reform Judicial Statutes introduction of jury trial

34 Judicial reform of 1864 Jurors are selected from representatives of all classes (!) On the basis of a property qualification 12 people Pass a verdict (decision) on the guilt, its degree or innocence of the defendant

Judicial Reform Judges received high salaries. The decision on the guilt of the accused was made by the jury after hearing witnesses and debates between the prosecutor and the lawyer. A Russian citizen from 25 to 70 years old could become a juror (qualifications - property and residence). The decision of the court could be appealed.

36 Judicial Reform of 1864 Additional Elements of Judicial Reform Established: Special courts for military personnel Special courts for clergy World courts for petty civil and criminal offenses

37 Judicial reform of 1864. The structure of the judiciary in Russia The Senate is the highest judicial and cassation (cassation - appeal, protest against the sentence of a lower court) body Judicial chambers courts for considering the most important cases and appeals (complaint, appeal for review of the case) against decisions of district courts District Courts Courts of First Instance. Considers complex criminal and civil cases Lawyer Prosecutor Magistrates' Courts petty criminal and civil cases 12 jurors (qualification)

Judicial reform Minor offenses and civil litigation (the amount of the claim is up to 500 rubles) were dealt with by the Magistrate's Court. The justice of the peace decided cases on his own, could impose fines (up to 300 rubles), arrest for up to 3 months, or imprisonment for up to 1 year. Such a trial was simple, quick and cheap. World judge. Modern drawing.

Judicial Reform The justice of the peace was elected by zemstvos or city dumas from among persons over 25 years of age, with an education not lower than secondary, and judicial experience of three years. The magistrate was supposed to own real estate for 15 thousand rubles. It was possible to appeal against the decisions of the magistrate at the county congress of magistrates. District Congress of Justices of the Peace of the Chelyabinsk District.

Judicial reform Public participation: 12 non-professional judges - jurors participated in the process. The jurors delivered a verdict: "guilty"; "guilty but deserving of leniency"; "innocent". Based on the verdict, the judge pronounced the verdict. Modern drawing.

Judicial Reform Jurors were elected by provincial zemstvo assemblies and city dumas on the basis of a property qualification, without regard to class affiliation. Jurors. Drawing from the beginning of the 20th century. ? What can be said about the composition of the jury, judging by this picture?

Judicial reform Adversarial: In criminal proceedings, the prosecution was supported by the prosecutor, and the defense of the accused was carried out by a lawyer (sworn attorney). In a jury trial, where the verdict did not depend on professional lawyers, the role of the lawyer was enormous. The largest Russian lawyers: K. K. Arseniev, N. P. Karabchevsky, A. F. Koni, F. N. Plevako, V. D. Spasovich. Fyodor Nikiforovich Plevako (1842–1908) speaking in court.

Judicial reform Glasnost: The public began to be allowed into court sessions. Court reports were published in the press. Special court reporters appeared in the newspapers. Lawyer V. D. Spasovich: “To a certain extent, we are knights of the word of the living, free, freer now than in the press, which the most zealous and ferocious chairmen will not calm down, because while the chairman is considering stopping you, the word has already galloped three miles away and his not return." Portrait of the lawyer Vladimir Danilovich Spasovich. Hood. I. E. Repin. 1891.

44 The Judicial Reform of 1864 Significance of Judicial Reform The most advanced judicial system in the world at that time was created. A big step in the development of the principle of "separation of powers" and democracy Preservation of elements of bureaucratic arbitrariness: punishment in the administrative order, etc. retained a number of remnants of the past: special courts.

45 Military reform in the 60s - 70s. XIX XIX century. Military reform of the 60s - 70s. XIX-XIX centuries The immediate impetus was the defeat of Russia in the Crimean War of 1853-1856.

Directions military reform The result is a mass army of a modern type

Military reform The first step in military reform was the abolition in 1855 of military settlements. In 1861, at the initiative of the new Minister of War D. A. Milyutin, the service life was reduced from 25 years to 16 years. In 1863 corporal punishment was abolished in the army. In 1867, a new military judicial charter was introduced, based on general principles judicial reform (publicity, competitiveness). Dmitry Alekseevich Milyutin (1816–1912), Minister of War in 1861–1881

Military reform In 1863, military education was reformed: cadet corps converted into military schools. Military gymnasiums provided a broad general education (Russian and foreign languages, mathematics, physics, natural science, history). The teaching load has doubled, but physical and general military training has been reduced. Dmitry Alekseevich Milyutin (1816–1912), Minister of War in 1861–1881

1) The creation of military gymnasiums and schools for the nobility, cadet schools for all classes, the opening of the Military Law Academy (1867) and the Naval Academy (1877)

According to the new charters, the task was to teach the troops only what was necessary in the war (shooting, loose formation, sapper business), the time for drill training was reduced, and corporal punishment was prohibited.

Military reform What measure was to become the main one in the course of military reform? Recruitment cancellation. What were the shortcomings of the recruiting system? The inability to quickly increase the army in wartime, the need to maintain a large army in peacetime. Recruitment was suitable for serfs, but not for free people. Non-commissioned officer of the Russian army. Hood. V. D. POLENOV Fragment. ? ?

Military reform What could replace the recruiting system? Universal conscription. The introduction of universal conscription in Russia with its vast territory required the development of a road network. Only in 1870 was a commission established to discuss this issue, and on January 1, 1874, the Manifesto was published on the replacement of recruitment service with universal military service. Commander of the Dragoon Regiment. 1886?

Military Reform All males aged 21 were subject to conscription. Service life was 6 years in the army and 7 years in the navy. The only breadwinners and only sons were released from conscription. What principle was put in the basis of the military reform: all-estate or non-estate? Formally, the reform was without estates, but in fact, estates were largely preserved. "Behind" . Hood. P. O. Kovalevsky. Russian soldier 1870s in full travel gear. ?

Military reform What were the remnants of estates in Russian army after 1874? The fact that the officer corps remained mainly noble, the rank and file - peasant. Portrait of Lieutenant of the Life Guards Hussar Regiment Count G. Bobrinsky. Hood. K. E. Makovsky. Drummer of the Life Guards Pavlovsky Regiment. Hood. A. Detail. ?

Military reform During the military reform, benefits were established for recruits who had a secondary or higher education. Those who graduated from the gymnasium served 2 years, those who graduated from the university - 6 months. In addition to a reduced service life, they had the right to live not in the barracks, but in private apartments. Volunteer of the 6th Klyastitsky Hussar Regiment

Smooth-bore weapons were replaced by rifled ones, cast-iron guns were replaced by steel ones, the Kh. Berdan rifle (Berdanka) was adopted by the Russian army, and the construction of a steam fleet began.

Military reform What do you think, in what social groups military reform caused discontent and what were his motives? The conservative nobility was dissatisfied with the fact that people from other classes got the opportunity to become officers. Some nobles resented the fact that they could be called up as soldiers along with the peasants. Particularly dissatisfied was the merchant class, previously not subject to recruitment duty. The merchants even offered to take over the maintenance of the disabled if they were allowed to pay off the draft. ?

59 Military reforms of the 60s - 70s. XIX XIX century. Military reforms of the 60s - 70s. 19th century Essential element reforms - replacement of the recruiting system with universal military service Compulsory military service for men of all classes from the age of 20 (6 years in the army, 7 years in the navy) with subsequent stay in the reserve Provided benefits for persons with higher and secondary education (rights of volunteers ), the clergy and some other categories of the population were released. Importance of the creation of massive combat-ready armed forces; increasing the country's defense capability

The significance of the reform: the creation of a mass army of a modern type, the authority of military service was raised, a blow to class system. Shortcomings of the reform: miscalculations in the system of organization and armament of the troops. Military reform of 1874

62 Education reforms. Educational reforms School reform of 1864 Formation of a new structure of primary and secondary education Folk schools Uyezd 3 years of education Parish since 1884 Parish schools 3 years of education Progymnasium 4 years of education Urban 6 years of education Primary education

School Reform (Secondary Education) Classical and real gymnasiums were intended for the children of nobles and merchants. "Charter of gymnasiums and progymnasiums" November 19, 1864 Progymnasium. Duration of study 4 years Classical gymnasium 7-class, term of study 7 years Real gymnasium 7-class Duration of study 7 years The program of classical gymnasiums was dominated by ancient and foreign languages, ancient history, ancient literature. Mathematics, physics and other technical subjects prevailed in the program of real gymnasiums. Prepared to enter high school. They were located in county towns.

School reform In 1872, the term of study in classical gymnasiums was increased to 8 years (the 7th grade became two years), and from 1875 they officially became 8th grade. Real gymnasiums retained a 7-year term of study and in 1872 were transformed into real schools. If graduates of classical gymnasiums entered universities without exams, then realists had to take exams in ancient languages. Without exams, they entered only technical universities. What caused such restrictions for graduates of real schools? In classical gymnasiums, the children of nobles more often studied, in real ones - the children of merchants and commoners. ?

The university reform was the first after the abolition of serfdom, which was caused by student unrest. A new university charter to replace the Nikolaev charter of 1835 was adopted on June 18, 1863. The Minister of Education A. V. Golovnin became the initiator of the new charter. The universities were given autonomy. Councils of universities and faculties were created, which elected the rector and deans, awarded academic titles, distributed funds among departments and faculties. Andrey Vasilyevich Golovnin (1821 -1886), Minister of Education in 1861–1866

University reform Universities had their own censorship, received foreign literature without customs inspection. The universities had their own court and security, the police did not have access to the territory of the universities. Golovnin suggested creating student organizations and involving them in participation in university self-government, but State Council rejected this offer. Andrey Vasilyevich Golovnin (1821 -1886), Minister of Education in 1861–1866 ? Why was this proposal removed from the university charter?

Classic. Reform in the field of public education Changes in the education system University charter of 1863 School charter of 1864 Autonomy Gymnasiums Real Prepared for admission to the university Prepared for admission to higher technical educational institutions. A university council was created, which decided all internal issues. The election of the rector and teachers. Restrictions for students were removed (their misconduct was considered by the student court)

Women's education In the 60s and 70s. In Russia, women's higher education appeared. Women were not admitted to universities, but in 1869 the first Higher Women's Courses were opened. The courses opened by V.I. Gerrier in Moscow (1872) and K.N. Bestuzhev-Ryumin in St. Petersburg (1878) acquired the greatest fame. Only the Faculty of Literature and History was included in Guerrier's courses. On Bestuzhev courses - mathematical and verbal-historical departments. 2/3 of the students studied mathematics. Student. Hood. N. A. Yaroshenko.

Reforms in the field of education (1863 -1864) Significance of reforms: expansion and improvement of education at all levels. Shortcomings of the reforms: inaccessibility of secondary and higher education for all segments of the population.

Judicial (1864) The most advanced judicial system in the then world. Preserved a number of vestiges: special courts. Military (1874) Creation of a mass army of a modern type, the authority of military service was raised, a blow to the class system. Miscalculations in the system of organization and armament of the troops. In the field of education (1863 -1864) Expansion and improvement of education at all levels. Inaccessibility of secondary and higher education for all segments of the population. Reforms Their importance Their shortcomings

71 The results and significance of the reforms They led to a significant acceleration of the country's development brought Russia closer to the level of the leading powers of the world They were incomplete and incomplete. In the 80s were replaced by counter-reforms of Alexander III

Significance of the reforms Zemsky Assembly in the provinces. Engraving after a drawing by K. A. Trutovsky. The country's advancement along the path of capitalist development, along the path of turning a feudal monarchy into a bourgeois one and the development of democracy The reforms were a step from the landlord state to the rule of law. The reforms demonstrated that positive changes in society can be achieved not by revolutions, but by transformations from above, by peaceful means

Summing up What is the historical significance of the reforms of the 1960s and 1970s? ? Thanks to the reforms of the 60s-70s. many questions Everyday life were transferred from the jurisdiction of the bureaucracy to the jurisdiction of society in the person of zemstvos and city dumas; the equality of Russian citizens before the law was established; significantly increased the level of literacy of the population; universities received a greater degree of freedom in scientific and educational activities; censorship for the central press and book publishing was softened; the army began to be built on the basis of classless universal military service, which corresponded to the principle of equality before the law and made it possible to create trained reserves. ?

60-70s - this is the time of radical transformations in Russia, which affected almost all the most important aspects of the life of society and the state. In a relatively short period of time, reforms were carried out in the country in the field of economy, administration, military affairs, education and culture.

In 1855, when a cannonade thundered near the walls of the besieged Sevastopol, Nicholas I suddenly died. His eldest son Alexander II, who entered the history of Russia under the name of the Liberator, ascended the throne.

Alexander II came to the throne already a mature man - at the age of 36. He was neither a liberal nor a reactionary, and before accession he had no economic and political program of his own. Not accepting ideas and principles abstracted from life, Alexander Nikolayevich was a man of action. He understood the need for compromises and concessions in the interests of public life. Brought up on the ideas of humanism by the poet V. A. Zhukovsky, Alexander II was inclined to think about the need for changes in the political sphere.

Economic development of Russia in the first half of the XIX century. (European part)

The new tsar understood that the order existing in Russia needed to be changed. He returned the Decembrists from Siberia, allowed free travel abroad. Alexander appointed new people, smart and educated, to many government posts. He introduced his brother Konstantin, who was a staunch liberal, to the Cabinet of Ministers.

liberal camp

In preparing reforms, the tsar relied on liberal officials. They were thinking, intelligent people, united by the similarity of views on the upcoming transformations and methods for their implementation. They were close to progressive-minded public figures, writers, and scientists.

Supporters of liberal transformations were also among the nobility, although they constituted a clear minority in it. The liberals pinned all their hopes and aspirations on the reforms carried out by the government.

revolutionary democracy

Since the second half of the 50s. there is a consolidation of revolutionary-democratic forces. In terms of their social position, the revolutionary democrats were mainly raznochintsy, although there were also noblemen among them. Unlike liberals, they did not believe in reforms and were supporters of the peasant revolution. They combined the idea of ​​revolution with utopian socialism and demanded the transfer of all land to the peasants free of charge.

Alexander Ivanovich Herzen, revolutionary democrat, philosopher, writer and publicist. From 1847 - in exile; founder of the Russian free press (the almanac "Polyarnaya Zvezda", the newspaper "Kolokol"), directed against serfdom and autocracy

Nikolai Alexandrovich Dobrolyubov, literary critic and publicist. He opposed the monarchy and serfdom, a revolutionary, a utopian socialist

Nikolai Gavrilovich Chernyshevsky, revolutionary democrat, scientist, writer, literary critic. In 1856-1862. one of the leaders of the Sovremennik magazine

The largest ideological center of the revolutionary-democratic forces in Russia was the Sovremennik magazine, in which Chernyshevsky, Dobrolyubov, Nekrasov participated, and abroad - Herzen and Ogarev's Bell.

Peasant reform

The main reform of those that were being prepared by the government was the peasant reform, that is, the abolition of serfdom. Most of the landlords were outraged and frightened when they found out about this. The landowners tried to convince the tsar that it was impossible to abolish serfdom in any case. But Alexander II saw that peasant unrest was intensifying every year, and he understood that the peasants could no longer tolerate the power of the landowners. “It is better to abolish serfdom from above than to wait for the people to abolish it from below,” the tsar answered the disgruntled nobles.

On February 19, 1861, serfdom was abolished. Peasants received personal freedom. From now on, they could not be sold, bought, donated. Former serfs were declared "free villagers" and received civil rights. They could conclude contracts and deals, choose their occupation, move to other classes (philistines, merchants), enter educational institutions. The landowners were assigned the right of ownership to all the lands of their estates. The peasants received land plots for use from the landowner, which they could later buy into ownership. Prior to the redemption of allotments, the peasants (they were called "temporarily liable") had to bear duties in favor of the landowner - pay dues or serve corvee. Having gone out for redemption with the consent or at the request of the master, becoming a "peasant-owner", they had to pay the redemption payments to the state for the loan received. The liberation of 23 million landlord peasants with land was a unique event not only in Russian but also in world history.

Zemstvo and city reforms

In 1864, the zemstvo reform was carried out. In accordance with it, all-estate bodies of local self-government were created in the provinces and districts, which were called zemstvos.

Zemstvos were given the solution of local economic issues: the arrangement and maintenance of roads and bridges, zemstvo schools, shelters, almshouses, medical and veterinary services, land surveying, statistical accounting, etc. Zemstvos made a significant contribution to the organization of medical care, especially in the countryside, and the creation of zemstvo schools.

In continuation and in addition to the zemstvo reform in 1870, a reform of city self-government was carried out. In 509 cities of Russia, new bodies of city self-government were created - city dumas, which were elected by executive bodies - city councils. The city duma and the city council were headed by the mayor. Since the elections were conducted on the basis of the bourgeois principle - the property qualification, representatives of the big bourgeoisie prevailed in the city self-government. All those who did not pay city taxes, that is, workers, artisans, servants, petty employees, and the intelligentsia, were excluded from participating in the elections.

In large cities, the mayor was approved by the Minister of Internal Affairs, in small cities - by the governor. The range of affairs of city institutions included various economic issues: improvement, trade, local industry, education and health care, fire and sanitary measures, etc.

The urban reform contributed to the development of the urban economy, improvement, and the growth of the urban population.

Judicial reform

Held in 1864 the court reform was the most consistent bourgeois reform. She proclaimed the independence of the court from the administration: a judge could be removed from his post only by court order. The old class courts were abolished. The preliminary investigation was carried out by judicial investigators who were not subordinate to the police. The court was declared to be all-class, that is, one and equal for all classes. The court became open and public: representatives of the press and the public could attend court sessions; the representative of the prosecution - the prosecutor and the defense counsel of the defendant - a barrister (lawyer) took part in the trial.

Criminal cases were considered with the participation of jurors from all classes, including peasants, who were chosen by lot. The jurors, after listening to the judicial debate, made a decision on the guilt or innocence of the defendant. Their decision was binding on the judge. This was a significant win for democracy, which the reactionaries hated. "Court of the street", "court of the crowd" - so they spoke contemptuously of the jury.

Military reform

In 1874, instead of recruitment sets, universal military service was introduced. The law established the terms of active military service for the ground forces (6 years) and the navy (7 years).

For those who had a higher education, the term of active military service was determined at six months; with secondary education - 1.5 years; for persons who graduated from district schools and progymnasium - 3 years and elementary schools - 4 years. The only sons and the only breadwinners were not called up for active military service. Those who studied in secondary and higher educational institutions also received a deferment from conscription.

More attention was paid to the combat training of troops, new regulations and instructions were introduced, and the rearmament of the army with more modern weapons was accelerated. The creation of military schools and academies made it possible to improve the military training of officers. But, despite the changes, much in the army remained the same: the drill and assault of officers, the disenfranchisement of soldiers.

The reforms of 1861-1874, called "great", brought the socio-political structure of Russia in line with the needs of the society of the second half of XIX in. Russia has entered a new, capitalist path of its development.

In the course of the reforms, censorship was weakened, social problems began to be publicly discussed on the pages of newspapers and magazines.

Development of agriculture and industry

The abolition of serfdom gave impetus to the development of new socio-economic relations. After 1861, Russia quickly turned from an agrarian country into an agrarian-industrial one. Increasing demand for products Agriculture on the world and domestic markets has increased the interest of owners in increasing the marketability of agriculture and livestock. The growth of agricultural production was due to an increase in the area under crops (on the southern and eastern outskirts), the introduction of multi-field crop rotation, the use of mineral fertilizers and machines. During the 20 post-reform years, grain exports from Russia increased 3 times and in 1881 amounted to 202 million poods. In terms of the export of bread, Russia came out on top in the world.

In the 40s. 19th century The industrial revolution began in Russia. First in the textile and cotton industries, and then in other industries. For a successful transition from manufactory to factory, along with the replacement of manual labor by machine, a significant layer of free wage workers, a wide market for the sale of industrial products and an influx of large capital into production were required. With the abolition of serfdom, the industrial revolution went faster and by the beginning of the 80s. in major industries has been completed. Its social consequence was the rapid formation of the proletariat and the industrial bourgeoisie.

THIS IS INTERESTING TO KNOW

Alexander II in his youth, even before he became Tsar, was a passionate hunter and, of course, could not pass by I. Turgenev's Notes of a Hunter, published in 1846. Subsequently, he said that it was this book that convinced him of the need to abolish serfdom.

References:
V. S. Koshelev, I. V. Orzhehovsky, V. I. Sinitsa / The World History New time XIX - early. XX century., 1998.

Topic study plan

1. Reasons for reforms in the 1960s and 1970s 19th century
2. Reforms of local self-government.
a) Zemstvo reform
b) Urban reform
3. Judicial reform.
4. Reforms of the education system.
a) School reform.
b) University reform
5. Military reform.

Reforms of Alexander II (1855 - 1881) Peasant (1861) Zemskaya (1864) City (1870) Judicial (1864) Military (1874) Education (1863-1)

Reforms of Alexander II
(1855 - 1881)
Peasant (1861)
Zemskaya (1864)
Urban (1870)
Judicial (1864)
Military (1874)
In the area of
enlightenment (1863-1864)

*Historians of the 19th - early 20th centuries. these reforms were rated as great (K.D. Kavelin, V.O. Klyuchevsky, G.A. Dzhanshiev). *Soviet historians considered them unfinished

*Historians of the 19th - early 20th centuries.
rated these reforms as great
(K.D. Kavelin, V.O. Klyuchevsky, G.A. Dzhanshiev).
*Soviet historians considered them
incomplete and
half-hearted
(M.N. Pokrovsky, N.M. Druzhinina, V.P.
Volobuev).

Name
Peasant
(1861)
Zemskaya (1864)
Urban (1870
G.)
Judicial (1864
G.)
Military (1874)
In the area of
enlightenment
(1863-1864)
Content
reforms
Their meaning
Them
limitations

Peasant Reform: Manifesto and Regulations February 19, 1861

Results
peasant
reforms
Worn unfinished
character,
gave rise to social
antagonisms
(contradictions)
opened the way
to development
bourgeois relations
in Russia
"Will"
without land
6

reforms
Their meaning
Krestyansk turning point,
aya (1861) line between
feudalism and
capitalism. Created
conditions for
statements
capitalist
way of life as
dominant.
Their shortcomings
Saved
feudal
vestiges;
peasants are not
received land in
complete
own,
should be
pay a ransom
lost part
earth (segments).

Local government reform

In 1864, the “Regulations
about zemstvo institutions. In counties
and provinces created bodies
local government -
zemstvos.

Zemstvo reform (1864). “Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions”

The content of the reform
Creation of provincial and district
zemstvos -
elected bodies of local self-government
in the countryside
Functions of zemstvos
Maintenance of local schools, hospitals;
construction of local roads;
organization of agricultural statistics, etc.
9

10. Dictionary

Zemstvos are elected
local authorities
self-government
deciding economic
local questions.

11. Zemstvo reform (1864). “Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions”

The structure of zemstvo institutions
Zemstvo administration
Zemstvo Assembly
executive agency
elected
for 3 years
governing body
in vowels
(vowels - elected members
zemstvo assemblies and city dumas)
were elected
population
on a census basis
by class
sign,
11
met annually

12. Zemstvo reform

In the zemstvo, including in its permanent bodies
(upravah) representatives of all estates worked together.
But the leading role was nevertheless played by the nobles, who looked at
"male" vowels from top to bottom. And peasants often
treated participation in the work of the zemstvo as a duty and
were elected to the vowels of the debtors.
Zemstvo Assembly in
provinces. Engraving by
drawing by K. A. Trutovsky.

13.

Curia - ranks, on
shared by voters
on property and
social signs in
pre-revolutionary Russia
elections.

14. Zemstvo reform

1 vowel (deputy) for landowning and peasant
curias was elected from every 3 thousand peasant allotments.
According to the city curia - from the owners of property,
equal in value to the same amount of land.
?
How many votes of the peasants was equal to the voice of the landowner,
having 800 dess., if the shower allotment was 4 dess.?
In this case, 1 vote of the landowner = 200 votes of the peasants.
Why, when creating Zemstvo bodies, it was not provided
equal suffrage for peasants,
townspeople and landowners?
Because in this case the educated minority
would have been "drowned" in the illiterate ignorant peasant masses.

15. Zemstvo reform

Zemstvo assemblies met once a year:
county - for 10 days, provincial - for 20 days.
The estate composition of the zemstvo assemblies
nobles
Merchants
Peasants
Other
county zemstvo
41,7
10,4
38,4
9,5
Provincial Zemstvo
74,2
10,9
10,6
4,3
?
Why among the provincial vowels the share of peasants
was noticeably lower than among the county?
The peasants were not ready to deal with distant
from their daily needs by provincial affairs.
And getting to the provincial town was far and expensive.

16. Zemstvo reform

Zemstvo assembly in the province. Engraving after a drawing by K. A. Trutovsky.
Zemstvos received the right to invite
the work of specialists in certain industries
farms - teachers, doctors, agronomists -
zemstvo employees
Zemstvos were introduced at the county level and
provinces
Zemstvos decide not only local
economic affairs, but also actively
get involved in the political struggle

17.

Your comments.
Zemstvos.
Moscow nobleman Kireev
wrote about zemstvos:
“We, the nobles, are vowels; merchants,
tradesmen, clergy
consonants, the peasants are voiceless.
Explain what you wanted to say
author?

18. Electoral system in Russia

Principles
electoral
systems
Universal
Equal
direct
Only men
curia,
property
qualification
Multistage

19. Zemstvo reform

Zemstvo assembly in the province.
Engraving after a drawing by K.A. Trutovsky.
1865
?
What groups are divided into
Zemstvo vowels in the figure
K. Trutovsky?
Zemstvos were engaged
exclusively
economic
questions:
road construction,
fire fighting,
agronomic
helping the peasants
creation
food
stocks in case
crop failure
content
schools and hospitals.
For this, they gathered
land taxes.

20.

Off-road in the Tver province.
Country doctor.
Hood. I.I. Tvorozhnikov.
Thanks to
zemstvo doctors
villager
first received
qualified
medical care.
The local doctor was
station wagon:
therapist, surgeon,
dentist
obstetrician.
Sometimes operations
had to do
in a peasant's hut.

21. Zemstvo reform

A special role among the zemstvo
employees were played by teachers.
?
In what do you think
was this role?
Zemsky teacher not only
taught children arithmetic
and literacy, but was often
The arrival of the teacher in the village.
and the only literate
Hood. A. Stepanov.
man in the village.
Thanks to this, the teacher became for the peasants
bearer of knowledge and new ideas.
It was among the zemstvo teachers that there were especially many
liberal and democratically minded people.

22. Zemstvo reform

Lesson in the Zemstvo school
Penza province. 1890s
?
What, judging by the photo,
distinguished the zemstvo school
from government or
parish?
In 1865–1880
in Russia there were 12 thousand.
rural zemstvo schools, and
in 1913 - 28 thousand.
Zemstvo teachers taught
over 2 million literacy
peasant children, incl.
girls.
True, initial
training has not been
compulsory.
Studying programs
worked out
Ministry
enlightenment.

23. Zemstvo reform (1864). “Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions”

contributed to the development
Meaning
education,
healthcare,
local improvement;
became centers
liberal social movement
introduced initially in 35 provinces
(by 1914 they operated in 43 out of 78 provinces)
Limitation
volost zemstvos were not created
acted under the control of the administration
(governors and ministries of the interior)
23

24.

reforms
Zemskaya
(1864)
Their meaning
Around Zemstvos
grouped
the most energetic
democratic
intelligentsia.
The activity was
aimed to
improvement
the masses of the people.
Their shortcomings
class
elections;
limited circle
questions
solved
zemstvos.

25. Urban Reform

City reform began to be prepared in 1862, but because of an assassination attempt
on Alexander II, its implementation was delayed.
The city regulation was adopted in 1870.
The highest body of city self-government
remained the City Council.
Elections were held in three curiae.
Curia were formed on the basis of a property qualification.
A list of voters was compiled in descending order of the amount of paid
them city taxes.
Each curia paid 1/3 of taxes.
The first curia was the richest and smallest,
the third - the poorest and most numerous.
What do you think: city elections were held
on an all-estate or non-estate basis?
?

26. Urban Reform

City government:
Urban
thought
(administrative
organ)
Voters
1st Curia
elects
city ​​head
Urban
council
(executive
organ)
Voters
2nd curia
Voters
3rd curia

27. Urban Reform

Samara
mayor
P.V. Alabin.
The head of the city government was
elected mayor.
In large cities, the mayor
usually chose a nobleman
or a wealthy guild merchant.
Like zemstvos, city dumas and councils
were in charge of exclusively local
landscaping:
paving and street lighting, maintenance
hospitals, almshouses, orphanages and
city ​​schools,
trade
and industry
water supply device
and urban transport.

28. City reform of 1870 – “City position”

essence
Creation of bodies in the cities,
similar to zemstvos
by function and structure
city ​​head
supervised
City government
elected
City Duma as part of vowels
were elected by the population on a non-estate basis
28

29.

reforms
Urban
(1870)
Their meaning
Contributed
wide
segments of the population to
management that
served as a prerequisite
to form in
Russian civil
society and legal
states.
Their shortcomings
Activity
urban
self-government
controlled
by the state.

30. Judicial reform

31. Judicial reform - 1864

Principles of legal proceedings
Zemstvo assembly in the province. Engraving after a drawing by K. A. Trutovsky.
no estate
- the court's decision
does not depend on
class
accessories
accused
Selectivity -
justice of the peace
and jurors
Glasnost - on
court sessions
could
be present
public, press
could report
trial
process
Competitiveness -
participation in court
prosecutor's process
(accusation) and
lawyer (protection)
Independence -
couldn't judge
influence
administration

32. Judicial reform of 1864

Basis for reform
Judicial Statutes
introduction of jury trial
32

33. Judicial reform of 1864

Basis for reform
Referee
appointed
Ministry
justice
(principle
irremovability of judges)
Judicial Statutes
court introduction
jurors
Sentencing
according
with the law
based on the jury's verdict
33

34. Judicial reform of 1864

jurors
are chosen
from representatives of all classes (!)
based on property qualification
12 people
Take out
verdict (decision)
about guilt, its degree
or the innocence of the defendant
34

35. Judicial reform

Judges received high
salary.
Guilt decision
the accused was taken out
jurors
after hearing
witnesses and arguments
prosecutor and lawyer.
Juror
could become Russian
citizen from 25 to 70 years old
(qualifications - property and
settlement).
The court's decision could be
appealed.

36. Judicial reform of 1864

Additional elements
holding
judicial reform
Were created:
special courts for military personnel
special courts for clergy
magistrates' courts
to deal with minor civil and criminal offenses
36

37. Judicial reform of 1864

The structure of the judiciary in Russia
Senate
supreme judicial and cassation
(cassation - appeal,
lower court judgment appeal)
organ
Judicial chambers
District courts
Advocate
Prosecutor
12 jurors (qualification)
Justices of the Peace
courts to consider
the most important things
and appeals
(complaint, appeal for reconsideration)
to decisions of district courts
Courts of First Instance.
Handles complex criminal cases
and civil cases
petty criminal and civil cases
37

38. Judicial reform

Misdemeanors and civil litigation
(claim amount up to 500 rubles)
dealt with the World Court.
World judge
dealt with things alone
could impose a fine (up to 300 rubles),
arrest for up to 3 months or imprisonment
imprisonment for up to 1 year.
Such a trial was simple, quick and cheap.
World judge.
Modern drawing.

39. Judicial reform

Elected Justice of the Peace
zemstvos or city dumas from
number of persons over 25 years of age, with
not lower than secondary education
and judicial experience from three
years.
The justice of the peace should
own real estate
for 15 thousand rubles.
County Congress of Justices of the Peace
Chelyabinsk district.
Appeal decisions
justice of the peace could be on
county congress
world judges.

40. Judicial reform

Modern drawing.
Public Participation:
Participated in the process
12 non-professional
judges - jurors
assessors.
Jurors
issued a verdict:
"guilty";
"guilty,
but deserves
indulgence";
"innocent".
Based on the verdict, the judge
rendered a verdict.

41. Judicial reform

Jurors.
Drawing from the beginning of the 20th century.
?
What can be said
about the composition of the board
jurors, judging
by this picture?
Jurors
were elected provincial
zemstvo assemblies
and city councils
based
property qualification,
without regard to class
accessories.

42. Judicial reform

Competitiveness:
In a criminal trial, the accusation
was supported by the prosecutor, and the defense
the defendant was carried out by a lawyer
(attorney at law).
In a jury where the verdict depended
not from professional lawyers,
the role of the lawyer was enormous.
Major Russian lawyers:
K.K. Arseniev, N.P. Karabchevsky,
A.F. Koni, F.N. Plevako, V.D. Spasovich.
Fedor Nikiforovich
Plevako
(1842–1908)
appears in court.

43. Judicial reform

Publicity:
Admission to court hearings
public.
Judicial reports published
in press. Newspapers have special
court reporters.
Portrait of a lawyer
Vladimir Danilovich
Spasovich.
Hood. I.E. Repin.
1891.
Lawyer V.D. Spasovich:
"To a certain extent we are knights of the word
alive, free, more free
now than in print, which will not be appeased
the most zealous ferocious chairmen,
because while the chairman thinks
stop you, the word has already galloped
three versts and you can't get him back."

44. Judicial reform of 1864

Meaning
judicial reform
Created the most advanced
in the then world judicial
system.
Big step
in the development of the principle
"separation of powers"
and democracy
Saving Items
bureaucratic arbitrariness:
punishment
administratively
etc.
preserved a number of vestiges of the past:
special courts.
44

45. Military reform of the 60s - 70s. 19th century

direct
push -
defeat
Russia
in the Crimean
war 1853-1856
45

46. ​​Directions of military reform

Directions
Military
educational
establishments
Universal
military
duty
Rearmament
army and
fleet
The result is a mass army of a modern type

47. Military reform

Milyutin D.A.,
military
minister,
initiator
reforms.

48. Military reform

Dmitry Alekseevich
Milyutin
(1816–1912),
war minister
in 1861–1881
The first step in military reform was
repeal in 1855
military settlements.
In 1861, on the initiative of the new military
Minister D.A. Milyutin
service life has been shortened
from 25 to 16 years old.
In 1863 the army was abolished
Physical punishment.
In 1867 was introduced
new military judicial charter,
based on the general principles of judicial
reforms (glasnost, competitiveness).

49. Military reform

In 1863, a reform was carried out
military education:
cadet corps converted
to military schools.
Military gymnasiums gave a broad general
education (Russian and foreign
languages, mathematics, physics,
natural science, history).
The teaching load has doubled
but physical and military
training has been reduced.
Dmitry Alekseevich
Milyutin
(1816–1912),
war minister
in 1861–1881

50. 1) The creation of military gymnasiums and schools for the nobility, cadet schools for all classes, the opening of the Military Law Academy (1867) and the Naval

1) Creation of military gymnasiums and
schools for the nobility,
cadet schools for all classes,
opening of the Military Legal
Academy (1867) and
Naval Academy (1877)

51. According to the new charters, the task was to teach the troops only what is necessary in the war (shooting, loose formation, sapper business), the time

According to the new charters,
the task is to teach the troops only that
necessary in war (shooting,
loose system, sapper business),
reduced time for combat
training, bodily
punishment.

52. Military reform

?
What should be the main measure?
in the course of military reform?
Recruitment cancellation.
?
non-commissioned officer
Russian army.
Hood. V.D. Polenov.
Fragment.
What were the disadvantages
recruiting system?
Inability to quickly increase the army
in wartime, the need to maintain
large army in peacetime.
Recruitment was suitable for serfs,
but not for free people.

53. Military reform

?
Wahmister
dragoon regiment.
1886
What could replace
recruiting system?
Universal conscription.
Introduction of universal conscription
in Russia with its vast territory
required the development of the road network.
Only in 1870 was a commission created
to discuss this issue,
and January 1, 1874
manifesto was published
on the replacement of recruitment duty
universal military service.

54. Military reform

All men were subject to the call
at the age of 21.
Service life was 6 years in the army
and 7 years in the Navy.
The only ones exempted from conscription
breadwinners and only sons.
?
"Listed."
Hood.
ON. Kovalevsky.
Russian soldier
1870s in full
hiking layout.
What was the principle
the basis of military reform:
omnipresence or incompetence?
Formally, the reform was classless,
but in fact estate
largely preserved.

55. Military reform

?
What did they show
remnants of estates
in the Russian army
after 1874?
That the officer
the corps remained
mostly noble,
rank and file -
peasant.
Portrait of a lieutenant
life guards
Hussar regiment
Count G. Bobrinsky.
Hood. K.E. Makovsky.
Drummer
life guards
Pavlovsky regiment.
Hood. A. Detail.

56. Military reform

During the military reform
incentives have been established for
recruits who had an average
or higher education.
Graduated from the gymnasium served 2 years,
graduates of the university - 6 months.
In addition to the reduced service life
they had the right to live not in the barracks,
and in private apartments.
Volunteer
6th Klyastitsky
hussars

57. Smooth-bore weapons were replaced with rifled ones, cast-iron guns were replaced with steel ones, the Kh. Byrd rifle was adopted by the Russian army

Smoothbore weapons were replaced
rifled,
cast iron tools were replaced with
steel,
adopted by the Russian army
rifle H. Berdan (berdanka),
the construction of the steam fleet began.

58. Military reform

?
In what social groups do you think the military
reform caused discontent and what were his motives?
The conservative nobility was dissatisfied with the fact that
that people from other classes got the opportunity
become officers.
Some nobles resented the fact that they could be called
soldiers along with the peasants.
The merchants were especially dissatisfied,
previously not subject to recruitment duty.
Merchants even offered to take care of the disabled if
they will be allowed to pay off the draft.

59. Military reforms of the 60s - 70s. 19th century

The most important element of the reform is
replacement of the recruiting system
universal conscription
Compulsory military service
for men of all classes from 20 years old
(6 years in the army, 7 years in the navy)
followed by a reserve
There were benefits for people
having higher and secondary education
(rights of volunteers),
the clergy were released
and some other categories of the population
Meaning
creation of massive combat-ready armed forces;
increasing the country's defense capability
59

60.

Military reform of 1874
The meaning of the reform:
the creation of a mass army of modern
type,
raised the authority of military service,
a blow to the social order.
Disadvantages of the reform:
miscalculations in the system of organization and
armament of the troops.

61. Education reforms

61

62. Education reforms

school reform
1864
Formation of a new structure of primary and secondary education
Public schools
county
3 years
learning
Parish
since 1884
parochial
schools
Progymnasium
Urban
4 years
learning
6 years
learning
3 years
learning
Elementary education
62

63. School reform (Secondary education)

For the children of nobles and merchants were intended
classical and real gymnasiums.
"Charter of gymnasiums and progymnasiums" November 19, 1864
Progymnasium.
Training period
4 years
classical gymnasium
7 class,
study period 7 years
Real gymnasium
7 class
Term of study 7 years
Cooked
for admission
to the gymnasium.
located
in county
cities.
In a programme
classical gymnasiums
ancient
and foreign languages
ancient history,
ancient literature.
In a programme
real gymnasiums
dominated
maths, physics
and others
technical subjects

64. School reform

In 1872, the period of study in classical gymnasiums was
increased to 8 years (7th grade became two years old),
and from 1875 they officially became 8-class.
Real gymnasiums retained a 7-year term of study
and in 1872 they were transformed into real schools.
If graduates of classical gymnasiums entered
to universities without exams, the realists had to
take exams in ancient languages.
Without exams, they entered only technical universities.
?
What caused these restrictions?
for graduates of real schools?
In the classical gymnasiums, the children of the nobility more often studied,
in real life - the children of merchants and commoners.

65. University reform

Andrey Vasilievich
Golovnin
(1821-1886),
Minister of Education
in 1861–1866
University reform has become
first after the abolition of serfdom
rights that was caused
student unrest.
New university charter
instead of the Nikolaev charter of 1835
was adopted June 18, 1863.
The initiator of the new charter was
Minister of Education A.V. Golovnin.
The universities were given autonomy.
University councils were created
and faculties that elected
rector and deans,
awarded academic titles
distributed funds
by departments and faculties.

66. University reform

Andrey Vasilievich
Golovnin
(1821-1886),
Minister of Education
in 1861–1866
Universities have their own
censorship, received foreign
literature without customs clearance.
Universities have
own court and protection,
the police had no access
on the territory of the universities.
Golovnin proposed to create student
organizations and get them involved in
university government, but
State Council rejected it
sentence.
?
Why was this proposal
excluded from the charter of universities?

67. Reform in the field of public education

Changes in the education system
University charter
school charter
1863
1864
Autonomy
University Council established
Deciding all internal
questions
Rector election and
teachers
Restrictions lifted
for students
(their wrongdoings
considered
student court)
Gymnasiums
Classic
Prepared for
admission to
university
Real
Prepared for
admission to
higher
technical
educational
establishments

68. Women's education

Student.
Hood. ON THE. Yaroshenko.
In the 60s and 70s. appeared in Russia
women's higher education.
Women were not admitted to universities
but in 1869 the first
Higher women's courses.
The courses are most famous
open V.I. Guerrier in Moscow (1872)
and K.N. Bestuzhev-Ryumin
in Petersburg (1878)
On the courses Guerrier was only
verbal-historical faculty.
At Bestuzhev courses - mathematical
and verbal-historical department.
Studied in math
2/3 listeners.

69.

Education reforms
(1863-1864)
Significance of the reforms:
expansion and improvement
education at all levels.
Disadvantages of the reforms:
inaccessibility of secondary and higher
education for all segments of the population.

70.

reforms
Their meaning
Their shortcomings
Judicial The most advanced in the then Preserved series
vestiges: special
(1864) The world's judicial system.
courts.
Miscalculations in the system
Military Establishment of a mass army
organizations and
(1874) modern type, raised
the authority of military service, armament of the troops.
a blow to the social order.
Extension and
inaccessibility
AT
middle and higher
areas of improvement
education for
enlightenment of education at all levels.
all layers
deniya
population.
(18631864)

71. Results and significance of the reforms

brought
to a significant acceleration of the development of the country
brought Russia closer
to the level of the leading powers of the world
They were incomplete and incomplete.
In the 80s were replaced by counter-reforms of Alexander III
71

72. Significance of reforms

The advancement of the country along the path of capitalist development, along the path
Zemskoe
meeting
in the province.
by drawing
K.A. Democracy
Trutovsky.
transformation
feudal
monarchyEngraving
into the bourgeois
and development
The reforms were a step away from
landed state to
legal
The reforms showed
that positive developments in
society can be achieved
not revolutions, but
transformations from above
in peaceful way

73. Summing up

?
What is the historical significance of the reforms of the 1960s and 1970s?
Thanks to the reforms of the 60-70s. many daily questions
lives were transferred from the jurisdiction of the bureaucracy
in the conduct of society in the face of zemstvos and city dumas;
the equality of Russian citizens before the law was established;
significantly increased the level of literacy of the population;
Universities got a greater degree of freedom
scientific and educational activities;
censorship for the central press and book publishing was softened;
the army began to be built on the basis of a classless universal military
duty, which corresponded to the principle of equality before the law and
allowed to create prepared reserves.