The essence of the modeling method. Economic and mathematical methods and models: concept, types and essence Essence and content of the concept of method

Answers to the questions of the test in the discipline "Methodology and methodology of scientific research"

1. Formulate the definitions of the concept of "Methodology" in the broad and narrow sense of the word, the function of methodology.

Methodology is the doctrine of the structure, logical organization, methods and means of activity.

Methodology in this broad sense forms a necessary component of any activity, since the latter becomes the subject of awareness, learning and rationalization.

2. List and describe the methodological principles.

1. System principle.

Essence: relatively independent components are considered as a set of interrelated components: the goals of education, the subjects of the pedagogical process: the teacher and the student, the content of education, methods, forms, means of the pedagogical process. The task of the educator: taking into account the interconnection of the components.

The system principle focuses on the allocation of pedagogical system and developing personality, first of all, integrative invariant system-forming connections and relations; on the study and formation of what is stable in the system, and what is variable, what is main and what is secondary. It involves clarifying the contribution of individual components-processes to the development of the individual as a systemic whole.

2. Activity principle.

Essence: activity is the basis, means and condition for the development of the personality, it is an expedient transformation of the model of the surrounding reality.

3. Individual principle

1) identify its real problems and ways to resolve them;

2) analyze the total amount of educational problems and establish their order of significance (hierarchy);

3) to implement the humanistic paradigm of education.

3. Reveal the specifics of scientific knowledge and its main differences from spontaneous empirical.

There are two types of knowledge: ordinary (spontaneous - empirical) and scientific. Spontaneous-empirical cognition does not have special means of cognition, but there are material means of such cognition. Empirical and theoretical levels of scientific knowledge are two ways of spiritual mastering of the surrounding world by a person. The empirical level consists of knowledge obtained mainly from experience. It is the most important stimulator for the development of theoretical research and the formulation of scientific problems. Empirical knowledge, on the one hand, relies on previous theoretical knowledge, which determines the direction of research.

On the other hand, in the course of empirical research, facts arise that do not fit within the framework of existing theories and even contradict them. Objectively emerging "problem situations" require their resolution, the transition from empiricism to theory. And such a transition is essentially a dialectical leap, it is an ascent from appearance to essence.

4. List the main components of the scientific research apparatus and give a brief meaningful description of each of them.

Relevance of the research topic. Defined and described based on:

compliance with its state and regional order - those ideas and provisions that are laid down in legislative acts and recommendations developed by public authorities, including regional ones;

the degree of its development in science, primarily domestic, including scientists of their own university; the state of practical implementation and the practical need to resolve issues that define the topic.

Contradiction. The contradiction of the study is revealed when analyzing the relevance of the topic. Any phenomenon in the social sphere consists of unevenly developing components.

Research problem. Contradiction- this is a research operation, consisting in identifying broken links between the elements of any social system or process, ensuring their development in their unity.

Purpose of the study. The purpose of the study is to find an answer to the question that is asked in the designated problem.

Object of study. The object of study is a scientific or practical space within which the study is conducted.

Subject of study. The subject of research is that part of the object of research that is subject to special study and, possibly, transformation.

Research hypothesis. A hypothesis is an assumption about ways to achieve the goal of transforming the subject of research, creating conditions for its development and improvement.

Research objectives. Research objectives are set after the development of the hypothesis.

Methodological basis of the study. This is the scientific basis on which it is built. As such, teachings, theoretical approaches, principles can be used. The research methodology determines its nature, conceptuality. An integral part of the methodology is the definition of the theoretical basis of the study.

Research stages. The stages of the study determine the sequence of execution of the entire study.

Scientific novelty of the research. The definition of the scientific novelty of the research is carried out on the basis of the originality of the research and its difference from the well-known studies that were conducted on a similar problem earlier.

The practical significance of the study. This is an opportunity to use it in the practice of a social institution, as well as to continue the study. At the same time, the practical significance is determined, first of all, of the new that the researcher has introduced.

5. Criteria for evaluating the results of scientific research: objectivity, meaningfulness, relevance, consistency, consistency, significance for science and society.

6. Expand the essence of the concept of "method" in the broad and narrow sense of the word. Define the term "scientific method".

Method (in a broad sense) is a way of cognition based on a certain set of previously obtained general knowledge (principles).

Method (from the Greek methodos - the path of research or cognition, theory, teaching), a set of techniques or operations for the practical or theoretical development of reality, subordinate to the solution of a specific problem.

7. Give an essential characteristic of such survey methods as questionnaires, interviews, testing, expert surveys and sociometry.

Questioning - a means of obtaining information for social surveys, used in sociological, socio-psychological, economic, demographic research. With A., each person from the group selected for the survey must answer the questions of the questionnaire. Questions are open (a free answer is given) and closed (the answer consists in choosing from several statements proposed in the questionnaire), as well as objective (about education, age, wages, etc.) and subjective (about attitude to living conditions or certain events and individuals). The survey is usually conducted anonymously.

Interviewing, a method of conducting sociological surveys as a purposeful conversation between the interviewer and the respondent. Interviews are divided into two classes - free (deep, clinical, focused) and standardized (formalized). An open interview has the character of a long, relaxed conversation in which the interviewer's questions are determined by the ultimate goal of the study. An open interview is often the initial stage in the development of a standardized interview or questionnaire (see Questionnaire), checking the acceptability of questions, the information capacity of the answers, and the interviewer acts as a researcher.

A standardized interview is identical in form to a questionnaire, but the content and form of questions are significantly affected by the specifics of receiving answers - "face to face" with the interviewer. Questionnaires are less expensive than standardized interviews, but the sociologist is forced to resort to the latter in cases where the survey is of great importance and there is doubt that all questions will be correctly understood (for example, censuses in some areas are carried out using standardized interviews). ).

The difference between an interview and other methods of collecting empirical social information - the active mutual influence of the interviewer and the respondent - significantly reduces the reliability of the interview results compared to an anonymous questionnaire. Often, the interviewee is guided by his own prejudices when answering (for example, against the age or appearance of the interviewer, etc.). Therefore, the interview is the most sophisticated method of social research and is considered more of an "art" than a standard technique.

Testing (in developmental psychology) is a method of psychological diagnostics that uses standardized questions and tasks (tests) that have a certain scale of values. Applicable for standardized measurement individual differences. There are three main areas of testing: a) education - due to the increase in the duration of training and the complication of curricula; b) vocational training and selection - in connection with the increase in the growth rate and the complexity of production; c) psychological counseling - in connection with the acceleration of sociodynamic processes. Testing allows, with a known probability, to determine the current level of development of the individual's necessary skills, knowledge, personal characteristics, etc.

Expert Poll - a type of survey in which the respondents are experts - highly qualified specialists in a particular field of activity. The peculiarity of the method is that it involves the competent participation of experts in the analysis and solution of the problems under study.

Sociometry - (from lat. societas - society and metrics), a branch of social psychology that studies interpersonal relationships, focusing primarily on their quantitative measurement. Denotes a specific set of interpersonal research methods used in the study of small groups in order to improve leadership, as well as for therapeutic purposes.

8. Describe the features of applying the methods of scientific literature, archival data. What information about the literary sources used should be recorded by the researcher?

Features of the application of methods of scientific literature and archival data are: in the selection of scientific literature on the subject, analysis of a scientific source,

The researcher should record the following data: the name of the source, the type of source, the author of the literary source, the year of publication, the city of publication, the publisher.

9. Requirements for the development of a research questionnaire. List the main options for constructing questions for the questionnaire and describe them.

The requirements are as follows: the relevance of the survey subject, the logic of the questions, the use of an accessible language for writing the questionnaire.

Basic principles for constructing questions for the questionnaire:

First principle: Taking into account the characteristics of the respondent's perception of the text of the questionnaire is the guiding principle from which all other requirements for its construction follow.

Second principle: indispensable consideration of the specifics of culture and practical experience of the interviewed audience. These are the requirements for overall structure questionnaire sheet. For example, when interviewing workers, it is hardly reasonable to explain at length the scientific goals of the work being done. It is better to emphasize its practical significance. When interviewing experts, one should indicate both the practical and scientific goals of the study.

Third principle : follows from the fact that the same questions, located in different sequences, will give different information. For example, if you first raise the question about the level of satisfaction with some activity and its conditions (labor, life, etc.), and then questions to assess the particular characteristics of the activity (satisfaction with the content of work, earnings, consumer services, etc.), then general assessments will influence private ones, reducing (or, conversely, raising) them, regardless of the specifics of one or another aspect of the general situation.

In this case, private questions should be put first, generalizing - at the end of the corresponding "block", prefaced by the phrase: "And now we ask you to evaluate, in general, to what extent you are satisfied with ... something," etc. Evaluation of particular conditions work, life, etc. precedes the general one, makes the respondent take a more responsible approach to the final assessment, helps to understand their own moods.

Fourth principle :- semantic "blocks" of the questionnaire should be approximately the same size. The dominance of some "block" inevitably affects the quality of answers in other semantic "blocks". For example, in a questionnaire about lifestyle, asking in detail about working conditions, and then giving 2–3 questions to living conditions, we deliberately make it clear to the respondent that the first is more important, and thereby put pressure on him. Researchers who disagree with this position will probably unintentionally lower their ratings in the "work" block, and at the same time, in other aspects of the survey topics.

Fifth principle : concerns the distribution of questions according to their degree of difficulty. The first questions should be simpler, then more difficult ones (preferably event-based, not evaluative), then even more difficult (motivational), then the decline (again event-based, factual) and at the end - the most difficult questions (one or two), after what is the final "passport".

10. The essence and role of the experimental method in scientific research. Justify the most important conditions for the effectiveness of its implementation. Describe the stages of the experiment.

Among the many methods used by modern science, experiment, which has become the most effective means of cognition in the hands of scientists, is of particular importance. Since science is one of the most dynamic parts of human culture, the means of cognition change along with it. Methodology, as a kind of exploratory science, must track these changes and predict them to a certain extent. Of particular importance in this regard is the study of the experiment, whose role in scientific knowledge is undoubtedly very great and constantly increasing.

The difficulty lies in the fact that the experiment as a method of science is at the center of the intersection of practical and cognitive activities, includes signs of sensory and rational, empirical and theoretical, objective and subjective. In other words, the experiment integrally contains the signs of various aspects of cognitive activity and, precisely this, determines the complexity of its nature, the difficulty of definition. Although it has common features with practice, it is not reduced to it at all, since it still serves as a method of cognition, it has epistemological features; having common features with observation, it does not exclude operations of a logical nature, which brings it closer to the forms of theoretical activity, but not so much that it would completely dissolve in them and lose its empirical basis. Thus, the essence of the experiment lies in the fact that it combines the methods of practical, sensual and rational knowledge. Therefore, a complex system of interactions takes place in the cognitive cycle. At the same time, the elements of the cognition process are affected by environment, and the researcher also of the various components of society. The analysis of these aspects allows us to reveal the nature of the experiment - the scientific method.

The experiment can be conditionally divided into three stages: preparatory, organizational, final.

The preparatory stage includes the planning of the experiment. The purpose of the experiment is determined. Objects are selected as experimental and control groups. The subject of research is highlighted. The duration of the experiment is determined, specific methods are thought out (questionnaires, interviews), control, factorial and neutral signs are established, by which one can judge the changes that have occurred in the object. Methods for controlling the course of the experiment are selected, forms for fixing the results, methods for processing them are determined. Approbation is organized on a small number of subjects, and, if necessary, adjustments are made.

The stage of the experiment includes the study of the initial state of the entire system, for this it is necessary to make a control cut. At this stage, it is necessary to identify the conditions and specifics of the experimental work, to instruct the participants, if any. It is necessary to think over and implement the recording of data on the course of the experiment, that is, the form of registration of intermediate sections.

Based on the results of the first ascertaining section, the control and experimental classes are selected. If the hypothesis put forward is proved, we can talk about the effectiveness of the proposed teaching methods.

Control

The stage of summing up the results of the experimental work consists in describing the results, characterizing the conditions under which favorable results were obtained, describing the characteristics of the experimental teachers, estimating the time spent, and indicating the limits of application of the system of measures tested during the experiment. In conclusion, it is necessary to move from empirical study to theoretical processing of the material, because facts are always a consequence of causes, and these causes are established on the basis of facts. The processing of the material is done by calculating statistics to test hypotheses, after which it is necessary to interpret the results.

11. Justify the essence and specifics of theoretical knowledge. List its main forms.

Considering theoretical knowledge as its highest and most developed form, one should first of all determine its structural components. Among the main ones are the problem, hypothesis and theory, which at the same time act as forms, "key points" of the construction and development of knowledge at its theoretical level.

A special place in the methodology of science is occupied by methods for constructing and substantiating a theory. Among them, an important place is occupied by the explanation of the use of more specific, in particular, empirical knowledge to understand more general knowledge. The explanation can be: a) structural, for example, how the motor works; b) functional: how the motor works; c) causal: why and how it works.

In constructing a theory of complex objects, an important role is played by the method of ascent from the abstract to the concrete. At the initial stage, cognition proceeds from the real, objective, concrete to the development of abstractions that reflect certain aspects of the object being studied. After that, the next task is to reproduce the object, its integral picture in the system of concepts, based on the abstract definitions developed at the first stage, i.e. move from the abstract to the concrete, but already reproduced in thinking, or to the spiritually concrete. At the same time, the very construction of a theory can be carried out either by logical or historical methods, which are closely related to each other.

12. Formulate the definition of such categories of theoretical knowledge as "thinking", "mind", "concept", "judgment", "inference", "intuition".

Thinking is the highest cognitive process, the activity of transforming reality, creating a new one, changing existing conditions.

The concept is the unity of essential properties, connections and relations of objects or phenomena reflected in thinking; a thought or a system of thoughts that singles out and generalizes objects of a certain class according to certain general and, in the aggregate, specific features for them.

A judgment is a more complex form of thinking than a concept.

Inference is the third (after concept and judgment) form of thinking, in which from one, or two, or several judgments, called premises, a new judgment, called conclusion, or conclusion follows.

Intuition is the ability to comprehend the truth by direct observation of it without substantiation with the help of evidence.

13. What are the basic requirements that any scientific theory must meet? What functions are implemented with its help?

Requirements for scientific theory: accessibility, relevance, content, validity, purposefulness.

There are various functions of scientific theory, but the two most commonly pointed to are: explanation and prediction. They are also the most studied in their logical aspects. Before proceeding to a review of the functions of scientific theory, we note that theory plays a complex role in scientific knowledge, performing many functions at once. They are diverse and important, although not all of them are as bright as explanation and prediction. In addition, the functions themselves can be summed up under different grounds, i.e. they are in some sense heterogeneous. We single out four groups of theory functions. The first of them will be the functions corresponding to those specific cognitive actions that can be performed with the help of scientific theory. These functions are analogous to the various kinds of hypotheses listed and detailed in the previous paragraph; this group can be called a group of concrete cognitive functions.

The first group of functions includes:

1) interpretation;

2) descriptive;

3) systematizing (generalizing);

4) explanatory;

5) prognostic (predictive).

14. Expand the features of the use of general scientific logical methods in scientific research.

The logical method is a way of studying the essence and content of natural and social objects, based on the study of patterns and the disclosure of objective laws on which this essence is based.

Among the general scientific logical methods that have found wide application in theoretical research, one should single out the methods of theoretical analysis and synthesis, abstraction and concretization, induction and deduction, modeling, and others. Each of these methods has been described by us earlier.

Due to the fact that general scientific logical methods of prior knowledge are used in any research, regardless of whether it is carried out at the theoretical or empirical level, it is necessary to reveal their essence in more detail. These include methods of analysis, synthesis, abstraction, idealization, generalization, induction, deduction and analogy.

15. What is meant by modeling in scientific research? Is a thought experiment a special kind of scientific simulation. Define the term "model".

Modeling in scientific research is such a method of scientific research that allows you to highlight a certain structure of the study. Modeling is the main method of theoretical research. At the first stage of theoretical research, a new basis is built or the existing basis is expanded, that is, an ideal object is described - a model of reality. At the second stage, mental or mathematical simulation is carried out to study the patterns of functioning and development of the model, proof of the adequacy of the behavior of the model to a real object. At the third stage, the theory or discovered patterns are used to construct, design, apply new knowledge in practice.

16. For what purposes are comparative historical methods used in scientific research? Give them a description.

The comparative historical method is a scientific method by which, by means of comparison, the general and particular in historical phenomena are revealed, knowledge of the various historical stages of development of one and the same phenomenon or two different coexisting phenomena is achieved. Within the framework of scientific research, the comparative historical method is used to analyze historical data on a specific issue, comparing history on a specific issue in order to identify patterns, changes, progressive or regressive development of a specific problem.

17. What is the essence of quantitative measurements in scientific research.

The essence of quantitative measurements in scientific research is the analysis of statistics, analysis of the data obtained, the ratio of positive and negative factors chosen research topic.

19. What should be taken into account when determining the topic, object, subject, goal, objectives and hypothesis of the study?

The topic is determined based on their own scientific interests.

The object of research - in science, it means the main field of application of the forces of scientists. In one science (scientific direction), however, there may be several objects of research that constitute a logically connected essence and purpose of research in this science (scientific direction). The object of research is selected based on the subject of scientific research, namely the object to which the scientific work is directed.

The subject of research is that side, that aspect, that point of view, “projection”, from which the researcher cognizes an integral object, while highlighting the main, most significant (from the researcher’s point of view) features of the object. One and the same object can be the subject of different studies or even entire scientific directions.

The purpose of the study focuses on the final result, theoretical-cognitive and practical-applied, the tasks formulate questions that must be answered in order to achieve the goals of the study.

The goals and objectives of the study form interrelated chains, in which each link serves as a means of holding other links.

A scientific hypothesis is a statement containing an assumption regarding the solution of the problem facing the researcher. A hypothesis is a scientific assumption, an assumption whose true value is uncertain. By formulating a hypothesis, the researcher builds an assumption about how he intends to achieve the goal. In the process of research, the hypothesis is corrected, undergoes changes. The hypothesis must naturally arise in the process of investigation, it may be an assumption that is only partially true. The hypothesis is based on exact knowledge of the final results and therefore loses its meaning.

20. Formulate the definition of the concept of "research methodology". Justify the position that the methodology of scientific research is always specific and unique.

Research methodology

+ - this is a method of research in which the main methods are determined and scientific methods are applied to fully disclose the selected issue. The methodology of scientific research is always specific, because in order to develop and analyze a topic, it is worth using specific methods. The uniqueness of the methodology of scientific research lies in its diversity and different approaches to each research work.

21. What is meant by the systematization of research results? What procedure underlies their interpretation? What is the purpose of approbation of the results of scientific work?

The research stage of the scientific process ends with systematized results, including the proof of hypotheses, conclusions and recommendations, scientific experiments, adjustment of initial proposals, literary presentation of the study.

The procedure underlying the interpretation of the systematization of the results of the study is a generalization. Approbation of the results of scientific work is carried out for their implementation in science, educational activities and further scientific and practical research.

22 . What stages does the process of implementing research results into practice consider?

One of the most common ways of V. the results of scientific research in design is the approval and publication normative documents, guidelines, instructions, manuals, etc.

The results of theoretical and experimental research can also be implemented by publishing them in the form of monographs, scientific reports and articles in special journals, which can be used both in design and in further scientific research. Great importance also has the creation of instruments for experiment, research, the publication of reviews and reports on the current state and prospects for development.

1. Initial (implementation of the results of the study)

2.Basic (analysis of the received data in the process)

3. Final (summing up).

23 List the requirements that apply to the content, logic and methodology of presenting research material in a scientific work. What are the main parts of a scientific work?

The relevance of the chosen topic, the completeness and consistency of the disclosure of the topic, the theoretical validity of the conclusions and proposals, the ability to analyze and compare different points of view on the research problem, the specificity, clarity, consistency, argumentation of the presentation of the material.

The scientific work consists of an introduction, main part (chapter or paragraphs), conclusion, list of references and conclusion.

24. What is the scientific integrity and ethics of a scientist? What role does the art of communication play in the activity of a researcher? Reveal the main components of his culture of behavior.

Scientific ethics - in modern science, this is a set of officially published rules, the violation of which leads to administrative proceedings.

A scientist must follow the principles of scientific ethics in order to successfully engage in scientific research. In science, the principle is proclaimed as an ideal that in the face of truth all researchers are equal, that no past merit is taken into account when it comes to scientific evidence. An equally important principle is the requirement of scientific honesty in the presentation of research results. A scientist can make mistakes, but has no right to manipulate the results, he can repeat a discovery already made, but has no right to plagiarize. References as a prerequisite for the design of a scientific monograph and article are designed to fix the authorship of certain ideas and scientific texts, and provide a clear selection of what is already known in science and new results. There are detailed rules about what conditions the co-authors of a scientific article must meet.

The success of the activity of a teacher-researcher largely depends on the style of professional communication, that is, the individual typological features of his interaction with respondents, is determined by communication capabilities, his creative individuality, the level of development of personality traits that provides contact with them, allowing you to reveal people, make their world accessible. for science, to obtain objective data in the study of subjective phenomena.

Among these qualities, the sociability of the researcher occupies a special place. There are people who in themselves act as a stabilizer of trusting, meaningful and frank communication. It is precisely such that researchers of a social, pedagogical, psychological orientation should be. And if an enthusiastic scientist is often presented as a kind of hermit, a closed person who has withdrawn into himself, then a teacher-researcher, in the presence of such personality traits, will at best be able to engage in self-observation, he will not be able to fruitfully, effectively influence the subject of research, to obtain objective and reliable data.

Modeling is a method of knowledge, consisting in the creation and study of models

Each object has a large number of various properties. In the process of building a model, the main, most significant, properties are distinguished. Thus, a model of an airplane must have a geometric similarity to the original, a model of an atom must correctly reflect physical interactions, an architectural model of a city must be a landscape, and so on. A model is a new object that reflects the essential features of the object, phenomenon or process being studied.

Objectives of modeling.

1. understand the essence of the object under study,

2. learn to control the object and determine best ways management,

3. predict direct or indirect consequences,

4. solve applied problems.

Different sciences explore objects and processes from different angles and build Various types models. In physics, the processes of interaction and movement of objects are studied, in chemistry - their internal structure, in biology - the behavior of living organisms, etc.

Let us take as an example a person, in various sciences he is studied within the framework of various models. Within the framework of mechanics, it can be considered as a material point, in chemistry - as an object consisting of various chemical substances, in biology - as a system striving for self-preservation, etc.

On the other hand, different objects can be described by the same model.

So, in mechanics, various material bodies (from a planet to a grain of sand) can be considered as material points.

One and the same object can have many models, and different objects can be described by one model.

The consideration of material models as instruments of experimental activity raises the need to find out how those experiments in which models are used differ from those where they are not used. The transformation of experiment into one of the main forms of practice, which took place in parallel with the development of science, has become a fact since the widespread use of natural science in production became possible, which in turn was the result of the first industrial revolution, which opened the era of machine production. The specificity of the experiment as a form of practical activity is that the experiment expresses a person's active attitude to reality.

Because of this, a clear distinction is made in Marxist epistemology between experiment and scientific knowledge. Although any experiment also includes observation as a necessary stage of research. However, in addition to observation, the experiment also contains such an essential sign for revolutionary practice as active intervention in the course of the process being studied. "Under the experiment is understood the type of activity undertaken for the purpose of scientific knowledge, the discovery of objective patterns and consisting in the impact on the object (process) under study by means of special tools and devices."

There is a special form of experiment, which is characterized by the use of existing material models as special means of experimental research. This form is called a model experiment. Unlike a conventional experiment, where the means of the experiment interact in one way or another with the object of study, there is no interaction here, since they are experimenting not with the object itself, but with its substitute. At the same time, the substitute object and the experimental setup are combined, merged into a single whole in the operating model. Thus, the dual role that the model plays in the experiment is revealed: it is both an object of study and an experimental tool. For a model experiment, according to a number of authors Batoroev and Shtoff, the following main operations are characteristic:

1. transition from a natural object to a model - building a model (modeling in the proper sense of the word);

2. experimental study of the model;

3. the transition from the model to the natural object, which consists in transferring the results obtained in the study to this object.

The model enters the experiment, not only replacing the object of study, it can also replace the conditions under which some object of a conventional experiment is studied. An ordinary experiment presupposes the presence of a theoretical moment only at the initial moment of the study - putting forward a hypothesis, evaluating it, etc., as well as at the final stage - discussing and interpreting the data obtained, and generalizing them. In a model experiment, it is also necessary to substantiate the similarity relationship between the model and the natural object and the possibility of extrapolating the obtained data to this object. IIItoff says that theoretical basis model experiment, mainly in the field of physical modeling, is the theory of similarity.

It gives modeling rules for cases where the model and nature have the same (or almost the same) physical nature. But at present, the practice of modeling has gone beyond the relatively limited range of mechanical phenomena. The emerging mathematical models, which differ in their physical nature from the object being modeled, made it possible to overcome the limited possibilities of physical modeling. In mathematical modeling, the basis of the relationship model - nature is such a generalization of the theory of similarity, which takes into account the qualitative heterogeneity of the model and the object, their belonging to different forms of motion of matter. Such a generalization takes the form of a more abstract theory of system isomorphism.

An interesting question is what role does modeling itself play in the process of proving the truth and searching for true knowledge. What is meant by the truth of a model? If truth in general is “the ratio of our knowledge to objective reality,” then the truth of a model means the correspondence of the model to the object, and the falsity of the model means the absence of such a correspondence. Such a definition is necessary but not sufficient. Further clarifications are required, based on taking into account the conditions on the basis of which a model of one type or another reproduces the phenomenon under study. For example, the conditions for the similarity of a model and an object in mathematical modeling based on physical analogies, which assume, when physical processes in the model and the object are different, the identity of the mathematical form in which their general patterns are expressed, are more general, more abstract. Thus, when building certain models, some aspects, properties and even relationships are always deliberately abstracted, due to which, the similarity between the model and the original is obviously not preserved in a number of parameters. So Rutherford's planetary model of the atom turned out to be true in the framework of the study of the electronic structure of the atom, and Thompson's model turned out to be false, since its structure did not coincide with the electronic structure. Truth is a property of knowledge, and the objects of the material world are not true, not false, they simply exist. The model implements two kinds of knowledge:

1. knowledge of the model itself (its structure, processes, functions) as a system created to reproduce some object;

2. theoretical knowledge by means of which the model was built.

Keeping in mind precisely the theoretical considerations and methods underlying the construction of the model, it is possible to raise questions about how correctly this model reflects the object and how fully it reflects it. In this case, the idea arises of the comparability of any object created by man with similar natural objects and of the truth of this object. But this makes sense only if such objects are created with the special purpose of depicting, copying, reproducing certain features of a natural object. Thus, we can say that the truth is inherent in material models:

1. due to their connection with certain knowledge;

2. due to the presence (or absence) of the isomorphism of its structure with the structure of the process or phenomenon being modeled;

3. due to the relation of the model to the object being modeled, which makes it a part of the cognitive process and allows solving certain cognitive tasks.

And in this regard, the material model is epistemologically secondary, acts as an element of epistemological reflection.

The model can be considered not only as a tool for checking whether such connections, relationships, structures, patterns really exist, which are formulated in this theory and are implemented in the model. The successful operation of the model is a practical proof of the truth of the theory, that is, it is part of the experimental proof of the truth of this theory.

Now that the main theoretical aspects of models and modeling have been considered, we can proceed to consider specific examples of the widespread use of modeling as a means of cognition in various fields of human activity.

In the educational and scientific pedagogical literature, the concepts of "technology" and "method" are in such a close relationship that they are often considered either as synonyms, or as subordinate phenomena, or as components of a whole (technology in a method, methods in technology). To clearly distinguish between these categories, it is necessary to consider what the method is as a pedagogical concept.

Method(from the Greek methodos - the path of research, theory, teaching) - this is a way to achieve a goal, solve a problem; a set of techniques and operations of practical or theoretical development (cognition) of reality. The very meaning of this word indicates that it can be used quite widely in social pedagogy.

Depending on the scope of application, there are individual groups methods: methods of education; teaching methods; methods of pedagogical rehabilitation; methods of pedagogical correction, etc. Within each group, their own methods have been developed, depending on what they are aimed at and how they solve the problem.

In relation to social pedagogical technology methods can be its integral part, providing a solution to the problem in the aggregate. To determine which method is needed in a particular socio-pedagogical situation to solve a functional problem, it is necessary to use the classification of methods.

There are many approaches to the classification of methods. Each classification is built on a specific basis. Let us present one of the approaches that can be used when considering socio-pedagogical technologies, in their development and adjustment.

However, before presenting a classification of methods, one should understand what place they occupy and what role they play in solving functional problems in general, as well as in a particular technology in particular.

So, method in social pedagogy is a way (way) of solving a certain problem of a person, group. Moreover, it is known that the solution of the problem (problems) of a person is achievable only through the realization of the potential of the possibilities of the person himself. In other words, the source of solving a person's problems is himself. Methods and are aimed at including a person in certain actions to solve their problems: directed development; mastery (assimilation); correction (correction) of what has been learned; improving any features; restoration of knowledge, skills, habits and their improvement, etc.

In order to apply the method needed in this particular specific case, it is necessary first of all to determine on whom the socio-pedagogical impact should be directed, what should be achieved and how to achieve this. There are three levels of classification that determine the place and role of methods.

The subjective level determines the subjectivity of the application of the method. The subject of the action are:

specialist(s). The methods they use are external methods of action, influence, interaction;

the person himself (the group through self-government). These are internal methods (independent actions, independent work person above). The names of such methods begin with "self-";

specialist (specialists) and the person (group) on which (on which) the pedagogical influence is carried out. In this case, we are talking about methods that determine the joint actions of a specialist and the person himself (the group itself). These are methods of joint activity, joint participation in the process of solving any problems, methods of action on one side and adequate actions on the other, etc.

Options for the ratio of external, internal and joint action can be very different depending on the situation, the age of the client and other factors.

Functional level determines the purpose of the method. Functional methods are divided into basic (main, leading) and providing. The main functional method is a method that includes an object (person, group) in certain actions, activities that ensure the implementation of the predicted goal - methods of implementation actions, activities (practical methods). Enabling functional methods are those that improve the efficiency and quality of the implementation of the action method. These include: methods of influencing the consciousness, feelings of a person; methods of organizing activities; methods of stimulating (restraining) actions, as well as methods of self-persuasion, self-organization, self-encouragement, self-coercion, etc.

Subject level determines how the method is implemented. Each method provides a certain way of its implementation - its own objectivity, which shows the actual way of implementing the functionality of the method. These include: groups of action methods (practical methods) - exercise methods, training methods, game methods (game methods), learning methods, etc .; groups of methods of influence - methods of persuasion, information methods; groups of methods for organizing activities - management methods, methods for monitoring activities, methods for creating situational environments that determine a certain nature of activity, etc.; groups of methods of stimulation (restraint) - methods of encouragement, methods of competition, methods of coercion, methods of control, methods of creating situations that stimulate (restrain) activity in actions, deeds, etc. Some methods can take place in various functional groups, for example, game methods, methods for creating situational environments, etc. Methods are an integral part of any socio-pedagogical technology. The name of some technologies is sometimes determined by the leading method (group of methods) used in it. Private technologies may reflect one of the leading methods, which often determines the name of this technology.

Methodology. The concept of "methodology" is closely related to the concept of method. Methodology is usually understood as the doctrine of methods for solving a specific problem, as well as a set of methods that provide a solution to a specific problem. And in pedagogical literature and practice, the concepts of method and methodology are so intertwined that it is very difficult to separate them.

As the most characteristic features that distinguish the content of the methodology, it is necessary to highlight:

a) technical methods for implementing a certain method, a specific implementation of the method. In this understanding, sometimes the technique is considered as a synonym for the technique of implementing the method. This approach to the allocation of methodology is reflected in didactics, and in the theory and practice of education;

b) a developed method of activity, on the basis of which the achievement of a specific pedagogical goal is realized - a methodology for the implementation of a certain pedagogical technology. In this case, the technique is methodical development, revealing the sequence and features of the implementation of a set of methods, means aimed at achieving a specific goal. For example, the method of forming a habit, the method of teaching writing, the method of developing speech, the method of organizing student practice, etc.;

c) features of pedagogical activity in the process of teaching academic discipline, including recommendations for the study of individual sections, topics, conducting various types of training sessions - a private teaching methodology.

Means. This is what the use of which (what) leads to the achievement of the chosen goal. Means are the tools of the method. Often in the pedagogical literature there is a confusion of these concepts, when it is difficult to separate the method from the means and vice versa. The tool can be the determining factor of the method. The proposed version of the concepts of method and means allows us to more clearly distinguish between them and show their relationship.

The tool can also act as a technology factor - when it determines the main source of its functioning, for example, play, study, tourism, etc.

The proposed approach makes it possible to single out: the means of the pedagogical (socio-pedagogical) process and the means of the pedagogical (socio-pedagogical) activity.

The means of the pedagogical process are those means that are an integral part of the activity of a specialist in the process of introducing pedagogical technology. These include: work for study, rules of conduct established in an educational institution, cultural and leisure activities, physical culture and health, sports and sports activities, community work for tourism, regime (for correctional colonies), etc.

Means of pedagogical activity- this is what a specialist, in particular a social pedagogue, uses in his professional activity to influence a person, a group in the process of social and pedagogical work with them. Most often it is a method toolkit. By means of instrumental means, the achievement of the pedagogical (social-pedagogical) goal is ensured. Such means include: a word, an action, an example, a book, technical means, etc.

Thus, the means are an integral part of any method, technology, they determine them, and through them the possibility of practical implementation, the achievement of the predicted goal in socio-pedagogical work with the client is provided.

Reception. In pedagogical theory and practice, the concept of "reception" is also widely used. The range of its use is so great that it is often interpreted arbitrarily, which is greatly facilitated by the lack of an unambiguous definition of this concept in pedagogy.

The term "reception" should be understood as a separate peculiar action, movement, a way of doing something. In pedagogy (including social pedagogy) it is a way of using any means in the process of pedagogical activity.

Its essence can be considered as a combination and (or) originality of the use and manifestation of personal, verbal: intonational, mimic capabilities, behavior, action of actions and other manifestations of a specialist in the process of purposeful pedagogical activity, in particular, the implementation of socio-pedagogical technology, method, means.

No. 3. Classification of socio-pedagogical technologies

Classification (from Latin classis - category, class + facio - I do) - this is a system of subordinate concepts (classes, objects) of any field of knowledge or human activity, used as a means to establish links between these concepts or classes of objects. The role of classification in cognition is extremely great. It allows you to systematize the objects under study on certain grounds, taking into account the qualitative characteristics of each of them.

Many socio-pedagogical technologies are known, but their classification has not yet been developed. At the same time, it is necessary for many reasons, since the classification:

allows you to organize socio-pedagogical technologies according to certain criteria, which simplifies their choice and practical use;

shows which, for which category of object and for which conditions of practical application there are socio-pedagogical technologies, and which are not, or their choice is limited;

contributes to the creation of a bank of socio-pedagogical technologies, taking into account their specific features.

The formation of such a data bank is extremely important. It combines and systematizes the established and proven in practice socio-pedagogical technologies, which allows the specialist to quickly select the most best option technologies for practical application and, if necessary, make some adjustments to it., and propose some new technology solutions to a particular socio-pedagogical problem. Researcher such a technology bank will help to identify those aspects of the development and improvement of socio-pedagogical technologies that require study and scientific justification. A bank of technologies is also useful for a novice specialist, as it will allow him to use a method of activity that has already been tested by experience in typical situations.

To develop a classification of socio-pedagogical technologies, it is necessary to determine its foundations and criteria.

Foundations Classifications are those qualitative characteristics that make it possible to systematize technologies in relation to solving the main problems of an object, taking into account the goals of technologies and the features of their practical application.

H The most significant grounds for the classification of socio-pedagogical technologies are:

type of socio-pedagogical technology;

purpose of socio-pedagogical technology;

subject of application;

object of application;

place of application;

implementation method.

In accordance with the identified grounds, it is necessary to determine the criteria by which it is possible to systematize and classify socio-pedagogical technologies.

Criterion (from the Greek. kriterion - a means for judgment) - a sign on the basis of which an assessment, definition or classification of something is made; evaluation yardstick. On one basis, several criteria can be distinguished. They allow a greater degree of individualization of technologies.

Let us consider the most common criteria for each of the identified bases, which will allow us to develop a general classification of socio-pedagogical technologies.

Technology type. The criterion on this basis is aimed at identifying the type of socio-pedagogical technology, which is determined by its nature. That's why the nature of the technology is the main criterion on this basis, which makes it possible to distinguish public and private technologies.

Are common technologies are focused on the general cycle of socio-pedagogical work with the client to identify his socio-pedagogical problem and its resolution.

Private technologies are aimed at solving a particular particular goal or task.

Purpose of technology. The criterion on this basis makes it possible to single out socio-pedagogical technologies depending on the main goal of the activity of a social teacher (the main purpose of the technology) in a given situation in relation to a specific object. Such a criterion is purpose of socio-pedagogical technology. In accordance with this criterion, technologies can have:

directional target purpose - technologies of development, education; pedagogical correction; pedagogical rehabilitation; corrections (re-education); outreach activities; career guidance work; leisure activities, etc.;

comprehensive purpose - technologies that involve the achievement of several goals at the same time.

Subject of application. There are several criteria for this. They make it possible to single out socio-pedagogical technology depending on the individual capabilities of a specialist. In other words, according to these criteria, a social educator can choose the most appropriate technology for him in a given situation, in the process of implementing which he will be able to achieve the greatest effectiveness. The criteria for this are:

level of professionalism- A beginner with experience, a highly qualified specialist;

specialization social pedagogue - in the direction of activity, for working with a certain age group, etc.

Object of application. There are several criteria for this as well. They make it possible to single out socio-pedagogical technology depending on the object characteristics activities. Such criteria can be the following characteristics of the object:

social- pupil, student, soldier, family, parent, etc.;

age- child, teenager, youth, etc.; personal (what is characteristic in the object that determines the need for socio-pedagogical work with it) - the nature of social deviation, psychological or emotional state, personality dynamism, compensatory opportunities, etc.;

quantitative- individual, group, collective; other criteria.

Each socio-pedagogical institution, as it accumulates experience in working with various categories of objects and technology options, forms its own bank, taking into account the most important criteria put forward by the needs of practice.

Place of application. The criterion on this basis makes it possible to classify socio-pedagogical technologies, depending on the conditions under which it is most expedient and optimal to use them. The conditions of use as a criterion for classifying technologies make it possible to single out as a place of application: educational institution; specialized center; place of residence, etc.

Way of implementation. The criterion on this basis is aimed at highlighting socio-pedagogical technologies depending on the method of achieving the goal (the main methods used, the means of practical application). As a rule, this is one (leading, basic) or several (certain set) methods used in the technology. That is, the criterion on this basis is the main way to achieve the goal - the leading method (game, activity, psychodrama, consultation, etc.); a set of basic methods; author's methods (education in the team of A.S. Makarenko; correction of vagrancy by P. G. Velsky; technology of self-development by M. Montessori; technology of free labor by S. Frenet, etc.).

The above grounds and classification criteria allow us to single out the main socio-pedagogical technologies, which are divided into two types - general technologies and private technologies.

Socio-pedagogical technologies of a general type (general socio-pedagogical technologies). These are technologies that include a full cycle of social and pedagogical work with a client, a group. In practice, the terms “methodology”, “program”, “scenario”, etc. are often used instead of the expression “socio-pedagogical technology”.

Socio-pedagogical technologies of a private type (private socio-pedagogical technologies)

identification and diagnosis of individual characteristics

Client, but also forecasting the prospects of his individual, individually corrective, corrective and compensatory development, education. The prognostic activity is based on the identification of the client's individual capabilities in self-development, the potential for this development.

By appointment diagnostic and prognostic technologies can also be different. They are defined by both the object and And the purposes of diagnostic and prognostic analysis. For example: the social teacher of the school is interested in what are the reasons for the student's difficulties in learning and what are the possibilities to overcome them; a mother brings her child to a family social service center (or a medical-psychological-social center) for a diagnostic and prognostic consultation in order to find out how to overcome the difficulties of relationships with him, outline ways to correct his upbringing, etc. In each case, it is possible own technology of work, on which the results obtained depend.

Socio-pedagogical technologies of a private type(private socio-pedagogical technologies). These technologies are distinguished from the structural components of the general technology or from particular types of functional activities of social educators. Therefore, they can also be called functional socio-pedagogical technologies. These technologies include: diagnostic, diagnostic and prognostic, prognostic technologies, as well as the choice of the optimal technology, direct preparation for the practical implementation of the target technology, target implementation, expert evaluation technologies.

Each of the functional socio-pedagogical technologies is subject to classification on the same grounds and criteria that are used for general technologies. Let's consider separate types of private technologies.

Diagnostic socio-pedagogical technologies. Such technologies are designed to perform a specific function - diagnosis. They are used to assess the phenomenon, the level of socio-pedagogical neglect of the object, the degree of deviation, the socio-pedagogical features of its development, etc.

Purpose. Such technologies are divided depending on the tasks of diagnostics (what it is focused on). Even general diagnostics provides for a certain minimum of activity, which allows a fairly complete assessment of the phenomenon under study. What is diagnosed very often determines how it should be done (the most appropriate way) and where (under what conditions) it is best to carry it out. Depending on the target orientation, diagnostic technologies are also distinguished.

Subject of application. The implementation of any diagnostic technology requires special training of a specialist.

Object of application. The diagnostic technique is usually focused on a certain area of ​​practical application.

Place of sale. Diagnostic technologies are used, as a rule, in special centers, consultation points.

Any diagnostic technology provides for certain methods of implementation. They can be more or less effective and depend on a number of factors (technical equipment, preparedness of a specialist, preparedness of a laboratory for diagnostics, etc.). Depending on the object of diagnostics, a bank of technologies is formed, differentiated by the methods and means of implementation. These can be sociological or psychological methods using special forms, equipment, methods of observation, inclusion in certain types of activities, etc.

Diagnostic and prognostic socio-pedagogical technologies. Such technologies are used most often in specialized social and pedagogical institutions at the initial stage of working with a client. Their main purpose is not only to identify and diagnose the individual characteristics of the client, but also to predict the prospects for his individual, individually corrective, corrective and compensatory development, and education. The prognostic activity is based on the identification of the client's individual capabilities in self-development, the potential for this development.

By appointment diagnostic and prognostic technologies can also be different. They are determined by both the object and the goals of diagnostic and prognostic analysis. For example: the social teacher of the school is interested in what are the reasons for the student's difficulties in learning and what are the possibilities to overcome them; a mother brings her child to a family social service center (or a medical-psychological-social center) for a diagnostic and prognostic consultation in order to find out how to overcome the difficulties of relationships with him, outline ways to correct his upbringing, etc. In each case, it is possible own technology of work, on which the results obtained depend.

Implementation methods diagnostic and prognostic technologies are determined by the main methods that provide diagnostics and forecasting and their relationship. Often, the prognostic activity of a social pedagogue is determined by his personal experience and pedagogical intuition.

A specific way to implement diagnostic and prognostic technology is focused on specialization and professional competence subject and its individual characteristics object, and place of application.

The prognostic part of socio-pedagogical technology can be identified and considered as an independent technology.

Choosing the right technology(target technology of socio-pedagogical activity). This is a certain practical activity (methodology), which is aimed at choosing the most optimal technology for socio-pedagogical activity for a particular case in order to implement the problem (problems) of the client, to fulfill the socio-pedagogical order of actions. Such a choice requires taking into account the essence of the social order, needs (socio-pedagogical problems, individual predisposition of the object), preparedness of the specialist (specialists), technological and material capabilities, conditions of the implementation environment. As a rule, each socio-pedagogical institution develops its own technology of activity; each specialist (social pedagogue) develops his own method of working with a client (object).

The methodology for choosing the optimal technology is determined by the originality of the target technology, professional competence subject and individual characteristics object, and place of implementation. A characteristic feature of the selection method is also the fact that for whom the target technology is being prepared- for specialists of the institution or for himself.

Direct preparation for the practical implementation of the target technology(technology and methods of direct preparation for social and pedagogical work with a client). This technology includes a set of measures aimed at ensuring the necessary quality of implementation of the chosen method of activity with a specific object. At its core, direct preparation, in addition to solving a complex of material, technical, organizational and methodological measures, provides for its refinement, taking into account the performers (subjects), the object of social and pedagogical work and the place where the target technology is implemented.

The technology of direct training for specialists of a socio-pedagogical institution is largely of a typical nature. The institution accumulates options for preparing for a particular target technology in terms of content, volume, sequence and methodology for its implementation. Such technologies of work are more difficult to individualize both in terms of the subject and the object of implementation activity. For example, the social teacher of the school often prepares it for himself. It determines what and how to implement it. The social educator of the family work center (medical-psychological-social center) usually prepares this technology for practitioners, as well as for parents. As for parents, such training often becomes part of the implementation technology for preparing them for practical work with the child. In particular, it includes changing the parent's understanding of their role in social and pedagogical work with the child, teaching a new method of work, building confidence in the ability to build educational work in a different way, and a number of other aspects.

The technology of preparing a target activity for oneself is largely determined by the style of pedagogical activity of the specialist himself, which, in turn, is largely determined by his personality, motivation, experience, attitude to activity and many other factors.

In each specific case, all direct training is determined by the established experience of the work of a social pedagogical institution or the style of activity of a social pedagogue.

Practical implementation of target technology(technology of practical activity). This variety includes technologies that have a practical (transformative, corrective-transformative, rehabilitation) character. A specialist - a social pedagogue (a group of specialists), using targeted technologies, contributes (contributes) to the achievement of the predicted goals of social and pedagogical work with a person, a group.

According to its purpose technologies of practical activity, as mentioned above, are extremely diverse. Each of them is focused on a certain training and experience of the subjects of implementation, on a specific object of work and place of implementation (conditions for optimal implementation) of the technology.

By way implementation of target technologies are also diverse, depending on the methods used, tools and techniques involved in them.

By their nature, target technologies are basic, basic. They are designed to ensure the achievement of socio-pedagogical goals. The effectiveness of the entire socio-pedagogical activity of a specialist (specialists) largely depends on the effectiveness of their practical application. All other functional socio-pedagogical technologies are predominantly of a service nature.

Expert evaluation socio-pedagogical technologies. These technologies are aimed at providing an assessment and examination of the results of the implementation of functional technologies or a general technology by a specialist (specialists) in social and pedagogical work with a client or group. They allow you to evaluate the effectiveness of the stages and the entire implemented technology of activity. On its basis, a conclusion is made and a decision is made on the need to correct the technology and its direction, as well as an assessment of all the socio-pedagogical work performed.

Expert-assessment technologies make it possible to determine the level and quality of the socio-pedagogical activity of a specialist. They can also be carried out to determine the prospects for socio-pedagogical work with the client. Each such technology (method) has its own appointment, focused on a specific an object taking into account its age, gender and other characteristics, as well as on Wednesday, in which it is carried out. The methodology also requires special training of a specialist - a social pedagogue.

The considered classification of socio-pedagogical technologies can be refined and supplemented taking into account new criteria and the needs of real practice.

Questions and tasks for self-control

1.What is the classification? Describe the most significant grounds and criteria for the classification of socio-pedagogical technologies.

Give general characteristics classification of socio-pedagogical technologies.

Give a description of socio-pedagogical technologies of a general type.

Give a description of functional (private) socio-pedagogical technologies.

Expand the features of diagnostic and prognostic socio-pedagogical technology.

Give the characteristic of target technologies and features of their choice.

Reveal the features of direct preparation for the implementation of the targeted socio-pedagogical technology.

Reveal the features of the expert-assessment socio-pedagogical technology.

Literature

Pedagogical technology (pedagogical impact in the process of educating schoolchildren) / Comp. NOT. Shchurkov. - M., 1992.

Penkova R. I. Technology for managing the process of educating youth: Proc. allowance. - Samara, 1994.

Pityukov V.Yu. Fundamentals of pedagogical technology: Ucheb.-prakt. allowance. - M., 1997.

Selevko G.K. Modern educational technologies: Proc. allowance for ped. universities and institutes for advanced training. - M., 1998.

Slastenin V.A. and others. Pedagogy: Proc. allowance. - M., 1998.

Social Pedagogy: A Course of Lectures / Ed. M.A. Galaga-zova. - M., 2000.

Any scientific research is carried out by certain methods and methods, according to certain rules. The doctrine of the system of these techniques, methods and rules is called methodology. However, the concept of "methodology" in the literature is used in two meanings:

• 1) a set of methods used in any field of activity (science, politics, etc.);
• 2) the doctrine of the scientific method of cognition.

Consider modern general definitions methodology (Table 1).

Source	Definition
	"Methodology (from "method" and "logy") - the doctrine of the structure, logical organization, methods and means of activity"
	"Methodology is a system of principles and methods of organizing and constructing theoretical and practical activities, as well as the doctrine of this system"
	"The doctrine of the methods of activity (method and "logos" - doctrine)"
	"Methodology - 1) a set of research methods used in any science; 2) the doctrine of the method of cognition and transformation of the world"
	"The concept of" methodology "has two main meanings: a system of certain methods and techniques used in a particular field of activity (science, politics, art, etc.); the doctrine of this system, general theory method, theory in action"
	"The main goal of the methodology of science is the study of those methods, means and techniques by which new knowledge is acquired and substantiated in science. But, in addition to this main task, methodology also studies the structure of scientific knowledge in general, the place and role of various forms of knowledge in it and methods analysis and construction various systems scientific knowledge"
	"Methodology is the discipline of general principles and forms of organization of thinking and activity"
	General approach to solving problems of a particular class
V.V. Kraevsky)	Methodology as a way, means of communication between science and practice
ON THE. Masyukov, groups of specialists began to form, calling themselves "methodologists", and their own scientific direction"systemic activity" methodology. These groups of methodologists (O.S. Anisimov, Yu.V. Gromyko, P.G. Shchedrovitsky and others) began to play "organizational-activity games" with teams of workers, first in the field of education, then Agriculture, with political scientists, etc., aimed at comprehending innovation activities which made them quite famous. In parallel with this, the publications of scientists began to appear in the press, devoted to the analysis and scientific substantiation of innovative activity - in education, in engineering, in economics, etc. . IN last years among programmers, the term "methodology" has spread in a completely new "sound". By methodology, programmers began to understand one or another type of strategy, that is, one or another general method for creating computer programs. So, along with the methodology of research activities, a new direction began to form - the methodology of practical activity. Methodology is the doctrine of the organization of activities. Such a definition unambiguously determines the subject of methodology - the organization of activities. It is necessary to consider the content of the concept of "organization". In accordance with the definition given in, organization - 1) internal order, consistency in the interaction of more or less differentiated and autonomous parts of the whole, due to its structure; 2) a set of processes or actions leading to the formation and improvement of relationships between parts of the whole; 3) an association of people who jointly implement a certain program or goal and act on the basis of certain procedures and rules. Note that not every activity needs organization, the application of methodology. As you know, human activity can be divided into reproductive and productive activities (see, for example,). Reproductive activity is a cast, a copy from the activity of another person, or a copy of one's own activity, mastered in previous experience. Productive activity aimed at obtaining an objectively new or subjectively new result. In the case of productive activity, it becomes necessary to organize it, that is, it becomes necessary to apply the methodology. Based on the classification of activities according to the target orientation: game-learning-work, then we can talk about the following focus of the methodology: - methodology of game activity; - methodology of educational activity; - methodology of labor, professional activity. Thus, the methodology considers the organization of activity (activity is a purposeful activity of a person). To organize an activity means to put it in order. complete system with clearly defined characteristics, a logical structure and the process of its implementation - a temporal structure (the authors proceed from a pair of dialectic categories "historical (temporal) and logical"). The logical structure includes the following components: subject, object, object, forms, means, methods of activity, its result. External in relation to this structure are the following characteristics of activity: features, principles, conditions, norms. Such an understanding and construction of methodology allows us to generalize from a unified position and in a single logic the various approaches and interpretations of the concept of "methodology" available in the literature and its use in a wide variety of activities. Each science has its own methodology. Ultimately, both lawyers and philosophers under the methodology of scientific research understand the doctrine of the methods (method) of cognition, i.e. about the system of principles, rules, methods and techniques intended for the successful solution of cognitive tasks. Accordingly, the methodology of legal science can be defined as the doctrine of the methods of research of state-legal phenomena. There are the following levels of methodology (Table 2.). Table 2 - Basic level methodologies Similar posts Boxing punches and their varieties Who was the Serpent? I. what jesus christ said about satan Online reading book Little Witch Little Witch Little Witch read online