Vocabulary. Synonyms. Stylistic coloration of words. Functionally-stylistically colored vocabulary Words that do not have stylistic coloring
The words are stylistically unequal. Some are perceived as bookish ( intelligence, validation, excessive, investment, conversion, prevail), others - as colloquial ( real, to chat, a little); some give solemnity to speech ( predetermine, will), others sound casual ( work, talk, old, cold). “The whole variety of meanings, functions and semantic nuances of the word is concentrated and combined in its stylistic characteristics,” wrote academician. V.V. Vinogradov. The stylistic characterization of a word takes into account, firstly, its belonging to one of the functional styles or the absence of functional and stylistic fixation, and secondly, the emotional coloring of the word, its expressive possibilities.
The stylistic characteristic of a word is determined by how it is perceived by speakers: as assigned to a certain functional style or as appropriate in any style, commonly used. The stylistic fixation of the word is facilitated by its thematic relevance. We feel the connection of words-terms with the scientific language ( quantum theory, assonance, attributive); we attribute to the journalistic style words related to political topics ( world, congress, summit, international, law and order, personnel policy); we single out as official business words used in office work ( following, proper, victim, residence, notify, prescribe, forwarded).
In the most general terms, the functional-style stratification of vocabulary can be depicted as follows:
Bookish and colloquial words are most clearly opposed (cf.: intrude - get in, meddle; get rid of - get rid of, get rid of; criminal - gangster).
Many words not only name concepts, but also reflect the attitude of the speaker towards them. For example, admiring the beauty white flower, you can call it snow-white, white, lilac. These adjectives are emotionally colored: the positive assessment contained in them distinguishes them from the stylistically neutral word white. The emotional coloring of the word can also express a negative assessment of the concept called ( blond). Therefore, emotional vocabulary is called evaluative ( emotional-evaluative). However, it should be noted that the concepts of emotional words (for example, interjections) do not contain evaluation; at the same time, the words in which the evaluation constitutes their own lexical meaning(moreover, the assessment is not emotional, but intellectual), do not refer to emotional vocabulary ( bad, good, anger, joy, love, approve).
A feature of emotional-evaluative vocabulary is that the emotional coloring is “superimposed” on the lexical meaning of the word, but is not reduced to it, the purely nominative function is complicated here by evaluativeness, the speaker’s attitude to the phenomenon being called.
As part of the emotional vocabulary, the following three varieties can be distinguished. 1. Words with a bright evaluative meaning, as a rule, are unambiguous; “the evaluation contained in their meaning is so clearly and definitely expressed that it does not allow the word to be used in other meanings.” These include the words "characteristics" ( forerunner, forerunner, grouch, idler, toady, slob etc.), as well as words containing an assessment of a fact, phenomenon, sign, action ( predestination, destiny, deceit, fraud, marvelous, miraculous, irresponsible, antediluvian, dare, inspire, defame, mischief). 2. Polysemantic words, usually neutral in the main meaning, but receiving a bright emotional coloring when used metaphorically. So, about a person they say: hat, rag, mattress, oak, elephant, bear, snake, eagle, crow; verbs are used in a figurative sense: sing, hiss, saw, gnaw, dig, yawn, blink and under. 3. Words with subjective assessment suffixes that convey various shades of feeling: containing positive emotions - son, sun, granny, neatly, close, and negative - beards, kid, breech etc. Since the emotional coloring of these words is created by affixes, the estimated meanings in such cases are determined not by the nominative properties of the word, but by word formation.
The image of feeling in speech requires special expressive colors. expressiveness(from Latin expressio - expression) - means expressiveness, expressive - containing a special expression. At the lexical level, this linguistic category is embodied in the "increment" to the nominative meaning of the word of special stylistic shades, special expression. For example, instead of the word good, we say wonderful, marvelous, marvelous, marvelous; I can say I don’t like, but you can find stronger words: hate, despise, loathe. In all these cases, the lexical meaning of the word is complicated by expression. Often one neutral word has several expressive synonyms that differ in the degree of emotional stress (cf.: misfortune - grief - disaster - catastrophe, violent - unrestrained - indomitable - violent - furious). Vivid expression highlights the words solemn ( unforgettable, herald, accomplishments), rhetorical ( sacred, aspirations, herald), poetic ( azure, invisible, chant, unceasing).Special expression distinguishes playful words ( faithful, newly minted), ironic ( deign, don Juan, vaunted), familiar ( ugly, cute, poking around, whispering). Expressive shades delimit disapproving words ( pretentious, mannered, ambitious, pedant), disparaging ( to paint, pettiness), contemptuous ( slander, servility, sycophancy), derogatory (skirt, squishy), vulgar ( grabber, lucky), swear words (boor, fool).
Expressive coloring in a word is superimposed on its emotional and evaluative meaning, and in some words expression prevails, in others - emotional coloring. Therefore, it is not possible to distinguish between emotional and expressive vocabulary. The situation is complicated by the fact that "the typology of expressiveness is, unfortunately, not yet available." This leads to difficulties in developing a common terminology.
Combining words that are close in expression into lexical groups, we can distinguish: 1) words expressing a positive assessment of the called concepts, 2) words expressing their negative assessment. The first group will include words high, affectionate, partly playful; in the second - ironic, disapproving, abusive, etc. The emotionally expressive coloring of words is clearly manifested when comparing synonyms:
The emotional and expressive coloring of a word is influenced by its meaning. We received a sharply negative assessment of such words as fascism, separatism, corruption, assassin, mafia. Behind the words progressive, law and order, sovereignty, glasnost etc. positive color is fixed. Even different meanings of the same word can differ markedly in stylistic coloring: in one case, the use of a word can be solemn ( Stop, prince. Finally, I hear the speech not of a boy, but of a husband.- P.), in another - the same word gets an ironic coloring ( G. Polevoy proved that the venerable editor enjoys the reputation of a learned man, so to speak, on his word of honor.- P.).
The development of emotional and expressive shades in the word is facilitated by its metaphorization. So, stylistically neutral words used as paths get a vivid expression: burn (at work), fall (from fatigue), suffocate (under adverse conditions), flaming (gaze), blue (dream), flying (gait), etc. d. The context finally determines the expressive coloring: neutral words can be perceived as lofty and solemn; high vocabulary in other conditions acquires a mockingly ironic coloring; sometimes even a swear word can sound affectionate, and affectionate - contemptuously. The appearance of additional expressive shades in a word, depending on the context, significantly expands the visual possibilities of vocabulary.
The tasks of practical stylistics include the study of the use of vocabulary of various functional styles in speech - both as one of the style-forming elements and as a different style means, which stands out by its expression against the background of other linguistic means.
The use of terminological vocabulary, which has the most definite functional and stylistic significance, deserves special attention. - words or phrases naming special concepts of any sphere of production, science, art. Each term is necessarily based on the definition (definition) of the reality it denotes, due to which the terms represent a capacious and at the same time concise description of an object or phenomenon. Each branch of science operates with certain terms that make up the terminological system of this branch of knowledge.
As part of the terminological vocabulary, several “layers” can be distinguished, differing in the scope of use, the content of the concept, and the features of the designated object. In the most general terms, this division is reflected in the distinction between general scientific terms (they constitute the general conceptual fund of science as a whole, it is no coincidence that the words denoting them are the most frequent in scientific speech) and special ones, which are assigned to certain areas of knowledge. The use of this vocabulary is the most important advantage of the scientific style; terms, according to S. Bally, "are those ideal types of linguistic expression, to which the scientific language inevitably strives."
Terminological vocabulary contains more information than any other, so the use of terms in a scientific style is necessary condition brevity, conciseness, accuracy of presentation.
The use of terms in works of scientific style is seriously investigated by modern linguistic science. It has been established that the degree of terminology of scientific texts is far from the same. The genres of scientific works are characterized by a different ratio of terminological and interstyle vocabulary. The frequency of the use of terms depends on the nature of the presentation.
Modern society demands from science such a form of description of the data obtained, which would make it possible to make the greatest achievements of the human mind the property of everyone. However, it is often said that science has fenced itself off from the world with a language barrier, that its language is “elitist”, “sectarian”. In order for the vocabulary of a scientific work to be accessible to the reader, the terms used in it must first of all be sufficiently mastered in this field of knowledge, understandable and known to specialists; new terms need to be clarified.
Scientific and technological progress has led to the intensive development of the scientific style and its active influence on other functional styles of the modern Russian literary language. The use of terms outside the scientific style has become a kind of sign of the times.
Studying the process of terminology of speech that is not bound by the norms of scientific style, researchers point to distinctive features the use of terms in this case. Many words that have precise terminological meanings are widely used and are used without any stylistic restrictions ( radio, television, oxygen, heart attack, psychic, privatization). Another group combines words that have a dual nature: they can be used both in the function of terms and as stylistically neutral vocabulary. In the first case, they differ in special shades of meanings, giving them special accuracy and unambiguity. Thus, the word mountain, meaning in its broad, interstyle use "a significant hill rising above the surrounding area", and having a number of figurative meanings, does not imply an accurate quantitative measurement of height. In geographical terminology, where the distinction between the concepts of mountain and hill is essential, a clarification is given: a hill of more than 200 m in height. Thus, the use of such words outside the scientific style is associated with their partial determinology.
Special features distinguish terminological vocabulary used in a figurative sense ( indifference virus, sincerity factor, another round of negotiations). Such a rethinking of terms is common in journalism, fiction, colloquial speech. Similar phenomenon lies in line with the development of the language of modern journalism, which is characterized by various kinds of stylistic shifts. The peculiarity of such word usage is that “not only a metaphorical transfer of the meaning of the term takes place, but also a stylistic transfer”.
The introduction of terms in non-scientific texts must be motivated, the abuse of terminological vocabulary deprives speech of the necessary simplicity and accessibility. Let's compare the two versions of the sentences:
The advantage of "non-terminological", clearer and more concise options in newspaper materials is obvious.
A stylistic assessment of the use of words with different stylistic coloring in speech can only be given bearing in mind a specific text, a certain functional style, since the words necessary in one speech situation are out of place in another.
A serious stylistic shortcoming of speech can be the introduction of publicistic vocabulary in texts of a non-publicistic nature. For example: The Council of Residents of Building No. 35 Decided: to Build a Playground of Great Importance in educating the next generation. The use of journalistic vocabulary and phraseology in such texts can cause comical, illogical statements, since words of high emotional sounding act here as an alien style element (one could write: The Council of Residents of House No. 35 decided to build a playground for children's games and sports.).
In the scientific style, errors arise due to the inability of the author to use terms professionally and competently. In scientific works, it is inappropriate to replace terms with words of similar meaning, descriptive expressions: Hydrant coupling with air-actuated control with weight-resistant operator handle, was designed...(necessary: hydrant coupling with pneumatic control system... ).
Inaccurate reproduction of terms is unacceptable, for example: Driver movements must be limited seat belt. Term seat belt used in aviation, in this case the term should have been used safety belt. The confusion in terminology not only damages the style, but also reveals the author's poor knowledge of the subject. For example: Peristalsis of the heart is noted, followed by a stop in the systole phase- the term peristalsis can only characterize the activity of the digestive organs (it should have been written: Cardiac fibrillation...).
The inclusion of terminological vocabulary in texts that are not related to the scientific style requires the author to have a deep knowledge of the subject. An amateurish attitude to special vocabulary is unacceptable, leading not only to stylistic, but also to semantic errors. For example: At the Central German Canal, they were overtaken by furiously racing cars with armor-piercing glasses from a bluish tint.- can be armor-piercing guns, shells, and glass should be called impenetrable, bulletproof. Strictness in the choice of terms and their use in strict accordance with the meaning is a mandatory requirement for texts of any functional style.
The use of terms becomes a stylistic flaw in the presentation if they are incomprehensible to the reader for whom the text is intended. In this case, the terminological vocabulary not only does not perform an informative function, but also interferes with the perception of the text. For example, in a popular article, the accumulation of special vocabulary is not justified: In 1763, the Russian heat engineer I.I. Polzunov designed the first multi-strength two-cylinder steam-atmospheric car. Only in 1784 was D. Watt's steam engine implemented. The author wanted to emphasize the priority of Russian science in the invention of the steam engine, and in this case the description of Polzunov's machine is redundant. The following variant of stylistic editing is possible: The first steam engine was created by the Russian heat engineer I.I. Polzunov in 1763. D. Watt designed his steam engine only in 1784.
Passion for terms and book vocabulary in texts that are not related to the scientific style can cause pseudo-scientific presentation. For example, in a pedagogical article we read: Our women, along with work in production, perform and family function which includes three components: childbearing, educational and economic. Could it have been easier to write: Our women work in production and pay a lot of attention to the family, raising children, housekeeping.
The pseudo-scientific style of presentation often causes inappropriate comic speech, so you should not complicate the text where you can express the idea simply. So, in magazines intended for the general reader, such a selection of vocabulary cannot be welcomed: Staircase - specific interfloor communications room preschool institution - has no analogues in none of its interiors. Wouldn't it have been better to refrain from the unjustified use of bookish words by writing: Staircase in preschool institutions, connecting the floors, is distinguished by a special interior.
The cause of stylistic errors in book styles can be the inappropriate use of colloquial and colloquial words. Their use is unacceptable in a formal business style, for example, in the minutes of meetings: Effective control over the prudent use of feed on the farm has been established; In the district center and villages, the administration has done some work, and yet there is no end to the improvement of work. These phrases can be corrected like this: ... Strictly control the consumption of feed on the farm; The administration began to improve the district center and villages. This work should be continued.
In the scientific style, the use of foreign-style vocabulary is also not motivated. With the stylistic editing of scientific texts, colloquial and colloquial vocabulary is consistently replaced by interstyle or bookish.
The use of colloquial and colloquial vocabulary sometimes leads to a violation of the stylistic norms of journalistic speech. The modern journalistic style is experiencing a strong expansion of vernacular. In many magazines and newspapers, a reduced style dominates, saturated with evaluative non-literary vocabulary. Here are examples from articles on various topics.
As soon as the wind of change breathed, this praise of the intelligentsia was absorbed into commerce, parties and governments. Pulling up her pants, she abandoned her disinterestedness and her big-nosed Panurges.
And here is 1992... Philosophers flooded out of the ground like russula. Quell, stunted, not yet accustomed to daylight... Seems to be good guys, but they are infected with eternal domestic self-criticism with a masochistic bias ... ( Igor Martynov // Interlocutor. - 1992. - No. 41. - S. 3).
Seven years ago, everyone who was considered the first beauty in the class or in the yard came to the Miss Russia contest as applicants ... When it turned out that the jury had not chosen her daughter, the mother brought her unfortunate child into the middle of the hall and arranged a showdown... Such is the fate of many girls who are now working hard on the catwalks in Paris and the Americas ( Lyudmila Volkova // MK).
The Moscow government will have to fork out. One of his latest acquisitions, a controlling stake in AMO - ZiL - needs to unfasten 51 billion rubles in September to complete the mass production program for the ZiL-5301 light-duty vehicle ( Let's ride or ride // MK).
When analyzing errors caused by the unjustified use of stylistically colored vocabulary, special attention should be paid to words associated with the official business style. Elements of an official business style, introduced into a context stylistically alien to them, are called clericalism. It should be remembered that these speech means are called clericalisms only when they are used in speech that is not bound by the norms of official business style.
Lexical and phraseological clericalisms include words and phrases that have a coloring typical for official business style ( presence, in the absence of, to avoid, reside, withdraw, the above, takes place etc.). Their use makes speech inexpressive ( If there is a desire, much can be done to improve the working conditions of workers; There is currently a shortage of teaching staff.).
As a rule, you can find many options for expressing thoughts, avoiding clericalism. For example, why would a journalist write: Marriage is a negative side in the activity of the enterprise if you can say: It is bad when an enterprise releases marriage; Marriage is unacceptable at work; Marriage is a great evil that must be fought; It is necessary to prevent marriage in production; It is necessary, finally, to stop the production of defective products!; You can't put up with marriage! A simple and specific wording has a stronger effect on the reader.
The clerical coloring of speech is often given verbal nouns, formed with the help of suffixes -eni-, -ani-, etc. ( revealing, finding, taking, inflating, closing) and non-suffixed ( tailoring, theft, day off). Their clerical shade is aggravated by the prefixes non-, under- ( undetected, failure). Russian writers often parodied the syllable "decorated" with such clericalisms [ The case of the gnawing of the plan thereof by mice(Hertz.); The case of flying in and breaking glass by a crow(Pis.); Having announced to the widow Vanina that in her non-sticking of the sixty-kopeck mark ...(Ch.)].
Verbal nouns do not have the categories of tense, aspect, mood, voice, person. This narrows their expressive possibilities in comparison with verbs. For example, the following sentence is inaccurate: From the farm manager V.I. Shlyk was shown a negligent attitude towards milking and feeding cows. You might think that the manager milked and fed the cows poorly, but the author only wanted to say that Farm manager V.I. Shlyk did nothing to facilitate the work of milkmaids, to prepare fodder for livestock. The impossibility of expressing the meaning of voice by a verbal noun can lead to ambiguity in the construction of the type professor's statement(does the professor approve or is he approved?), I love singing (I like to sing or listen when they sing?).
In sentences with verbal nouns, the predicate is often expressed in a passive form of the participle or a reflexive verb, this deprives the action of activity and enhances the clerical coloring of speech [ At the end of the sightseeing tour, tourists were allowed to take pictures of them.(better: Tourists were shown sights and allowed to photograph them)].
However, not all verbal nouns in the Russian language belong to the official business vocabulary, they are diverse in stylistic coloring, which largely depends on the characteristics of their lexical meaning and word formation. Verbal nouns with the meaning of a person have nothing to do with clericalisms ( teacher, self-taught, confused, bully), many nouns with an action value ( running, crying, playing, washing, shooting, bombing).
Verbal nouns with book suffixes can be divided into two groups. Some are stylistically neutral meaning, name, excitement), for many of them -nie changed into -ne, and they began to denote not an action, but its result (cf .: baking pies - sweet biscuits, sour cherries - cherry jam). Others retain a close relationship with verbs, acting as abstract names for actions, processes ( acceptance, rejection, rejection). It is precisely such nouns that are most often characterized by clerical coloring; only those that have received a strict terminological meaning in the language ( drilling, spelling, joining).
The use of clericalisms of this type is associated with the so-called "splitting of the predicate", i.e. replacing a simple verbal predicate with a combination of a verbal noun with an auxiliary verb that has a weakened lexical meaning (instead of complicating, it leads to complication). So, they write: This leads to complication, confusing accounting and increased costs., but it is better to write: This complicates and confuses accounting, increases costs.
However, in the stylistic assessment of this phenomenon, one should not go to extremes, rejecting any cases of the use of verb-nominal combinations instead of verbs. In book styles, such combinations are often used: they took part instead of participated, gave instructions instead of indicated, etc. Verb-nominal combinations are fixed in the official business style to declare gratitude, to accept for execution, to impose a penalty(in these cases the verbs thank, fulfill, commend inappropriate), etc. In the scientific style, such terminological combinations are used, such as visual fatigue occurs, self-regulation occurs, transplantation is performed etc. Expressions function in a journalistic style workers went on strike, there were clashes with the police, an attempt was made on the minister etc. In such cases, verbal nouns are indispensable and there is no reason to consider them clericalisms.
The use of verb-nominal combinations sometimes even creates conditions for speech expression. For example, a combination take an active part more capacious in meaning than the verb participate. The definition with a noun allows you to give the verb-nominal combination an exact terminological meaning (cf .: help - provide emergency medical assistance). The use of a verb-nominal combination instead of a verb can also help eliminate the lexical ambiguity of verbs (cf.: give a beep - buzz). The preference for such verb-nominal combinations over verbs is naturally beyond doubt; their use does not damage the style, but, on the contrary, gives greater effectiveness to the speech.
In other cases, the use of a verb-nominal combination introduces a clerical coloring into the sentence. Let's compare two types of syntactic constructions - with a verb-nominal combination and with a verb:
As you can see, the use of turnover with verbal nouns (instead of a simple predicate) in such cases is inappropriate - it generates verbosity and makes the syllable heavier.
The influence of formal business style often explains the unjustified use of denominative prepositions: along the line, in a section, in part, in business, by virtue of, for the purposes of, to the address, in the area, in plan, at the level, due to and others. They have become widespread in book styles, and under certain conditions their use is stylistically justified. However, often their passion is detrimental to the presentation, weighing down the style and giving it a clerical coloring. This is partly due to the fact that denominative prepositions usually require the use of verbal nouns, which leads to stringing of cases. For example: By improving the organization of repayment of arrears in the payment of wages and pensions, improving the culture of customer service, the turnover in state and commercial stores should increase- the accumulation of verbal nouns, a lot of identical case forms made the sentence heavy, cumbersome. To correct the text, it is necessary to exclude the denominative preposition from it, if possible, replace verbal nouns with verbs. Let's make an edit like this: In order to increase the turnover in state and commercial stores, it is necessary to pay salaries on time and not delay the pension of citizens, as well as improve the culture of customer service.
Some authors use denominative prepositions automatically, without thinking about their meaning, which is still partly preserved in them. For example: Construction has been suspended due to lack of materials.(as if someone foresaw that there would be no materials, and therefore the construction was suspended). Incorrect use of denominative prepositions often leads to illogical statements.
Let's compare the two versions of the sentences:
The exclusion of denominative prepositions from the text, as we see, eliminates verbosity, helps to express the thought more concretely and stylistically correctly.
The use of speech stamps is usually associated with the influence of the official business style. Speech stamps become widely used words and expressions with erased semantics and faded emotional coloring. So, in a variety of contexts, the expression get a residence permit begins to be used in a figurative sense ( Each ball that flies into the goal net receives a permanent registration in the tables; Muse Petrovsky has a permanent residence in the hearts; Aphrodite entered the permanent exhibition of the museum - now it is registered in our city).
Any frequently repeated speech means can become a stamp, for example, template metaphors, definitions that have lost their figurative power due to constant reference to them, even hackneyed rhymes ( tears - roses). However, in practical stylistics, the term "speech stamp" has received a narrower meaning: this is the name for stereotypical expressions that have a clerical coloring.
Among the speech stamps that arose as a result of the influence of the official business style on other styles, one can first of all single out formulaic turns of speech: at this stage, in this period of time, to date, emphasized with all sharpness etc. As a rule, they do not contribute anything to the content of the statement, but only clog the speech: In this period of time a difficult situation has developed with the liquidation of debts to supplier enterprises; Currently the payment of wages to miners was taken under unremitting control; At this stage, the crucian spawning is normal, etc. Deleting the highlighted words will not change anything in the information.
Speech stamps also include universal words, which are used in a wide variety of, often too broad, indefinite meanings ( question, event, series, conduct, deploy, separate, specific etc.). For example, the noun question, acting as a universal word, never indicates what is being asked ( Of particular importance are nutrition in the first 10-12 days; The issues of timely collection of tax from enterprises and commercial structures deserve great attention.). In such cases, it can be painlessly excluded from the text (cf.: Nutrition in the first 10-12 days is especially important; It is necessary to collect taxes from enterprises and commercial structures in a timely manner).
The word appear, as universal, is also often superfluous; this can be seen by comparing two wordings of sentences from newspaper articles:
| 1. The use of chemicals for this purpose is very important. | 1. For this purpose it is necessary to use chemicals. |
| 2. A significant event is the commissioning of a production line in the Vidnovsky shop. | 2. The new production line in the Vidnovsky workshop will significantly increase labor productivity. | Speech stamps, relieving the speaker from the need to look for the right, exact words, deprive the speech of specificity. For example: This season was held at a high organizational level- this proposal can be inserted into the report on hay harvesting, and on sports competitions, and on preparing the housing stock for winter, and harvesting grapes ...
The stylistic coloring of a word depends on how it is perceived by us: as assigned to a particular style or as appropriate in any speech situation, that is, commonly used.
We feel the connection of words-terms with the language of science (for example: quantum theory, experiment, monoculture); highlight publicistic vocabulary (worldwide, law and order, congress, commemorate, proclaim, election campaign); we recognize by the clerical coloring the words of the official business style (injured, residence, prohibited, prescribe).
Book words are out of place in a casual conversation: "On the green spaces the first leaves appeared"; We were walking in the forest array and sunbathing at the pond." Faced with such a mixture of styles, we hasten to replace foreign words with their commonly used synonyms (not green spaces, a trees, bushes; not Forest, a forest; not water, a lake).
Colloquial, and even more so colloquial, that is, outside the literary norm, words cannot be used in a conversation with a person with whom we are connected by official relations, or in an official setting.
Appeal to stylistically colored words should be motivated. Given the dependence on the content of speech, its style, on the environment in which the word is born, and even on how the speakers relate to each other (with sympathy or hostility), they use different words.
High vocabulary is necessary when talking about something important, significant. This vocabulary is used in the speeches of orators, in poetic speech, where a solemn, pathetic tone is justified. But if, for example, you are thirsty, it would not occur to you to turn to a comrade with a tirade on such a trifling occasion: “ O my unforgettable companion and friend! Quench my thirst with life-giving moisture!»
If words that have one or another stylistic coloring are used ineptly, they give the speech a comic sound.
Even in ancient manuals on eloquence, for example, in Aristotle's Rhetoric, much attention was paid to style. According to Aristotle, it "must fit the subject of speech"; important things should be spoken seriously, choosing expressions that will give the speech an elevated sound. Trifles are not spoken solemnly; in this case, words are used joking, contemptuous, that is, reduced vocabulary. M.V. Lomonosov also pointed out the opposition of “high” and “low” words in the theory of “three calms”. Modern explanatory dictionaries give stylistic marks to words, noting their solemn, sublime sound, as well as highlighting words that are reduced, contemptuous, derogatory, dismissive, vulgar, and abusive.
Of course, when talking, we cannot look into the explanatory dictionary each time, clarifying the stylistic mark for a particular word, but we feel which word should be used in a certain situation. The choice of stylistically colored vocabulary depends on our attitude to what we are talking about. Let's take a simple example.
The two argued:
I can't take seriously what this one says blond youth,- said one.
And in vain, - objected another, - the arguments of this blond boy very convincing.
These contradictory remarks express different attitude to the young blonde: one of the disputants chose offensive words for him, emphasizing his disdain; the other, on the contrary, tried to find words that expressed sympathy. The synonymic wealth of the Russian language provides ample opportunities for the stylistic choice of evaluative vocabulary. Some words are positive, others are negative.
As part of the evaluative vocabulary, words are emotionally and expressively colored. Words that convey the speaker's attitude to their meaning belong to the emotional vocabulary (emotional means based on feeling, caused by emotions). Emotional vocabulary expresses various feelings.
There are many words in Russian that have a bright emotional coloring. This can be easily verified by comparing words with similar meanings: blond, blond, whitish, white, white, lilac; pretty, charming, bewitching, delightful, cute; eloquent, chatty; proclaim, proclaim, blurt out etc. Comparing them, we try to choose the most expressive ones, which are stronger, more convincingly able to convey our thought. For example, you can say I do not like, but stronger words can be found: I hate, despise, abhor. In these cases, the lexical meaning of the word is complicated by a special expression.
Expression means expressiveness (from lat. expressio- expression). Expressive vocabulary includes words that enhance the expressiveness of speech. Often one neutral word has several expressive synonyms that differ in the degree of emotional stress: misfortune, grief, disaster, catastrophe; violent, unrestrained, indomitable, furious, furious. Often, synonyms with exactly the opposite coloring gravitate to the same neutral word: ask- beg, beg; cry- roar, roar.
Expressively colored words can acquire a variety of stylistic shades, as indicated by the marks in dictionaries: solemn (unforgettable, accomplishments), high (forerunner), rhetorical (sacred, aspirations) poetic (azure, invisible). From all these words, the reduced ones are sharply different, which are marked with marks: playful (faithful, newly minted), ironic (please, praised) familiar (not bad, whispering) disapproving (pedant), disparaging (daub), contemptuous (sneak) derogatory (squishy) vulgar (grabber), abusive (fool).
Evaluative vocabulary requires an attentive attitude. The inappropriate use of emotional and expressive words can give speech a comical sound. This often happens in student essays. For example: "Nozdryov was an inveterate bully." "All Gogol's landowners are fools, parasites, idlers and dystrophics."
By functional and stylistic affiliation, all the words of the Russian language can be divided into two large groups: 1) common, relevant in any style of speech (man, work, good, a lot, house) and 2) assigned to a certain style and perceived outside of it as inappropriate (different styles): face(meaning "man") work hard(meaning "to work") cool, plenty, living space, building. The second group of words is of particular stylistic interest.
functional style called a historically established and socially conscious system speech means used in one area or another. human communication. In modern Russian, the following are distinguished bookstores styles: scientific, journalistic, official business. Some linguists refer to book styles and fiction However, in our opinion, the language of fiction is devoid of any stylistic isolation. It is distinguished by a variety of individual-author's means of creating imagery and the freedom to choose vocabulary dictated by specific artistic tasks. This puts the language of fiction, more precisely artistic speech, in a special position in relation to functional styles.
Book styles opposed colloquial a style that is predominantly oral. Outside the literary and linguistic norm is vernacular.
The functional and stylistic fixation of words is facilitated by their thematic relevance. So, the terms, as a rule, belong to the scientific style: assonance, metaphor, quantum theory, synchrophasotron; journalistic style includes words related to socio-political topics: pluralism, democracy, glasnost, citizenship, cooperation; as official business words used in jurisprudence, office work are distinguished: presumption of innocence, incompetent, victim, notify, prescribe, proper, residence.
However, the differentiating features of scientific, journalistic, official and business vocabulary are not always perceived with sufficient certainty, and therefore, when stylistically characterized, a significant number of words are evaluated as bookish, in contrast to their commonly used and colloquial synonyms. Let's compare, for example, such synonymic rows:
Due to semantic and stylistic differences, bookish and colloquial (colloquial) words are most clearly opposed; compare: intrude - get in, get rid of - get rid of, get rid of, sob - roar; face - muzzle, mug.
The functional-stylistic stratification of vocabulary is only partially fixed in explanatory dictionaries by stylistic marks to words. Book words, special, colloquial, vernacular, rude vernacular stand out most consistently. The corresponding marks are used in the Big and Small academic dictionaries of the Russian language. In the "Dictionary of the Russian Language" by S. I. Ozhegov, stylistic marks indicate the functional fixation of words: "abusive", "high", "ironic", "bookish", "disapproving", "official", "colloquial", "colloquial" , "special", etc. But there are no labels that would highlight journalistic vocabulary.
AT " explanatory dictionary Russian language" edited by D. N. Ushakov, stylistic labels are more diverse, they represent the functional stratification of vocabulary more differentiated. Here are the following labels: "newspaper", "clerical", "folk poetic", "special", "official", "poetic" , "colloquial", "journalistic", etc. However, in some cases these labels are outdated. negotiable, recalculation, re-register in the dictionary of D. N. Ushakov they are given with the mark "official", and in the dictionary of Ozhegov - without marks; chauvinism- respectively: "political" and - without marks. This reflects the real processes of changing the functional and stylistic affiliation of words.
Unlike functionally fixed, commonly used vocabulary, or interstyle, is used in any style of speech without any restrictions. For example, the word house can be used in any context: in an official business document ( House No. 7 to be demolished); in an article by a journalist who owns a journalistic style ( This house built according to the project of a talented Russian architect and is one of the most valuable monuments of national architecture); in a funny song for kids [Tili-bom, tili-bom, cat's on fire house (March.)]. In all cases, such words will not stand out stylistically from the rest of the vocabulary.
Common vocabulary underlies the vocabulary of the Russian language. It is interstyle, neutral words that are, as a rule, the main (pivot) in the synonymic rows; they constitute the most important fund of generating bases around which various derivational connections of related words are formed.
Common vocabulary is also the most frequent: we constantly refer to it both in oral and written speech, in any style where it performs a primary function - nominative, naming vital concepts and phenomena.
They belong to the branch of science that deals with teaching the differentiated use of language in communication, as well as providing knowledge regarding the language itself and the appropriate means necessary for its use. It is called "stylistics" and its predecessor was rhetoric (the concept of oratory), which dealt exclusively with the public style of speech. Stylistics as a science covers all systems of speech means. This is a kind of teaching regarding the most effective forms of expression of thoughts and feelings.
What are stylistically colored words?
They are used exclusively in specific styles, in particular:
- Scientific vocabulary. It includes words that are used in the field of education, science and technology (for example, range, laser, etc.).
- Political vocabulary. This includes words used in the public, political field (candidate, dissertation, Duma, etc.).
- It is represented by words that are used mainly in everyday communication, orally (large, pictures, Internet, etc.). Within the framework of works of art, it is used to characterize the main characters.
Summarizing the above, we can formulate what stylistically colored words are. These are words that have an additional meaning, more precisely, they name an object and convey its corresponding assessment (neglect, approval, irony, etc.), as well as certain emotions in relation to it.
Variety of stylistic coloring
It is represented by two components:
1. Functional-target stylistic coloring (coloring of individual units of the language), which, in turn, is divided into three main types:
- colloquial;
- book;
- neutral.
The first two types can be:
Grammatical forms (for example, contracts (neutral) - contracts (colloquial);
Words (for example, place (neutral) - location (book);
Phraseological units (for example, stretch your legs (colloquial) - rest in eternal sleep (book);
Sentences (for example, due to bad weather conditions, the flight is delayed (neutral) - due to fog, I did not fly away (colloquial).
2. Expressive-evaluative stylistic coloring (not tied to a specific style, contained in the word itself) includes three types:
- reduced;
- increased;
- neutral.
Example: life (neutral) - life (reduced) - life (increased).
Neutral and stylistically colored words
Vocabulary in the literary language is usually divided into two main components: stylistically colored and neutral vocabulary.
Neutral vocabulary - words that are not tied to any of the existing styles of speech, that is, they can be used in any system of speech means, because they are not expressively and emotionally colored. However, these words have stylistic synonyms (colloquial, bookish, vernacular).
According to the theory of M. V. Lomonosov (“Three Calms”), all other words refer either to a high system of speech means (for example, rest, fatherland, etc.) or to a low one (for example, the other day, belly, etc.) .).
In this regard, there is colloquial vocabulary (grey gelding, tsyts, etc.) and book vocabulary, which, in turn, is divided into the following types:
Directions of linguistic stylistics
There are two in particular:
- language style;
- style of speech (functional style).
The first direction studies the stylistic means of vocabulary, grammar and phraseology, as well as the stylistic structure of the language.
Second - different types speeches and their conditionality by various goals of the utterance.
Linguistic stylistics should contain the principle of consistency and functionality and reflect the relationship of various types of speech with the purpose of the statement, its subject matter, communication conditions, the author's attitude and the addressee of the speech.
Styles are various combinations of the use of language in the process of communication. Each system of speech means is characterized by the originality of the language means used, as well as their unique combination with each other.
Thus, it is worth formulating a definition of what linguistic stylistics is. This is, first of all, a section of linguistics that studies various styles (language, speech, genre, etc.). Also, the subject of her research is the emotional, expressive and evaluative properties of language units both in the paradigmatic plan (within the framework of the language system) and in the syntagmatic aspect (in various fields communication).
The structure of the considered section of linguistics
These include combinations that are sustainable (employment service, public sector workers, international, etc.). They are widely used by journalists due to the fact that it is impossible to constantly invent fundamentally new means of expression.
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B 1 Synonyms are ... Go, run, rush, move, direct, follow, move, act, lie, etc. How are these synonyms different? Write down a number of synonyms for the word Laugh, ...
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B 1 Vocabulary neutral stylistically colored colloquial colloquial colloquial
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B 1 1. Replace the word REASON with a stylistically neutral synonym. Write this synonym. By will he meant freedom. understood, understood
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In 1 punishment 2. Replace the word THRASH with a stylistically neutral synonym. Write this synonym. Get thrashed after parent meetings, marching in formation in pioneer camps, studying with tutors, shaking before final exams, gaining neurasthenia after competitive ones.
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In 1 the fascists The only way to do this was to go through the ice across the Gulf of Finland, and only on a long winter night, so that the Nazis, who were along the shores of the bay, could not notice those who made their way into the blockaded city in the dark. 3. Replace the word HITLERS with a stylistically neutral synonym. Write this synonym.
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В 1 waiters 4. Replace the descriptive sentence SERVER FROM THE DINING ROOM with a stylistically neutral synonym. Write this synonym. Stokers and cleaners, waitresses from the dining room, pulling carpets, armchairs, curtains rolled into knots, bundles of bed linen from the house flooded with water, now and then looked back at the sea and said with delight: - How beautiful, how beautiful ...
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In 1 ancient 5. Replace the word IMMEMORIABLE with a stylistically neutral synonym. Write this synonym. From such sun and air, the shores acquire a severe color, ocher, ashy and bluish, like scale, the color of time immemorial, the color of eternity.
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C 1 is instructive 6. Replace the word EDUCATIONAL with a stylistically neutral synonym. Write this synonym. At the same time, she strictly followed what I choose in her home library, and said instructively: “No, it’s too early for you to read, take this book better.”
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In 1 went 7. Replace the word CONNECTED with a stylistically neutral synonym. Write this synonym. We knew the old gelding for a long time, and there was nothing mysterious in the fact that he followed us.
