Which state was the first explorer of new lands. Travels in the New Age. Great geographical discoveries. Portuguese discoveries of the 15th century

Great geographical discoveries and the beginning of the New Age in Western Europe.

period 15-17 centuries, during which Europeans discovered new lands and sea routes to Africa, America, Asia and Oceania in search of new trading partners and sources of goods that were in great demand in Europe. Historians usually correlate the "Great geographical discoveries" with pioneering distant sea ​​voyages Portuguese and Spanish travelers in search of alternative trade routes to the "India" for gold, silver and spices.

The Portuguese began a systematic exploration of the Atlantic coast of Africa in 1418 under the auspices of Prince Henry, eventually circumnavigating Africa and entering the Indian Ocean in 1488.

In 1492, in search of a trade route to Asia, the Spanish monarchs approved Christopher Columbus's plan to travel west across the Atlantic in search of the "Indies". He landed on an uncharted continent, opening the "New World," America, to Europeans. In order to prevent conflict between Spain and Portugal, the Treaty of Tordesillas was concluded, according to which the world was divided into two parts, where each side received exclusive rights to the lands they discovered.

In 1498, a Portuguese expedition led by Vasco da Gama was able to reach India, circumnavigating Africa and opening a direct trade route to Asia. The Portuguese soon moved further east, reaching the Spice Islands in 1512 and landing in China a year later.

In 1522, the expedition of Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese in the service of the Spanish, went west, making the world's first circumnavigation. Meanwhile, the Spanish conquistadors explored the American continent and later some of the South Pacific islands.

In 1495, the French and English and, a little later, the Dutch entered the race to discover new lands, challenging the Iberian monopoly on maritime trade routes and exploring new routes, first north, then across the Pacific around South America, but ultimately following by the Portuguese around Africa to the Indian Ocean; discovering Australia in 1606, New Zealand in 1642 and the Hawaiian Islands in 1778. Meanwhile, from the 1580s to the 1640s, Russian pioneers discovered and conquered almost all of Siberia.

The great geographical discoveries contributed to the transition from the Middle Ages to the Modern Age, along with the Renaissance and the rise of European nation-states. Maps of distant lands contributed to the development of a humanistic worldview and the expansion of horizons, giving rise to a new era of scientific and intellectual curiosity. The advancement of Europeans into new lands led to the creation and rise of colonial empires, during contacts between the Old and New Worlds, a Columbus exchange took place: plants, animals, food, entire peoples (including slaves) moved around the planet, infectious diseases, and there was also a cultural exchange between civilizations, this was one of the most important stages of globalization in ecology, agriculture and culture in history. European discoveries (English) Russian. continued after the era of the Great geographical discoveries, as a result of which the entire surface of the globe was mapped, and distant civilizations were able to meet each other.

New time (or new history) - the period in the history of mankind, located between the Middle Ages and the Newest time.

The concept of "new history" appeared in European historical and philosophical thought in the Renaissance as an element of the three-term division of history proposed by humanists into ancient, middle and new. The criterion for determining the "new time", its "novelty" in comparison with the previous era was, from the point of view of humanists, heyday during the Renaissance secular science and culture, that is, not a socio-economic, but a spiritual and cultural factor. However, this period is rather contradictory in its content: the High Renaissance, the Reformation and humanism coexisted with a massive surge of irrationalism, the development of demonology, a phenomenon that received the name "witch hunt" in the literature.

Not all nations entered this period at the same time.

One thing is certain: in this period of time going on the emergence of a new civilization, a new system of relations, a Eurocentric world, a "European miracle" and the expansion of European civilization to other parts of the world.

Periodization.

As a rule, in Soviet historiography, within the framework of formational theory, its beginning was associated with the English revolution of the middle of the 17th century, which began in 1640. Among other events that are accepted as the starting point of the New Age are the events associated with the Reformation (1517), the discovery of the New World by the Spaniards in 1492, the fall of Constantinople (1453) or even the beginning of the French Revolution (1789).

It is even more difficult to determine the end time of this period. Soviet historiography was dominated by the point of view that the period of modern history ended in 1917, when the socialist revolution took place in Russia. According to the most common modern point of view, consideration of the events associated with the New Age should be completed with the First World War (1914-1918).

The debate on the periodization of modern history continues today.

At the same time, two sub-stages are usually distinguished within the era of the New Age, the Napoleonic Wars serve as their border - from the Great French Revolution to the Congress of Vienna.

Not only the ideas of Europeans about the Earth have undergone significant changes, but the place of the Earth itself in the Universe has undergone a revision - even more radical. In 1543, the book of Nicolaus Copernicus "On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres" came out from under the printing press, in which the rejection of the geocentric system of Ptolemy, which had prevailed for almost one and a half thousand years, was proclaimed.

Technique and production

An even greater impact on everyday life people had the development of technology at the turn of the 15th-16th centuries. One of the most important innovations of that time was printing. The invention and implementation of a seemingly simple technology had a revolutionary impact on the speed of replication and dissemination of information, as well as its availability (printed books were much cheaper than handwritten ones). Johannes Gutenberg is considered to be the inventor of printing. Around 1440 he built his printing press. It was possible to develop a technology for making stamps (letters) not from wood, but from metal. And it was he who introduced the most important idea - typing from individual letters instead of making a board - a stamp for the entire page.

With the onset of the New Age, the handicraft production of the Middle Ages was replaced by a manufactory type of production. At manufactories, labor remained manual, but unlike medieval workshops, a division of labor was introduced, due to which labor productivity increased significantly.

The development of mining and metallurgy was of great importance.

Also, since the 16th century, fossil coal has been used for heating and production.

Renaissance.

The Renaissance, or Renaissance (French Renaissance, Italian Rinascimento; from "ri" - "again" or "reborn") is an era in the history of European culture that replaced the culture of the Middle Ages and preceded the culture of the new time. The approximate chronological framework of the era is the beginning of the XIV - the last quarter of the XVI centuries and in some cases - the first decades of the XVII century (for example, in England and, especially, in Spain).

A distinctive feature of the Renaissance is the secular nature of culture and its anthropocentrism (that is, interest, first of all, in a person and his activities). There is an interest in ancient culture, there is, as it were, its “revival” - and this is how the term appeared.

General characteristics.

The growth of city-republics led to an increase in the influence of estates that did not participate in feudal relations: artisans and artisans, merchants, and bankers. All of them were alien to the hierarchical system of values ​​created by medieval, in many respects church culture, and its ascetic, humble spirit. This led to the emergence of humanism - a socio-philosophical movement that considered a person, his personality, his freedom, his active, creative activity as highest value and criteria for evaluating public institutions.

Secular centers of science and art began to appear in the cities, the activities of which were outside the control of the church. The new worldview turned to antiquity, seeing in it an example of humanistic, non-ascetic relations. The invention of printing in the middle of the 15th century played a huge role in spreading the ancient heritage and new views throughout Europe.

The revival arose in Italy, where its first signs were noticeable as early as the 13th and 14th centuries (in the activities of the Pisano family, Giotto, Orcagna, etc.), but it was firmly established only from the 20s of the 15th century. In France, Germany and other countries, this movement began much later. By the end of the 15th century, it reached its peak. In the 16th century, a crisis of Renaissance ideas was brewing, resulting in the emergence of Mannerism and Baroque.

Causes

The most common cause of the bourgeois revolution is the conflict between the new productive forces developing in the depths of the feudal system and feudal production relations (or their remnants, survivals), as well as feudal institutions, although this conflict is often obscured by political and ideological contradictions.

driving forces

In the early bourgeois revolutions and some revolutions of the 19th century, the driving forces were the bourgeoisie and the peasants oppressed by feudalism, artisans, and the emerging working class. The leader and hegemon of the masses was the bourgeoisie, which then played a revolutionary role. The bourgeoisie fought against feudal property, but, being itself the owner, never dared to abolish private ownership of land. The most revolutionary force in the early bourgeois revolutions were the working "lower classes" of the countryside and town. When they seized the initiative bourgeois revolution achieved the most significant success.

By the beginning of the XVII century. British industry has made great strides. New industries developed. The decisive role passed to the manufacture. Landless peasants became factory workers.

England in the 17th century found itself at the crossroads of major trade routes. The volume of trade with other countries grew rapidly.

The demolition of the feudal system in the English countryside began much earlier than in the city. The countryside has long been firmly connected not only with the internal, but also with the external market. The first manufactories arose here.

Capitalism, gaining ever stronger positions in agriculture, industry and trade, changed the structure (structure) of English society. New people come to the fore. A new class was formed - gentry nobles, entrepreneurs, merchants, merchants, wealthy farmers who owned significant capital, but were deprived of political power.

Thus, by the beginning of the XVII century. feudal system in England began to hamper the development of industry, trade and Agriculture. All land was considered the property of the king. The nobility had to pay a certain amount of money to the royal treasury when transferring land by inheritance or selling it. The nobles (they were still called knights in the old way) were considered the holders of the royal land, and not its full owners. An obstacle to the transformation of land from conditional, “by the will of the king” (feudal) property into private (capitalist) property was the royal power of the Stuart dynasty (since 1603). The royal power stood on the side of the old, obsolete feudal orders. Royal exactions, arbitrary taxes and fines, numerous restrictions and prohibitions prevented the accumulation of capital in the hands of the bourgeoisie and the "new nobles", and limited the freedom of trade. Peasants, artisans, and factory workers suffered the most from the preservation of the feudal system.

An increase in taxes, the introduction of exactions and a clear desire to rule without a parliament, a foreign policy that runs counter to the interests of the bourgeoisie and the "new" nobility, caused an ever louder and more resolute protest of the opposition. The conflict between absolutism and parliament on the most important issues of internal and foreign policy was the basis for the revolution.

Capitalism again appears as an adversary and an active fighter against absolutism. However, in England, the royal power was somewhat stronger than in Holland.

In 1629, King Charles I dissolved parliament in 1629 and began to rule independently, imposing arbitrary requisitions and taxes on the population.

1640 Charles I was forced to convene a parliament. It was called "Long" because. meeting in the fall, it sat for 12 years. The opening day of its meetings (November 3, 1640) is considered the day the English Revolution began. The House of Commons consisted of representatives of the "new nobility" and the bourgeoisie, whose goal was to end feudal relations and deal a decisive blow to royal absolutism.

As a result of the revolution, feudal ownership of land was abolished. New classes gained access to state power. The freedom of industrial and commercial enterprise was proclaimed, and the main obstacles to economic progress were eliminated. As a result, the volume of diversified manufactory production began to increase, which became dominant in the industry of England. In terms of pace and scale, English industry at the end of the 18th century. took first place in Europe.

English Revolution in the 17th century came major event new history. The revolution decisively put an end to the feudal order and thereby opened up scope for the development of a new mode of production and new public relations. Thus, the connection of these events with the economic rise of England, the growth of its power on the seas and in the colonies becomes obvious.

Alexander 1 and Nicholas 1.

Alexander 1 ruled 1801-1825, grandson of Catherine 2 and son of Paul 1 and Princess Maria Feodorovna, b. 1777. It was originally planned that domestic politics Alexander 1 and foreign policy will develop in accordance with the course outlined by Catherine 2. In the summer of June 24, 1801, the secret committee under Alexander 1. It included associates of the young emperor. In fact, the council was the highest (unofficial) advisory body in Russia.

The beginning of the reign of the new emperor was marked by the liberal reforms of Alexander 1. The young ruler tried to give the country a constitution and change the political system of the country. However, he had many opponents. This led to the creation on April 5, 1803 of the Indispensable Committee, whose members had the right to challenge the royal decrees. But, nevertheless, part of the peasants was released. The Decree "On free cultivators" was issued on February 20, 1803.

Education was also of great importance. Education reform Alexander 1 actually led to the creation state system education. It was headed by the Ministry of Public Education. Also, he was educated state council under Alexander 1, which was opened with great solemnity on January 1, 1810.

Further, during reforms government controlled Alexander 1, collegiums that actually ceased to function (established in the era of Peter 1) were replaced by ministries. In total, 8 ministries were established: internal affairs, finance, military and ground forces, naval forces, commerce, public education, foreign affairs, and justice. The ministers governing them were subordinate to the Senate. The ministerial reform of Alexander 1 was completed by the summer of 1811.

Speransky M.M. had a serious influence on the course of further reforms. He was entrusted with the development state reform. According to the project of this outstanding figure, a constitutional monarchy was to be created in the country. The power of the sovereign was planned to be limited by parliament (or a body of a similar type), consisting of 2 chambers. However, due to the fact that the foreign policy of Alexander 1 was rather complicated, and the tension in relations with France was constantly intensifying, the reform plan proposed by Speransky was perceived as anti-state. Speransky himself received his resignation in March 1812.

1812 was the hardest year for Russia. But, the victory over Bonaparte significantly increased the authority of the emperor. It is worth noting that under Alexander 1 the peasant question was slowly but still tried to be resolved. But the commissioning of the project was, due to many factors, impossible.

IN domestic policy it is worth noting such features as military settlements under Alexander 1. They are better known under the name "Arakcheevsky". The settlements of Arakcheev caused discontent of almost the entire population of the country. Also, a ban on any secret societies was introduced. It began operating in 1822. Liberal government that Alexander 1 dreamed of short biography which simply cannot contain all the facts, turned into the harsh police measures of the post-war period.

The beginning of the resolution of the question of serfdom, and Arakcheevism, and the greatest victory over Napoleon. These are the results of the reign of Alexander 1.

Nicholas 1. Years of life (1796-1855), years of government (1825-1855).

Nicholas is the third of the five sons of Emperor Paul I, so he could not count on the throne. From an early age, he was fond of military affairs, preparing for a military career.

From the very beginning of his reign, Nicholas I declared the need for reforms and created a "committee on December 6, 1826" to prepare the reforms. An important role in the state began to play "His Majesty's Own Chancellery", which was constantly expanding by creating many branches.

Nicholas I instructed a special commission led by M.M. Speransky to develop a new Code of Laws Russian Empire. By 1833 two editions had been printed: “ complete collection Laws of the Russian Empire, from the Council Code of 1649 to the last decree of Alexander I, and the Code of Current Laws of the Russian Empire. The codification of laws, carried out under Nicholas I, streamlined Russian legislation, facilitated the conduct of legal practice, but did not bring changes to the political and social structure Russia.

Emperor Nicholas I was an autocrat in spirit and an ardent opponent of the introduction of a constitution and liberal reforms in the country. The militarization of the state apparatus under the auspices of the monarch - that's characteristic political regime Nicholas I. Literature, art, education fell under censorship, measures were taken to limit the periodical press.

In social policy, Nicholas I focused on strengthening class system. The nobility was acquired only by inheritance. And for service people to create new estates - "bureaucratic", "eminent", "honorary" citizens. In 1845, the emperor issued a "Decree on Majorates" (the indivisibility of noble estates during inheritance).

Serfdom under Nicholas I enjoyed the support of the state, and the tsar signed a manifesto in which he stated that there would be no changes in the position of serfs.

The most important aspects of foreign policy during the reign of Nicholas I were the return to the principles of the Holy Alliance (Russia's struggle against revolutionary movements in Europe) and the Eastern Question. Russia under Nicholas I participated in Caucasian war(1817-1864), Russo-Persian War(1826-1828), the Russian-Turkish war (1828-1829), as a result of which Russia annexed the eastern part of Armenia, the entire Caucasus, received the eastern coast of the Black Sea. During the reign of Nicholas I, the most memorable was the Crimean War of 1853-1856. Russia was forced to fight against Turkey, England, France. During the siege of Sevastopol, Nicholas I was defeated in the war and lost the right to have a naval base on the Black Sea.

The unsuccessful war showed Russia's backwardness from the advanced European countries and how unviable the conservative modernization of the empire turned out to be.

Nicholas I died on February 18, 1855. Summing up the reign of Nicholas I, historians call his era the most unfavorable in the history of Russia, starting from the Time of Troubles.

Peasant reform

And although, abolishing serfdom, the autocracy was forced to go against the wishes of the nobility - its social support, the obvious impossibility of Russia to claim the role of a leading European power within the framework of the former system was clear to Emperor Alexander II.

1857 - Secret committee to prepare reform. The nobles were asked to form provincial committees to discuss the conditions for the liberation of the peasants.

On February 19, 1861, Alexander II signed the Manifesto prepared by the Main Committee for Peasant Affairs and the Regulations on peasants who had come out of serfdom. These documents stated that serfdom was abolished, and the former serfs were granted the rights of "free rural inhabitants." Peasants for the land allotments assigned to them had to serve a labor service or pay money to the landowner, that is, they were in the position of the so-called "temporarily liable". Upon the conclusion of agreements ("statutory charters"), the dependence of the peasants on the landowner was finally eliminated, and the treasury paid the landlords (in interest-bearing papers) the cost of their land, which had gone under the peasant allotments. After that, the peasants had to repay their debt to the state within 49 years with annual installments of "redemption payments". The redemption payments and all taxes were paid by the peasants jointly, "peace". Each peasant was "assigned" to his community and without the consent of the "world" could not leave it.

Administrative reform was started on January 1, 1864 by the signing by Alexander II of the Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions. In accordance with it, the zemstvos were all-class elective institutions. Elections in them were held once every 3 years on the basis of a property qualification for three curias - landowning, urban and rural peasant societies. Meetings of vowels elected the executive body - the zemstvo council.

Zemstvos were not allowed to resolve national issues, as well as to contacts with other zemstvos. Decisions of assemblies of vowels and zemstvo councils could be canceled by the governor.

In 1870 it was published City position, which introduced all-class local government in cities. Vowels of the city duma elected from their midst the mayor and members of the city council. The competence of self-government bodies in cities corresponded to the competence of zemstvo institutions in rural areas.

Judicial reform was started in 1864 and introduced a progressive order of justice. According to her, the Russian court was based on the principles of classlessness, equality of parties before the law, publicity, adversarial process, independence of judges. Two types of courts were introduced - global and general.

Justices of the peace were elected by the county zemstvo assembly and approved by the senate (the highest court). The competence of the magistrates' courts included the consideration of criminal and civil cases, the damage in which amounted to no more than 500 rubles.

General courts considered serious civil and criminal cases with the participation of jurors chosen by lot from local inhabitants of all classes. At the top of the judiciary was the senate, which could overturn the decisions of the courts.

A new word in the judicial system of Russia was also the introduction of the institution of the bar, which consisted of legal education- "sworn attorneys".

Start military reform was laid in 1857 by the abolition of military settlements. In 1874, a new Charter on military service was issued and universal military duty was introduced. A 6-year term of active service in the army was established; those who served were credited for 9 years in the reserve (in the fleet, respectively - 7 years and 3 years).

In accordance with the principles university reform In 1863, a new University Charter was issued, according to which professorial corporations received broad self-government. The council of each university elected all officials of the administration, as well as professors, to vacant positions.

Public Education Reform was an integral part of social change. According to the laws of 1864, the sphere of primary and secondary education was democratized. With network expansion educational institutions it became possible for children of all classes and religions to get an education, albeit for a rather high fee.

Print reform was carried out in 1862 and 1865. The Provisional Rules of 1865 abolished preliminary censorship of periodicals, leaving the administrative authorities the right to close the publication through the courts. During the years of the reform, the number of printing houses and the titles of literature published by them increased sharply.

Civil War

Some scientists believe that the chronological framework civil war are October 1917 - October 1922. Others believe that it is more correct to call the date of the beginning of the civil war 1917, and the end - 1923.

There is also no consensus on the causes of the civil war in Russia. But, among the most important reasons, scientists call:

Dispersal of the Constituent Assembly by the Bolsheviks;

The desire of the Bolsheviks who received power to keep it by any means;

Willingness of all participants to use violence as a way to resolve the conflict;

Signing in March 1918 of the Brest Peace with Germany;

The solution by the Bolsheviks of the most acute agrarian question contrary to the interests of large landowners;

Nationalization of real estate, banks, means of production;

The activities of food detachments in the villages, which led to an aggravation of relations between the new government and the peasantry.

Scientists distinguish 3 stages of the civil war. The first stage lasted from October 1917 to November 1918. This is the time when the Bolsheviks came to power. Since October 1917, individual armed clashes are gradually turning into full-scale military operations. It is characteristic that the beginning of the civil war of 1917 - 1922 unfolded against the backdrop of a larger military conflict - the First World War. This was the main reason for the Entente's subsequent intervention. It should be noted that each of the Entente countries had its own reasons for participating in the intervention. Thus, Turkey wanted to establish itself in the Transcaucasus, France - to extend its influence to the north of the Black Sea region, Germany - to the Kola Peninsula, Japan was interested in the Siberian territories. The aim of England and the United States was at the same time to expand their own spheres of influence and to prevent the rise of Germany.

The second stage dates back to November 1918 - March 1920. It was at this time that the decisive events of the civil war took place. In connection with the cessation of hostilities on the fronts of the First World War and the defeat of Germany, gradually fighting on the territory of Russia have lost intensity. But, at the same time, there was a turning point in favor of the Bolsheviks, who controlled most of the country's territory.

The final stage in the chronology of the civil war lasted from March 1920 to October 1922. Military operations of this period were carried out, mainly on the outskirts of Russia (Soviet-Polish war, military clashes in the Far East).

The end of the civil war was marked by the victory of the Bolsheviks. Historians call the broad support of the masses the most important reason for it. The situation was seriously affected by the fact that, weakened by the First World War, the Entente countries were unable to coordinate their actions and strike at the territory of the former Russian Empire with all their might.

The results of the civil war in Russia were horrendous. The country actually lay in ruins. Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Belarus, Western Ukraine, Bessarabia and part of Armenia withdrew from Russia. The level of production in the country fell sharply

India

Events in India were developing in the direction that had already taken shape before the war. In 1917, under pressure from the mass national-political movement, the Indian national congress the British government announced "preparations for the establishment of a responsible government in India", without mentioning the status of a dominion.

relations between the authorities and the people continually deteriorated. The bloodiest incident occurred in 1919 when troops opened fire on a crowd in Amritsar. The campaigns of non-violent resistance led by the Congress and the religious leader Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948) achieved the greatest effect. The protesters adopted the tactic of defiance of the authorities without physically resisting them. It proved so effective that it is still used today by demonstrators all over the world.

Internal turmoil

The situation was complicated by the growing mistrust between Hindus and Muslims, which in the 1920s. exploded in a series of armed skirmishes.

In the early 1930s Muslims for the first time demanded the creation of a separate Islamic state if India was granted independence.

The Government of India Act 1935, which gave local government to the Indian authorities. The Congress refused to make concessions to the Muslim League, which represented the interests of the Islamic community, and the gulf between them became even wider.

At midnight on August 14-15, 1947, India and Pakistan became independent states, remaining part of the British Commonwealth of Nations, as the old empire was now called.

Southeast Asia

The retreat of the British did not stop there, and Burma and Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) soon gained independence. in 1957 the formation of the Federation of Malaya followed in 1963.

In neighboring Vietnam, the communists led a nationwide war against imperialism. The French tried to return Indochina by force of arms, but were utterly defeated at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu (1954), and after their departure, the country was divided into a communist North and a pro-Western South. Being attacked by guerrillas operating with the blessing of the North, South Vietnam began to receive more and more extensive assistance from the United States. Thus began a terrible war that devastated Vietnam and inflicted heavy moral damage on America.

Africa

In Africa, with its backward economy and tribal strife, colonial rule could have lasted much longer.

In 1957, Kwame Nkrumah launched a massive Western-style strike and demonstration campaign that forced Britain to grant independence to the Gold Coast colony (today's Ghana). The last imperial illusions of the mother country were buried in 1956, when, during the Suez crisis, Britain and France tried to seize the Suez Canal, but were forced to leave Egypt under pressure from the United States.

In 1960, British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan announced his intention to withdraw from the Black Continent. By 1964, Nigeria, Tanganyika and Zanzibar, Uganda, Kenya, Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) and Nyasaland (Malawi) had gained independence. The same wind of change touched Jamaica and a number of other island colonies in the Caribbean.

France is losing ground

For France, the process of decolonization was much more painful. In 1956, she reluctantly gave up the protectorate over Tunisia and Morocco, but Algiers and other colonies remained part of the mother country. in 1954, an uprising of the local population broke out, it soon developed into something between a colonial rebellion and a civil war.

De Gaulle makes concessions

In 1958, a coup brought General de Gaulle to power. De Gaulle came to terms with Algerian independence and ended French colonial rule over vast areas south of the Sahara.

Reacting to the development of international events, Belgium, without any preparation, granted freedom to the Congo (Zaire) in 1960, because of which this large and densely populated country was immediately engulfed in a bloody and civil war.

And only one colonial power did not want to give up its positions. Portugal, which was ruled by a pro-fascist regime for a long time, tenaciously held on to its African colonies (Guinea, Angola, Mozambique), where the insurgency was also gaining strength. Only the victorious revolution of 1974 in the mother country brought independence to the Portuguese colonies.

South Africa

The processes of decolonization in southern Africa, as in Algeria, were complicated by the presence of large communities of white settlers. In Southern Rhodesia (since 1964, simply Rhodesia, since its northern neighbor became known as Zambia), the ruling white minority, in defiance of London, declared independence. Despite a severe trade embargo, Rhodesia held out until the collapse of the economy pushed it into new negotiations and transformation into a multinational Zimbabwe (1980).

The Republic of South Africa was an independent state ruled by a white minority. She also had her own colony - the former German possession of South-West Africa, transferred to her at one time under the mandate of the League of Nations and gained independence under the name of Namibia only in 1990, when radical changes took place in South Africa itself.

Production

Along with the traditional ways of improving production (mechanization, chemicalization, electrification), the latest areas of production are intensively developing, in which six main areas can be distinguished:

1. electronization;
2. integrated automation or the introduction of robotics and the creation of flexible production systems, automatic factories;
3. restructuring of the energy sector;
4. production of fundamentally new materials;
5. accelerated development of biotechnology;
6. cosmization and the emergence of the aerospace industry

the transition from conventional (paper) to machine (computer) information began.

Russia in the 90s

November 6, 1991 - Boris Yeltsin, by his decree, terminated the activities of the CPSU and Communist Party RSFSR.

1992-1993 - the resignation of the first government of Russia and the constitutional crisis.

1993 - dispersal of the Supreme Council of the Russian Federation.

1994-1996 - the first Chechen War.

August 31, 1996 - the Khasavyurt agreements are adopted. The withdrawal of federal troops from Chechnya begins.

1999-2000 - the second Chechen war

December 31, 1999 - Boris Nikolayevich Yeltsin, first president Russian Federation, retired. Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin has been appointed Acting President.

The collapse of the USSR

In short, the reasons for the collapse of the USSR are as follows:

The crisis provoked by the planned nature of the economy and led to a shortage of many consumer goods;

Unsuccessful, largely ill-conceived, reforms that led to a sharp deterioration in living standards;

Mass dissatisfaction of the population with interruptions in food supplies;

The ever-increasing gap in the standard of living between the citizens of the USSR and the citizens of the countries of the capitalist camp;

Aggravation of national contradictions;

Weakening of the central authority;

One of the first long-distance travelers was Afanasy Nikitin, who committed in the 60s of the XV century. travel from Russia (Tver) to India. His path at that time was unusually difficult. He had to endure a number of adventures and dangers. He lived in India for about three years.

On the way back, Afanasy Nikitin went through Persia, crossed the Black Sea and died on the way in Smolensk. Several notebooks were found in his travel bag, in which he kept travel notes. Subsequently, his recordings were published under the title "Journey Beyond the Three Seas". They contain interesting descriptions of his travels and the life of the people of India. Residents of the city of Kalinin (former Tver) erected a monument in memory of their compatriot (Fig. 3).

Finding a sea route to India

Western European merchants sold goods from India with great profit. Under India, people who knew little of geography understood the entire east of Asia, right up to China. For spices, pearls, ivory, fabrics brought from there, they paid in gold. There was little gold in Europe, and goods were very expensive. To the shores of the Mediterranean Sea from India they were delivered by intermediaries - Arab merchants. In the XV century, the Turks seized the lands in the east of the Mediterranean Sea - a huge Turkish Ottoman Empire arose. The Turks did not let trade caravans pass, often robbed them. We needed a convenient sea route from Europe to India, to the countries of the East. The Europeans took up the search for it - primarily the inhabitants of Portugal and Spain.

Portugal And Spain located in the south of Europe, Iberian peninsula. This peninsula is washed by both the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. For a long time it was under the rule of the Arabs. In the 15th century, the Arabs were expelled, and the Portuguese, pursuing them in Africa, began to sail off the coast of this continent.

Henry, Prince of Portugal, was nicknamed the Navigator. However, he did not swim anywhere. Heinrich organized sea expeditions, collected information about distant countries, looked for old maps, encouraged the creation of new ones, and founded a nautical school. The Portuguese learned how to build new ships - three-masted caravels. They were light, fast-moving, they could move under sail and with a side, and even with a headwind.

Expedition Bartolomeu Dias

Portuguese expeditions moved along the coast of Africa further and further south. In 1488, Bartolomeu Dias sailed to the southern end of Africa. Two of his ships fell into a cruel storm- a storm at sea. A strong wind drove the ships to the rocks. Despite the high waves, Diash turned from the shore into the open sea. For several days he sailed east, but the African coast was not visible. Dias realized that he had circled Africa and entered the Indian Ocean! The rock on which his ships almost crashed was the southern tip of Africa. Dias named her Cape Storms. When the sailors returned to Portugal, the king ordered that the Cape of Storms be renamed Cape of Good Hope, hopes to reach India by sea.

Voyage of Columbus

In the XV century. many sea expeditions were made. The most prominent of these is the Spanish expedition of Christopher Columbus. In 1492, members of the expedition on three ships sailed from the Iberian Peninsula to look for a sea route to India rich in gold and spices. Convinced of the sphericity of the Earth, Columbus believed that by sailing west across the Atlantic Ocean, one could reach the shores of Asia. After a two-month voyage, the ships approached the islands of Central America. Travelers discovered many new lands.

Columbus made three more trips to America, but until the end of his life he was sure that he had visited India, and the islands he discovered are known as the West Indies (West Indian); The indigenous people are called Indians.

In the 19th century one of the republics of South America became known as Colombia.

Journey of John Cabot

The news of the discoveries of new lands by Columbus quickly spread throughout Europe, reached England. This country lies on the British Isles, separated from Europe the English Channel. In 1497, British merchants equipped and sent to the west an expedition of John Cabot, an Italian who had settled in England. The small ship sailed across the Atlantic far north of Columbus' ships. On the way, the sailors encountered huge shoals of cod and herring. Until now, the North Atlantic is the most important area in the world for catching these types of fish. John Cabot discovered the island Newfoundland at North America. Portuguese navigators discovered the cold harsh peninsula labrador. So the Europeans, five hundred years after the Vikings, again saw the North American lands. They were inhabited - American Indians came ashore dressed in animal skins.

Journey of Amerigo Vespucci

All new expeditions went from Spain to the New World. In the hope of getting rich, finding gold, and becoming owners of new lands, Spanish nobles and soldiers went west. Together with them, priests and monks sailed - to convert the Indians to the Christian faith, to increase the wealth of the church. The Italian Amerigo Vespucci was a member of several Spanish and Portuguese expeditions. He compiled a description of the coast of South America. This area was covered with dense tropical forests, in which the brazil tree grew with valuable red wood. Later, they began to call all the Portuguese lands in South America and the huge country that arose on them - Brazil.

The Portuguese opened a convenient bay, where, as it seemed to them incorrectly, the mouth of a large river was located. It was in January, and the place was called Rio de Janeiro - "January River". Now here is the largest city in Brazil.

Amerigo Vespucci wrote to Europe that the newly discovered lands most likely have nothing to do with Asia and represent New World. On European maps compiled during the first voyages across the Atlantic, they are called the land of Amerigo. This name was gradually assigned to the two huge mothers of the New World - North America and South America.

John Cabot's expedition was funded by patron Richard America. There is a widespread belief that the metric was named after him, while Vespucci had already taken his name from the name of the continent.

Expeditions of Vasco da Gama

First expedition (1497-1499)

In 1497, a Portuguese expedition of four ships led by Vasco da Gama went to look for a way to India. The ships rounded the Cape of Good Hope, turned north and sailed along the unknown eastern berets of Africa. Unknown to the Europeans, but not to the Arabs, who had commercial and military settlements on the shores. Taking on board an Arab pilot - a sea guide, Vasco da Gama sailed with him across the Indian Ocean, and then across the Arabian Sea to India. The Portuguese reached its western shores and safely returned to their homeland in 1499 with a cargo of spices and jewelry. The sea route from Europe to India was opened. It was found that the Atlantic and Indian oceans are connected to each other, the coasts of Africa, the island of Madagascar, were mapped.

Discovery of the Pacific Ocean (Vasco Balboa)

First trip around the world (Magellan)

From 1519 to 1522 expedition Fernando Magellan made the first circumnavigation of the world. The crew of 265 people on 5 ships set off from Spain to South America. Having rounded it, the ships entered the ocean, which Magellan called the Pacific. Swimming continued in incredibly difficult conditions.

On the islands off the coast of Southeast Azin, Magellan intervened in the feuds of the local authorities and died in one of the clashes with the locals. Only in 1522, 18 people on one ship returned to their homeland.

Journey of Magellan greatest event 16th century The expedition, having gone west, returned back from the east. This journey established the existence of a single World Ocean; it had great importance for further development of knowledge about the Earth.

Second trip around the world (Drake)

The second circumnavigation of the world was made by an English pirate Francis Drake in 1577-1580. Drake was proud that, unlike Magellan, he managed not only to start, but also to complete the voyage himself. In the XVI-XVII centuries, pirates, among whom there were many English and French, robbed Spanish ships, hurrying from America to Europe with expensive cargo. Pirates sometimes shared part of the stolen wealth with the English kings, in exchange for rewards and patronage.

Drake's small ship, the Golden Hind, was blown south of the Strait of Magellan by a storm. The open sea lay before him. Drake realized that South America was over. Subsequently, the widest and deepest strait in the world between South America and Antarctica was named Drake Passage.

Having plundered the Spanish colonies on the Pacific coast of South and Central America, Drake was afraid to go back the old way, through the Strait of Magellan, where armed and angry Spaniards could wait for him. He decided to bypass North America from the north, and when this failed, he returned to England through the Pacific, Indian and Atlantic oceans, completely circumnavigating the globe.

The search for the southern mainland

Discovery of Oceania

The Portuguese sailed to India and to the spice islands around the African mainland. Spanish ships were looking for ways to Asia, sailing from the western coast of America. The sailors crossed the Pacific Ocean, discovering the islands along the way, which received the name of the islands Oceania. Navigators often kept their discoveries secret. Captain Torres discovered the strait between the island of New Guinea and south of Australia. Geographic discovery Torres Strait classified from the sailors of other countries by the Spanish authorities.

Discovery of Australia (Janszon)

Portuguese and Dutch sailors in the late 16th and early 17th centuries landed on the shores of northern and western Australia, replenishing their water and food supplies. At the same time, they did not think that they were setting foot on the coast of a new mainland. So, the Dutchman Janszon discovered the northern coast of Australia, but, knowing nothing about the Torres Strait, he believed that this was part of the island of New Guinea. In the 17th century, the small European country of Holland ( Netherlands), lying in Europe on the coast North Sea, became a strong maritime power. Dutch ships sailed across the Indian Ocean to sunda islands. Big Java island became the center of the Dutch colonies.

Discovering New Zealand (Abel Tasman)

Europeans persistently searched for the southern mainland, shown on the ancient map of Ptolemy. In 1642, the Dutch captain Abel Tasman was sent by the Governor of Java to search for the South Land. The sailor dared to woo the daughter of the governor, and he considered it best to send him on a dangerous voyage. Tasman sailed far south, discovered a large island south of Australia, which was later named Tasmania. He described the entire northern coast of Australia, the smallest continent of the Earth, first named New Holland. Tasman sailed along for the first time New Zealand, considering its shores to be the shores of the unknown southern mainland. The Dutch tried to keep these discoveries secret so that other countries would not seize the newly discovered lands.

Conquest of Siberia

The Dutch scientist Bernhardus Varenius in the 17th century in his work “General Geography” for the first time singled out geography from the system of knowledge about the Earth, dividing it into general and regional. Varenius summed up the scientific results of the Great geographical discoveries of the 15th-16th centuries, which laid the foundation for the modern view of the placement of continents and oceans on our planet. For the first time, he proposed to distinguish between five oceans: the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, North and South Arctic. Tell us about the journey of Afanasy Nikitin.

The era of great geographical discoveries lasted from the middle of the 15th to the middle of the 17th century. The main part in the expeditions was taken by Spanish and Portuguese navigators.

The main reasons for the great geographical discoveries are the search for new ways of trade and the development of navigation.

At that time, trade links between the East and Europe were destroyed as a result of the expanded Turkish domination. The Turks blocked the main trade route through Syria and Asia Minor. At the same time, reliable ships adapted for navigation in the open ocean were built at that time, which contributed not only to the search for new ways, but also to the discovery and seizure of lands located

Prince Henry at that time was considered the main organizer of Portuguese travels and assisted in the development of the Portuguese fleet. So in his time the Nautical School was organized. At the Geographical Research Institute, navigation methods and instruments were improved. The first globe in 1490 was created here.

The era of the greats was marked by the opening of the sea route to India. In 1497 Manuel the Happy organized an expedition. This was due to the too high cost of goods brought to Europe by land. The Portuguese expedition, consisting of three ships, was led by Vasco da Gama.

Having gone far enough, he turned east on the parallel of Cape Agulhas. After that, the ships went north along the East African coast to Mozambique. In the city of Mambasa, the Portuguese first came into contact with the Arab population. After that, Vasco da Gama's expedition crossed the Indian Ocean and reached the southern Indian port of Calicut.

The era of great geographical discoveries was also marked by Spanish expeditions. After the discovery of the New World in the 15th century, Spain began to show interest in the eastern states. However, the Spanish king, assessing the situation, sees that the Portuguese fleet closes the path to the African shores, and the caravan route to the East is under the control of Arab and Turkish merchants. proposes to the King of Spain that a western route be laid to India. Being an excellent cartographer and sharing the opinion of many of his contemporaries that the Earth is spherical, he is drafting a route to the west across the Atlantic Ocean.

Thus, the era of geographical discoveries was marked by the discoveries of Columbus. The lands he found were inhabited by settlers. Spanish colonies arose on the coast and islands of Central America.

Amerigo Vespucci contributed to the historical period called the Age of Discovery. Having made several expeditions on trading matters between 1499 and 1502, the navigator called the “Asia” discovered by Columbus the previously unknown vast land “New World”. Subsequently, this territory was called America. In turn, Amerigo Vespucci described the population and nature of open lands.

A very significant event in the history of discoveries is a round-the-world trip. Having transferred to the service of the Spanish king, the navigator suggested that he bypass America from the South and thus reach the shores of Asia.

His round-the-world expedition began in 1519. Five ships sailed across the Atlantic Ocean and headed along the southern coast of America in search of a strait to the Pacific Ocean ("South Sea"). The strait, later named Magellanic, was discovered after a long search and serious losses.

After Magellan approached the Indonesian islands, he concluded (which he wrote down in the ship's log) that he had returned to old light by going around the earth.

The era of the great geographical discoveries is the period of human history from the end of the 15th to the middle of the 17th centuries.
Conditionally divided into two parts:
Spanish-Portuguese discoveries the end of the 15th century and the entire 16th century, which include the discovery of America, the discovery of a sea route to India, Pacific expeditions, the first circumnavigation
Anglo-Dutch-Russian discoveries end of the 16th century to the middle of the 17th century, which includes English and French discoveries in North America, Dutch expeditions to the Indian and Pacific Oceans, Russian discoveries throughout North Asia

A geographical discovery is a visit by a representative of a civilized people to a new part of the earth previously unknown to cultural mankind or the establishment of a spatial connection between already known parts of the land.

Why did the era of great geographical discoveries begin?

• The growth of European cities in the 15th century
• Active development of trade
• Active development of crafts
• Depletion of European mines of precious metals - gold and silver
• The discovery of printing, which led to the spread of new technical sciences and knowledge of antiquity
• Distribution and improvement of firearms
• Discoveries in navigation, the advent of the compass and the astrolabe
• Advances in cartography
• The conquest of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks, which interrupted the economic and trade relations of Southern Europe with India and China

Geographic knowledge before the beginning of the Age of Discovery

In the Middle Ages, the Normans discovered Iceland and the shores of North America, the European travelers Marco Polo, Rubruk, Andre from Longjumeau, Veniamin Tudelsky, Afanasy Nikitin, Karpini and others established land connections with the countries of Far Asia and the Middle East, the southern and eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea were explored by the Arabs , shores of the Red Sea, western bergs indian ocean, identified roads linking Eastern Europe through Central Asia, the Caucasus, the Iranian Highlands - with India

Beginning of the Age of Discovery

The beginning of the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries can be considered the activities of the Portuguese navigators of the 15th century and the inspirer of their accomplishments, Prince Henry the Navigator (03/04/1394 - 11/13/1460)

At the beginning of the 15th century, the geographical science of Christians was in a deplorable state. The knowledge of the great scientists of antiquity has been lost. The impressions from traveling alone: ​​Marco Polo, Carpini, Rubruk - did not become public and contained many exaggerations. Geographers and cartographers in the manufacture of atlases and maps used rumors; discoveries made by chance were forgotten; lands found in the ocean were lost again. The same applied to the art of navigation. The skippers did not have maps, instruments, navigation knowledge, they were terribly afraid of the open sea, huddled close to the shores.

In 1415, Prince Henry became Grand Master of the Portuguese Order of Christ, a powerful and wealthy organization. With her funds, on the isthmus of Cape Sagres, Henry built a citadel, from where until the end of his days he organized sea expeditions to the west and south, created a navigator school, attracted the best mathematicians, astronomers from Arabs and Jews, collected information wherever and from where he could about distant countries and voyages , seas, winds and currents, bays, reefs, peoples and shores, began to build more advanced and larger ships. The captains went out to sea for them, not only inspired to search for new lands, but also well prepared theoretically.

Portuguese discoveries of the 15th century

• Madeira island
• Azores
• the entire west coast of Africa
• mouth of the Congo River
• Cape Verde
• Cape of Good Hope

The Cape of Good Hope, the southernmost point of Africa, was discovered by the expedition of Bartalomeu Dias in January 1488

Great geographical discoveries. Briefly

• 1492 —
• 1498 Vasco da Gama discovers a sea route to India around Africa
• 1499-1502 - Spanish discoveries in the New World
• 1497 John Cabot discovers Newfoundland and the Labrador Peninsula
• 1500 - discovery of the mouth of the Amazon by Vicente Pinson
• 1519-1522 - the first circumnavigation of Magellan, the discovery of the Strait of Magellan, Mariana, Philippine, Moluccas
• 1513 - Vasco Nunez de Balboa discovers the Pacific Ocean
• 1513 - Discovery of Florida and the Gulf Stream
• 1519-1553 - discoveries and conquests in South America by Cortes, Pizarro, Almagro, Orellana
• 1528-1543 - Spanish discoveries of the interior of North America
• 1596 - discovery of the island of Svalbard by Willem Barents
• 1526-1598 - Spanish discoveries of the Solomon, Caroline, Marquesas, Marshall Islands, New Guinea
• 1577-1580 - the second round-the-world voyage of the Englishman F. Drake, the discovery of the Drake Strait
• 1582 - Yermak's campaign in Siberia
• 1576-1585 - British search for a northwestern passage to India and discovery in the North Atlantic
• 1586-1629 - Russian campaigns in Siberia
• 1633-1649 - the discovery by Russian explorers of the East Siberian rivers to the Kolyma
• 1638-1648 - discovery by Russian explorers of Transbaikalia and Lake Baikal
• 1639-1640 - Ivan Moskvin's exploration of the coast of the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bOkhotsk
• The last quarter of the 16th - the first third of the 17th century - the development of the eastern shores of North America by the British and French
• 1603-1638 - French exploration of the interior of Canada, discovery of the Great Lakes
• 1606 - Independently from each other, the discovery of the northern coast of Australia by the Spaniard Kyros, the Dutchman Janson
• 1612-1632 - British discoveries of the northeast coast of North America
• 1616 - discovery of Cape Horn by Schouten and Le Mer
• 1642 Tasman discovers the island of Tasmania
• 1643 Tasman discovers New Zealand
• 1648 - opening of the Dezhnev Strait between America and Asia (Bering Strait)
• 1648 - Fyodor Popov discovers Kamchatka

Ships of the Age of Discovery

In the Middle Ages, the sides of the ships were sheathed with planks, with the top row of boards overlapping the bottom. This is a durable upholstery. but the ships become heavier from this, and the edges of the plating belts create unnecessary resistance to the hull. At the beginning of the 15th century, the French shipbuilder Julien proposed to sheathe ships end-to-end. The boards were riveted to the frames with copper stainless rivets. The joints were glued with resin. This sheathing was called "caravel", and the ships began to be called caravels. Caravels, the main ships of the Age of Discovery, were built at all shipyards in the world for another two hundred years after the death of their designer.

At the beginning of the 17th century, the flute was invented in Holland. "Fliite" in Dutch means "flowing, flowing". These ships could not be overwhelmed by any of the largest shafts. They, like corks, took off on a wave. The upper parts of the sides of the flute were bent inward, the masts were very high: one and a half times the length of the hull, the yards were short, the sails were narrow and easy to maintain, which made it possible to reduce the number of sailors in the crew. And, most importantly, the flutes were four times longer than wide, which made them very fast. In flutes, the sides were also installed end-to-end, the masts were made up of several elements. Flutes were much more capacious than caravels. From 1600 to 1660, 15,000 flutes were built and plowed the oceans, replacing caravels

Mariners of the Age of Discovery

• Alvise Cadamosto (Portugal, Venice, 1432-1488) - Cape Verde Islands
• Diego Can (Portugal, 1440 - 1486) - West coast of Africa
• Bartalomeu Dias (Portugal, 1450-1500) - Cape of Good Hope
• Vasco da Gama (Portugal, 1460-1524) - the way to India around Africa
• Pedro Cabral (Portugal, 1467-1526) - Brazil
• Christopher Columbus (Genoa, Spain, 1451-1506) - America
• Nunez de Balboa (Spain, 1475-1519) - Pacific Ocean
• Francisco de Orellana (Spain, 1511-1546) - Amazon River
• Fernando Magellan (Portugal, Spain (1480-1521) - first circumnavigation of the world
• John Cabot (Genoa, England, 1450-1498) - Labrador, Newfoundland
• Jean Cartier (France, 1491-1557) east coast of Canada
• Martin Frobisher (England, 1535-1594) - polar seas of Canada
• Alvaro Mendanya (Spain, 1541-1595) - Solomon Islands
• Pedro de Quiros (Spain, 1565-1614) - Tuamotu archipelago, New Hybrids
• Luis de Torres (Spain, 1560-1614) - the island of New Guinea, the strait that separates this island from Australia
• Francis Drake (England, 1540-1596) - second circumnavigation of the world
• Willem Barents (Netherlands, 1550-1597) - the first polar navigator
• Henry Hudson (England, 1550-1611), explorer of the North Atlantic
• Willem Schouten (Holland, 1567-1625) - Cape Horn
• Abel Tasman (Holland, 1603-1659) - Tasmania, New Zealand
• Willem Janszon (Holland, 1570-1632) - Australia
• Semyon Dezhnev (Russia, 1605-1673) - the Kolyma River, the strait between Asia and America

People of the Renaissance type were distinguished by their willingness to take on the most difficult tasks. For Europeans, with the fall of Byzantium in 1453, the problem arose of finding new routes to the East, to China and India, since the direct road was blocked by the Turks.

The Europeans began to look for a sea route. This became possible with the advent of the compass in Europe, the creation of new sails that made it possible to tack and sail against the wind. The creation of mechanical clocks was of great importance, which influenced everyday life, the organization of production, scientific experiments and observations, made it possible to navigate in time and appreciate it.

In 1492, Christopher Columbus, a Genoese in the Spanish service, based on his calculations of the "wind rose" (the prevailing wind direction) at different times of the year, with the support of Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon on the Santa Maria, Pinta and Nina caravels "reached the shores of America and returned back.

The name of Columbus is one of the countries of Latin America - the Republic of Colombia. Columbus erected a number of monuments. On the occasion of the 500th anniversary of the discovery of America, a television series was filmed about the life of the great pioneer. Many historians consider the discovery of America the beginning of a new era in the history of mankind and, rounding off, count back to 1500 and after 1500. The expression "discover America" ​​is ironically widely used in everyday speech. The essence of the irony is that in its significance any other discovery is inferior to the accomplishment of Columbus.

In the shadow of Christopher Columbus is another navigator, the chief navigator of Spain, Amerigo Vespucci. He jointly A. Ojeda discovered (1499-1500) 1600 km of the northern and 200 km of the eastern coast of South America, the Gulf of Venezuela and a number of the Lesser Antilles. He independently discovered and mapped the Amazon Delta, the Guiana Current, the northern shores of South America (1500 km) and the Brazilian Highlands. A. Vespucci suggested calling the southern transatlantic continent the New World. Ho Lorraine cartographer M. Waldseemuller in 1507 named the mainland America in honor of Vespucci, and in 1538 this name was extended to North America.

CHRISTOPHER COLUMB (1451-1506), navigator. Led four Spanish expeditions to find the shortest route to India (1492-1493, 1493-1496, 1498-1500, 1502-1504). The official date of the discovery of America is October 12, 1492, when the ships of Columbus reached Samana Island (Bahamas). Columbus discovered the Sargasso and Caribbean Seas, all the Greater Antilles, several Lesser Antilles and the Bahamas, a small (150 km) section of the South and part (1700 km) of the coast of Central America.

In 1519, the Portuguese Magellan, on behalf of the Spanish king, made the first circumnavigation of the world. He discovered the strait separating the mainland of South America from Tierra del Fuego, called the Strait of Magellan. He crossed the Pacific Ocean, reached the Philippine Islands, where he died in battle with the natives. In September 1522, 16 travelers out of 234 returned to Spain. The next trip around the world in 1577-1580. made by the Englishman Francis Drake, who began as a successful pirate. He received from the queen one thousand pounds sterling and full freedom of action (carte blanche), including the robbery of oncoming ships. During his journey, he discovered a strait 460 kilometers long and 1,120 kilometers wide between the Tierra del Fuego archipelago and the South Shetland Islands, connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans and named after him. The Queen received £600,000 of looted treasure (two annual treasury incomes). Francis Drake himself can serve as a symbol of a new era. He died a Vice Admiral, Member of Parliament, Knight and national hero, since in 1588 he actually commanded the English fleet, which defeated the Spanish "Invincible Armada". B 1597-1598 The Portuguese Vasco da Gama circled Africa from the south (Cape of Good Hope) and reached India. B 18th century Australia was discovered.

The great geographical discoveries to a great extent stimulated the development of capitalist relations, the processes of initial capitalist accumulation, the formation of a single world economy.

The result of the influx of huge amounts of gold and silver from the newly discovered territories was only at first the strengthening of the states that equipped the pioneers. Soon Europe was struck by a "price revolution", or rather their growth in most industrial and food products. This, in turn, led to the ruin of social strata with fixed incomes that did not have the resources to maneuver.

The impoverishment of nobles, peasants, artisans was accompanied by the enrichment of industrialists, owners of manufactories and merchants.

The great geographical discoveries stimulated the development of commodity-money relations. In European states, credit is being developed, the monetary system is being transformed (trade in securities is emerging), commodity and stock exchanges are being created, and merchant and usurer's capital is developing.

An important source of accumulation of funds is the expansion of the scale of forced labor. In England, due to the growing demand for wool, the oppression of the peasantry continued. The peasants were deprived of land, which was fenced off for grazing sheep. The peasants were left without a livelihood, sold their labor for food or perished. The statesman and philosopher Thomas Mopy owns the words that "sheep eat people." By the middle of the XVIII century. the peasantry as a class disappeared in England. Against ruined, unfortunate people in 1547, the "Statute against vagabonds and beggars" was adopted. For the theft of a thing that cost as much as a pig, the death penalty was due by hanging. People who avoided work were flogged and shackled. For repeated unauthorized departure from work, they were turned into life-long slaves and branded. According to some reports, under Henry VIII (ruled 1509-1547) 72 thousand people were executed, and during the reign of his daughter Elizabeth I (ruled 1558-1603) over 89 thousand people. For the third attempt to leave the place of forced labor, they were executed as state criminals. Ruined peasants and artisans joined the growing ranks of the English working class.

Even worse was the situation of the population in the colonies. The Spaniards and the Portuguese ruled in Central America. In 1607, the first colony in North America, Virginia, was founded. Not only colonists went to new lands, but black slaves were also exported. In 1517, Emperor Charles V officially approved human trafficking. In 1562, the British began to trade in slaves in America. From the middle of the XVII century. The slave trade reached a terrifying scale. According to historians, in the XV-XIX centuries. Slave traders took 80 million people out of Africa. The fact is that the Indians perished en masse at the hands of the conquerors both in armed conflicts and in hard work, for which they were physically insufficiently prepared. Christian morality was quite reconciled to the extermination of millions of Indians and the exportation of millions of Africans to work in the American possessions of European monopolies. The plunder of native territories, destruction and the most cruel exploitation, the sweat and blood of the colonies were important sources of the primitive accumulation of capital, the progress of European states.

European countries in their colonies conducted a similar economic policy. Spain, Portugal, Holland, France, England initially transferred time-tested feudal structures to their colonial possessions. Plantation farms were created in the colonies. They worked for the external market, but with the use of semi-slave labor of the native population.

The economically growing bourgeoisie needed a strong state that could provide for the diverse interests of rich people. This type of state becomes an absolute monarchy. The monarchs, through a system of taxation and loans, supported the development of manufactory production, especially related to meeting the needs of the army and the court. The transfer of the rights to collect state taxes to private individuals (farming system) is becoming widespread, which has led to the emergence of financiers. Trading companies needed diplomatic, military and financial support. So, in England in the middle of the XVI century. Russian (Moscow), Eastern, Levantine, Guinean, East Indian and other leaders of trade and colonial expansion arose. The help of the state was required by the owners of manufactories in maintaining order in production, in providing enterprises with cheap labor.

B XVI century. in relation to Europe, one can speak of several large forces that had independent interests. These are: the weakening feudal class; rapidly growing bourgeoisie; masses of ordinary workers and the Catholic Church. It would not be an exaggeration to say that in the context of significant socio-economic changes, the latter caused general irritation.