Movies are a geographic source. Summary of the lesson on Geography on the topic "Introduction. Sources of geographic information" (1st year of the SPO). located on the Volga

Lesson #1

Subject: Introduction. Sources of geographic information.

Questions to study

1. Economic and social geography as a science.

2.Traditional and new methods geographical research.

3. Types of geographic information, its role and use in people's lives.

5. A geographical map is a special source of information about reality. Statistical materials. Other ways and forms of obtaining geographic information: the use of satellite images, modeling.

1. Economic and social geography as a science, its place in the system of geographical sciences.

Geography is one of the oldest sciences on Earth and takes pride of place among the favorite school disciplines. The course of economic and social geography of the world is the final stage of the study of geography in the framework of the school curriculum. The subject of study of economic and social geography is the study development of the economy and the distribution of the population in the world as a whole, in certain regions and countries. Economic geography combines elements of geography, economics and sociology; it widely uses not only economic, but also sociological research methods. You know that sociology is the science of society and people's behavior, and economic and social inequality are closely related, so you can not consider the economy without people - the main production force, without the human factor. Thus, by putting man at the center of attention, economic geography became related to social geography. The main direction of the current stage of development is the strengthening of the social, political, and environmental focus of research. The main direction is the rational use and transformation of the natural environment. The long development of geography has led to a deepening of its internal differentiation. In economic geography: geography of population, industry Agriculture, transport, services and services. Today, geography has turned from a descriptive and cognitive science into a constructive science.

In modern geography, various methods of geographical research are known. The most popular are the traditional geographical methods research:

I.Traditional methods-

a) descriptive - the study and description of any territory is carried out according to a specific plan. The description can be either single-element (when only one component is considered, for example, the hydrological network, relief, landscapes), or complex (when the entire territorial complex is considered: nature - population - economy).

b) comparative- when studying various territories and geographical objects, it is often used comparative analysis. The objects of study can be located close to each other (for example, the coasts of the Black and Seas of Azov) or be removed (for example, the mountain systems of the Cenozoic folding regions of South America and Europe) and similar features are analyzed. As a result, elements of similarity and differences are highlighted and appropriate conclusions are drawn.

c) cartographic- special maps or a series of thematic maps are created for the study area in order to understand a certain phenomenon. Certain elements of the territory under consideration (relief, climate elements, landscapes, etc.) are applied to the cartographic base with the help of certain conventional signs developed in advance. The cartographic method is usually used with other research methods: interpretation of aerial photographs, mathematical methods, etc.

d) retrospective (historical approach). The study of any geographical object, territory: its landscapes, its individual components, natural and social phenomena - is considered in time, which makes it possible to make a forecast for the future.

e) typological - According to the selected criteria, reference sites (key) are allocated in the study area in order to further disseminate the findings to other sites.

II. Modern methods of geographical research:

a) Geographic forecast– prediction of the future state of geosystems. b) Geoinformatics. We live in an era of "information explosion", when the amount of scientific knowledge and the number of sources of information are growing very rapidly. Informatics allows you to apply economic and mathematical modeling. The development of geoinformatics led to the creation GeoInformation Systems (GIS). GIS is an information system that provides the collection, storage, processing, analysis and display of spatial data and related non-spatial data, as well as obtaining information and knowledge about geographic space based on them.

It is believed that geographic or spatial data make up more than half of all circulating information used by organizations involved in different types activities in which it is necessary to take into account the spatial distribution of objects. GIS is focused on providing the possibility of making optimal management decisions based on the analysis of spatial data.

The introduction of GIS technologies in geography has affected many industries and, first of all, pictography. (Example: world electronic maps have already been created, differing in character and language. National electronic atlases: USA, Canada, Japan, Sweden, China, etc.)

c) Space research methods of our planet, these are climatic and space resources - the resources of the future.

Types of geographic information

Geographic information (GI) includes any information related to objects, phenomena and processes localized in geographic space. A significant proportion of geographic information is found in sources that are not maps. Examples of this are addresses in phone books, road mile markers in incident reports, place names in a gazetteer, Internet portals. The completeness of the information presented on cartographic works is determined by the set of map sheets with relatively simple themes - thematic cartographic layers linked to one base map. For picture various objects there is a special system of geographical symbols. Consider the most used:
Linear signs– borders, roads, rivers, etc. . Contours- connection of points with the same parameters (isobars - Atmosphere pressure, air isotherms t 0) Areals- areas of distribution of certain phenomena. traffic signs are traffic flows, sea currents, winds, etc. Quality background- used to display the national and religious composition (without quantitative indicators) Cartogram– different intensity of phenomena within territorial units. Cartogram- a card with a specific territorial division and diagrammatic figures corresponding to these divisions. Schematic map– a schematic map without a precise basis (map of travel routes, etc.) Mapping data is currently received via satellites. Thus, there is a real opportunity to present geographical information of any volume and complexity, and for people's lives the role of GI is enormous. This is the most accurate and prompt receipt of information about the weather forecast, the degree of development of various extreme events, as well as obtaining special information, such as the thickness of the snow cover (this is important for agriculture), the degree of coverage of cereal crops by insect pests, the degree of aridity of the region, the degree of deforestation, etc.

Sources of geographic information.

1. Maps, atlases, topographic plans.

2. Geographical descriptions of different territories.

3. Encyclopedias, reference books, statistical materials, etc.

4. Space and aerial photographs.

5. Geographic information systems (GIS). Currently, all of the listed sources of information can be digitized and transferred from paper to electronic form, an example of a GIS.

A geographical map is a special source of information about reality.

general geographic maps display various elements of the earth's surface - relief, vegetation, rivers, settlements, transport networks, etc.

Thematic maps characterize geographical objects and phenomena on a specific topic: vegetation, relief, industry.

For example, a political map will first of all give an idea of ​​the location of countries, their borders, etc.

Homework:

1. Show parts of the world and continents on a contour map.

2. Indicate the role of economic and social geography as a science, its place in the system of geographical sciences.

3. Determine the types of geographic information, its role and use in people's lives.

4. Geoinformation systems as a means of obtaining, processing and presenting spatially coordinated geographic data.

5. Explore geographical map as a special source of information about reality and statistical materials. Learn the features of the legend ( symbols) on the political map of the world. Specify other methods and forms of obtaining geographic information: the use of satellite images, modeling.

Independent work

Lesson #2 A political map of the World

Questions to study

1.Countries on the modern political map of the world. Their grouping by area, by population, elements of the political map of the world.

2. Quantitative and qualitative changes on the world map.

3. The main periods of formation of the political map of the world.

4. Typology of the countries of the world. Political system. Forms of government.

The political map of the world is a geographical map that reflects countries peace , and form of government And state structure . The political map of the world reflects the main political and geographical changes: the formation of new independent states, a change in their status, the merger and separation of states, the loss or acquisition of sovereignty, a change in the area of ​​states, the replacement of their capitals, a change in the names of states and capitals, a change in the forms of government and the form of government. The political map of the world has characteristic elements by which it can be determined, this is

State borders

State territories

Territories with international regime

Mixed territories

Sovereign States

· Non-Self-Governing Territories

Forms of government

What is usually denoted in the economic geography of the world by the terms: State, Country, Territory? The concept of the state refers primarily to political system power established in a certain territory, while the concept of a country rather refers to cultural, general geographical (community of territory) and other factors. The concept of a country is less official than the concept of a state. Territory or trust territories- dependent territories included as a result of the Second World War in the UN International Trusteeship System. These are mainly colonies of Germany and its allies in Africa (Cameroon, Rwanda, Burundi, Somalia, Tanzania, South-West Africa) and islands in pacific ocean(Western Samoa, Nauru, New Guinea, Mariana, Marshall and Caroline) with a population of about 20 million people. Their management, by agreement with the UN and under the control of its Council of Trustees, was given to the former colonial powers - Great Britain, Belgium, France. By 1997, almost all territories became independent states. Before modern states were formed on the planet, there was a long period of formation of the political map of the world.

The main periods of the formation of the political map of the world

1. Ancient period (before the 5th century AD)

2. Medieval period (V-XV centuries)

3. New period (the turn of the XV-XVI centuries - 1914)

4. The newest period (from 1914 to the present)

First stage (from 1914 to 1945)

Second stage (1945-1990)

Third stage (from 1990 to the present)

According to various sources (November 2015), there are 230 territories in the world, including:

193 independent states (recognized by the UN)

14 unrecognized states

3 Territories with undetermined status

1 quasi-state formation Order of Malta - has observer status at the UN.)

62 dependencies

The process of the birth and disappearance of states is endless, this process is called changes on the political map of the world. There are changes on the political map quantitative(accession to the state of newly discovered lands, territorial gains and losses after wars, unification or disintegration of states, exchange of territories by states, etc.) and quality(the acquisition of sovereignty, a change in the form of government and state structure, the formation of interstate unions, etc.). Currently, quantitative changes are declining and mainly qualitative changes are taking place on the political map of the world.

At present, taking into account the level and nature of socio-economic and political development, there are the following groups of countries in the world:
The countries of the world are grouped according to different criteria . For example, sovereign, independent countries and dependent countries and territories are distinguished. Dependent countries and territories may have different names: possessions - the term "colonies" has not been used since 1971 (there are very few of them left), overseas departments and territories, self-governing territories. So, Gibraltar is a possession of Great Britain; the country of Guiana in South America is a department of France; the island nation of Puerto Rico has been declared a "state freely affiliated with the United States."

Grouping countries by area:

VERY LARGE COUNTRIES: (area over 3 million sq. km): Russia (17.1 million sq. km), Canada (10 million sq. km), China (9.6 million sq. km), USA (9.4 million sq. km), Brazil (8.5 million sq. km), Australia (7.7 million sq. km), India (3.3 million sq. km)

MICRO STATES: Andorra, Liechtenstein, Monaco, San Marino, Vatican. This includes Singapore and the island states. caribbean and Oceania.

COUNTRIES BY POPULATION:

In terms of population, 10 largest countries of the world are distinguished: China (1318 million people), India (1132 million people), USA (302 million people), Indonesia (232 million people), Brazil (189 million people), Pakistan (169 million people), Bangladesh (149 million people), Russia (146 million people from the Crimean river Nigeria (144 million people), Japan (128 million people) (data for 2014-2015)

THE SMALLEST POPULATION COUNTRIES - microstates. For example, 1,000 people live in the Vatican.

ECONOMICLY HIGHLY DEVELOPED STATES A characterized by a mature level of development of market relations. Their role in world politics and the economy is great, they have a powerful scientific and technical potential. They differ from each other in the scale and level of economic development, population. USA, UK, Japan, etc.

POOR COUNTRIES - Mostly former colonies, which, having gained political independence, became economically dependent on their former metropolises. These are most of the countries of Africa south of the Sahara, such countries as Angola, Ghana, Zambia, as well as the Asian countries of Afghanistan, Bangladesh, etc. They are very far behind the developed world in all major socio-economic indicators. (see list at the end of the topic)

state forms of government.

The form of state government characterizes the organization of state power, the system of higher state bodies. There are two forms of government: republican and monarchicalRepublic – a form of government in which the supreme legislative power belongs to the elected representative body of the parliament, and the executive - to the government. Republics are divided into parliamentary and presidential. IN presidential republics, the president is endowed with very large rights, he heads the government. (USA, Iran, Argentina, etc.) IN parliamentary the main figure is the head of government. (Germany, Italy, Israel, etc.) monarchical form of government A government in which the monarch is the head of state. This sovereignty is hereditary. Monarchies are divided into absolute, constitutional, theocratic .

Absolute monarchy - the power of the monarch is practically unlimited (Bhutan, Oman, UAE, Qatar, Bahrain, Kuwait, etc.)

Theocratic monarchy - The monarch simultaneously represents secular and spiritual power. (Vatican, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain).

A constitutional monarchy The power of the monarch is limited by Parliament. On the modern political map, 30 countries of the world have a monarchical form of government.

Forms of administrative-territorial structure

Countries subdivided into unitary (in which the country has a single legislative and executive power ). Federated - under which, along with uniform laws, there are separate self-governing territorial units with their own legislative, executive and judicial authorities.

Homework:

1. Give a brief description of the state (of your own choice in any form).

2. Using reference materials, maps, fill in the table, marking the countries

world with a federal administrative-territorial structure. Explain what

is the difference between unitary and federal forms of administrative

territorial device.

Lesson #3

Subject: Typology of the countries of the world. Political system. Forms of government.

Questions to study

1. Differences in the countries of the modern world in terms of territory, population, population characteristics, geographical location.

2. Types of countries. Economically developed and developing countries (main; highly developed countries Western Europe; resettlement countries; key countries; countries of outward-oriented development; new industrial countries and other groups).

3. The UN and its main structural units

The political map of the world is represented by individual countries and regions. For a complete study of the country, it is customary to consider it from different points of view: in terms of the size of the territory, geographical location, the nature of the social system, the level of social economic development, historical and geographical areas, etc. GDP is used to rank countries by socio-economic development. Gross domestic product is one of the great inventions of the 20th century, almost equal in importance to the automobile. GDP - the sum of all goods produced in the territory of a given country for the year, and GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT (GNP) - the volume of goods produced according to the national principle: GDP minus the profits of foreign companies transferred abroad and the wages of foreign workers, plus similar receipts from abroad. The countries of the world use different methods for calculating GDP and GNP, so the data provided by national statistics and international statistics are almost always different. To enable cross-country comparisons, international statistics data on GDP is given in a single monetary measurement - US dollars. They are calculated by UN experts using special methods - at official exchange rates or at purchasing power parities of currencies. Therefore, these data, depending on the calculation method, differ significantly from each other.

There is a classification adopted by the UN - the division of the countries of the world into "industrialized", "developing" and countries with a "centrally planned economy". But at the same time, this division unites extremely different countries. Obviously, such countries as, for example, the United States and Switzerland, classified as "economically developed countries", or Kuwait and Papua New Guinea (which fell into the group of developing countries) certainly have common features, but there are even more differences between them. The group of industrialized countries includes about 30 states. They are distinguished by a high level of economic development, the predominance of manufacturing and service industries in GDP, high quality and standard of living of the population. These countries generate the bulk of the world's industrial production. They account for more than 70% of the world foreign trade turnover, including about 90% of exports of machinery and equipment.

The economically developed countries are approximately 60 countries in Europe, Asia, North America, Australia and Oceania. All of them are characterized by a higher level of economic and social development and, accordingly, GDP per capita. However, this group of countries is characterized by rather significant internal heterogeneity and four subgroups can be distinguished in its composition.

G7 countries "Big Seven" (GDP per capita 20-30 thousand dollars) - Japan, USA, Germany, France, Great Britain, Italy, Canada.

Privileged highly developed countries of Western Europe: Belgium, Switzerland, Austria, Sweden, Norway, etc.
Countries of "settlement" capitalism: Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Israel.

Nafta countries USA, Canada, Mexico.

"IMF" in the number of developed countries includes Western Europe, including the EU. The unification of the EU causes a lot of controversy, the second and third wave of countries that joined the EU gives rise to many doubts. Simply put, all EU member states, although independent, are subject to the same rules: they have the same rules for education, health care, pensions, judicial systems, and so on. In a word, EU laws are valid in all EU countries.

For 2013: there are 28 countries in the European Union.

• Austria (1995)
• Belgium (1957)
• Bulgaria (2007)
• UK (1973)
• Hungary (2004)
• Germany (1957)
• Greece (1981)
• Denmark (1973)
• Ireland (1973)
• Spain (1986)
• Italy (1957)
• Cyprus (2004)
• Latvia (2004)
• Lithuania (2004)
• Luxembourg (1957)
• Malta (2004)
• Netherlands (1957)
• Poland (2004)
• Slovakia (2004)
• Slovenia (2004)
• Portugal (1986)
• Romania (2007)
• Finland (1995)
• France (1957)
• Croatia (2013)
• Czech Republic (2004)
• Sweden (1995)
• Estonia (2004)

Candidates Iceland

• Macedonia
• Serbia
• Türkiye
• Montenegro

All of them are members of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD).

The group of developing countries includes the largest number of states in the world (about 150). These countries are extremely different - this group includes Brazil and Tuvalu, India and South Korea, Somalia and Burkina Faso, etc. However, all of them have such common features of socio-economic development as: the colonial past, which predetermined the territorial structure and predominantly agrarian and raw material specialization of the economy.

Features of participation in the international division of labor; unequal position in the world economy, dependence on foreign capital; huge external debt; the presence of the most acute problems - demographic, environmental and food, as well as the low standard of living of the majority of the population and others. Nevertheless, among the developing countries there are countries and territories that, in terms of socio-economic development, have already approached the level of industrialized ones. Consider in detail the major economic associations:

1. Countries with "transitional economies" (post-socialist) and socialist countries. This group includes the countries of the Center, and the East. Europe (including all republics former USSR) and Mongolia are "countries with economies in transition"; as well as the socialist countries - Cuba, China,

2. Key countries: Mexico, Argentina, India, China, Brazil
3. " Newly industrialized countries or "Yellow Tigers": Singapore, Taiwan and the Republic of Korea, as well as R/V "second wave" - ​​Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, Hong Kong, Taiwan. Their economic performance is largely in line with that of industrialized countries, but there are also features common to all developing countries.
4. " Oil exporting countries» or OPEC ( Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, UAE Algeria, Venezuela, Gabon, Indonesia, Iraq, Iran, Qatar, Libya, Nigeria, Ecuador)

5. BRICS countries Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa.

6. SCO Shanghai Cooperation Organization

SCO Member States

Kazakhstan

Kyrgyzstan

Tajikistan

Uzbekistan

Poor countries- Mostly former colonies, which, having gained political independence, became economically dependent on their former metropolises. This is most of the countries of Africa south of the Sahara, countries such as Angola, Ghana, Zambia. As well as the Asian countries of Afghanistan, Bangladesh and others. They are very far behind the developed world in all major socio-economic indicators.

Poor countries GDP per capita (2015 data)

1 Malawi $226.50

2 Burundi $267.10

3 Central African Republic $333.20

4 Niger $415.40

5 Liberia $454.30

6 Madagascar $463.00

7 Congo $484.20

8 Gambia $488.60

9 Ethiopia $505.00

10 Guinea $523.10

UN structure.

For independent study:

Typology of the countries of the world:

“Typology of countries - the allocation of groups of countries of the world similar in level, nature and type of socio-economic and historical development.

The first step in any typology is classification of countries according to a set of demographic, economic, social and other indicators of development.

Second phase identification of typological features of countries with a similar level of development and their grouping. The typologies of developing countries of B. M. Bolotin, V. L. Sheinis, V. V. Velsky, Ya. G. Mashbits and other geographers and economists are widely known.

Country, state - the main object of the political map of the world. Total number countries on this map during the 20th century. increased noticeably. Firstly, as a result of changes associated with the results of the First World War. Secondly, as a result of the changes that followed the Second World War, expressed in the collapse of the colonial system of imperialism, when during the years 1945-1993. 102 countries have achieved political independence. Third, in the early 1990s as a result of the collapse Soviet Union, Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia. There are about 230 countries on the modern political map. This quantitative growth is followed by important qualitative changes. This is manifested in the fact that out of 230 states, 193 are sovereign states. The rest falls on the so-called non-self-governing territories.

With such a large number of countries, it becomes necessary to group them, which is carried out primarily on the basis of different quantitative criteria. The most common grouping of countries according to the size of their territory and population. Often used grouping of countries according to the peculiarities of their geographical location.1. Grouping of countries according to the size of the territory - the largest countries (territory more than 3 million km 2) These include states of different regions. Half of the dozen participants, delegated New World, four countries are located in Eurasia, one - in Africa. At the same time, only Russia can be considered a European country. 2. Grouping by the prevalence of means of communication. The most widely spoken language in the largest countries of the world is English. It is spoken in the USA, Canada, Australia and some in India. The Russian language is widely used in Russia and Kazakhstan. The top ten is dominated by multinational countries. The country with the most diverse ethnic composition is India. More than 500 peoples, nationalities and tribes live here. Many ethnic groups live on the territory of Sudan, Russia, Canada, Kazakhstan, China, and the USA. But the population of Argentina, Brazil and Australia mainly belongs to the same ethnic group.2. Grouping according to the state system, forms of government and the administrative-territorial structure of the countries of the world. The countries of the world also differ in the forms of government and in the forms of territorial and state structure. Allocate two main forms government: a republic where legislative power is usually vested in parliament and executive power is usually vested in the government. Another form is a monarchy, where power belongs to the monarch and is inherited. Most countries in the world have a republican form of government. In the republics, the highest state power belongs to an elected representative body; the head of state is elected by the people of the country. Allocate presidential republics, where the president heads the government and has great powers (USA, Guinea, Argentina, etc.) and parliamentary republics, where the role of the president is less, and the head of the executive branch is the prime minister appointed by the president. There are currently 30 monarchies. Among the monarchies are constitutional and absolute. Under a constitutional monarchy, the power of the monarch is limited by the constitution and the activities of the parliament: the real legislative power usually belongs to the parliament, and the executive power to the government. The monarch at the same time "reigns, but does not rule", although his political influence is quite large. Such monarchies include Great Britain, the Netherlands, Spain, Japan, etc. Under an absolute monarchy, the power of the ruler is not limited in any way. There are only six states in the world with this form of government: Brunei, Qatar, Oman, Saudi Arabia, United United Arab Emirates, Vatican. The so-called theocratic monarchies, i.e., countries where the head of state is also its religious head (Vatican and Saudi Arabia), are especially singled out. There are countries that have a specific form of government. These include states that are members of the so-called Commonwealth (until 1947 it was called the "British Commonwealth of Nations"). The Commonwealth is an association of countries that includes Great Britain and many of its former colonies, dominions and dependent territories (a total of 50 states). It was originally created by Great Britain to preserve its economic and military-political positions in previously owned territories and countries. In 16 Commonwealth countries, the British Queen is formally considered the head of state. "The largest of them include Canada, Australia, New Zealand. In them, the head of state is the Queen of Great Britain, represented by the Governor General, and the legislative body is Parliament. central government (France, Hungary).In a federal state, along with uniform laws and authorities, there are other public entities- republics, states, provinces, etc., which adopt their own laws, have their own authorities, that is, members of the federation have a certain political and economic independence. But their activity should not contradict federal laws (India, Russia, USA). Most countries of the world are unitary, there are now a little more than 20 federal states in the world. national composition population (Germany). 4. By population of the world by population China, India, USA, Indonesia, Brazil, and Pakistan Russia.

4. By geographical location.

Maritime countries;

Peninsular;

Island;

Archipelago countries;

Countries occupying an inland position. In other words, when grouping countries by geographic location, they usually distinguish countries that do not have access to the sea (Chad, Mongolia, Kyrgyzstan, Slovakia, etc. - a total of 42 countries of the world) and coastal ones (India, Colombia). Among the seaside, there are island (Sri Lanka), peninsular (Spain) and archipelago countries (Japan, Indonesia) ”about the grouping of countries into subgroups and their role in the world economy.

Until the beginning of the 90s. all countries of the world were divided into three types: socialist, developed capitalist and developing. After the actual collapse of the world socialist system, this typology was replaced by others. One of them, also three-term, divides all countries of the world into economically developed, developing and countries with economies in transition, i.e. carrying out the transition from a planned-centralized to a market economy. A two-term typology is widely used with the subdivision of all countries into economically developed and developing ones. The main criterion for such a typology is the level of socio-economic development of the state, expressed through the indicator of gross domestic product per capita.

Lesson number 4

Test

Questions for preparation:

1. What is usually denoted in the economic geography of the world by the terms: State, Country, Territory?

2.Countries on the modern political map of the world.

3. Orient yourself and know the main periods of the formation of the political map of the world

4. Know the number of countries on the political map of the world.

5. Quantitative and qualitative changes on the world map.

6. Grouping of countries according to various characteristics and characteristics.

7. Typology of the countries of the world. Political system. Forms of government.

8. Forms of administrative-territorial structure

9.Historical and geographical regions of the world

10. Understand the abbreviation of GDP and NVP

11. Be able to find economically developed countries on the map.

12. Know the member states of the European Union

13. Know the member states of the G7 Political Club, Privileged highly developed countries of Western Europe, Countries of “settlement” capitalism,

Geographic information systems. Geographic information is constantly used in management, planning, forecasting and socio-economic development, everyday life. Based on geographic databases (DB), geographic information systems (LS) are formed - computer-generated "repositories" of geographical knowledge about the territorial organization and the interaction of society and nature. PS is an automated system for storing, analyzing, and presenting spatial data in the form of text, tables, graphs, and maps (Fig. 2). The composition of the PS includes: computers, software, spatial information in the form of cartographic data on natural components, farming, land, roads, etc. They are automated systems that operate spatially coordinated information. The functioning of the PS is carried out in the following sequence: the collection and automated processing of geographic information, its spatial reference and presentation in the form of an electronic map on the display screen, the transfer of this map to paper if necessary (for example, the creation of atlases).

By the size of the territories covered, PSs are divided into global, national, regional, local, local. They are used to compile geographical maps, natural resource cadastres, engineering surveys and design, formation of management decisions, they are also distinguished by individual objects and areas of research: geographical, environmental, land, property, forest management, water resource, recreational, tourism, etc.

The Institute of Geography of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine is developing a multi-purpose National PS of Ukraine, the purpose of which is to create a geographic-cybernetic model of the region. in Kievsky national university named after Taras Shevchenko, automated cartographic systems based on digital maps, three-dimensional computer models of modern urban landscapes of Kyiv are being studied.

An important component of the aircraft is aerospace information, data from aero-visual observations, ground-based sensors, etc. Such PS are called integrated. Their databases combine cartographic data with remote images of the Earth's surface, they have blocks for receiving and programs for processing aerospace materials. PS databases are generated from many sources of geographic information. These include textbooks, teaching aids, maps and atlases, scientific reports on the results of geographical research, statistical reference books on the development of the country's economy, encyclopedias, dictionaries, results of geographical research published in books, scientific journals, observational data carried out by government agencies: geological and hydrometeorological, geodesy, cartography and cadastre, other institutions and departments.

Geographic research. An important source of geographic information is expeditionary research, travel, local history excursions, tourism, mountaineering. Field expeditionary studies are expeditionary and stationary. Expeditionary is the study of individual natural components, sectors of the economy (geomorphological, hydrological, geobotanical, oceanic), which cover large territories and water areas). Natural and economic complexes and regions are known in the process of complex geographical research (natural-geographical, landscape studies, economic-geographical, natural-resource, environmental protection). Expeditionary research is carried out by teams of scientists according to specially developed programs and methods and is divided into three periods: preparatory, field expeditionary and cameral (processing the collected materials, writing a report, compiling maps). Expeditionary research uses aerospace images of the earth's surface made from airborne and spacecraft. Aerospace images are deciphered - objects reflected on them are recognized by their shape, color, tone of the image. Looking at the Earth from space embraces it

large tectonic structures, deserts, river basins, areas difficult to access by land expeditions. Satellites provide an opportunity to study the dynamics and periodicity of natural processes, unique phenomena and objects (volcanic eruptions, fires, avalanches, landslides, faults earth's crust, air pollution, etc.). From cosmic heights, a new world, hitherto unknown to us, opens up, new patterns of natural conditions, features of urbanization, temperature heterogeneities in the seas and oceans, and forests.

Rice. 2. General scheme of functioning of the PS

In 1995, the first Ukrainian satellite "Sich-1" was launched, equipped with instruments for remote sensing of the Earth, inventory and evaluation of land, prospecting for minerals, meteorological forecasting, condition monitoring environment. Ukraine cooperates with space agencies of the European Community, Russia, Germany, France, Latin America on space exploration of natural resources and nature protection. In Ukraine, there are the Center for Aerospace Research of the Earth, the Center for Radiophysical Sounding of the Earth, and the Marine Hydrophysical Institute.

They obtain geographic information about natural and man-made processes, changes in the natural environment, geochemical anomalies, cities and suburban areas, air pollution, flooding, quarries, abrasion, the state of vegetation, areas of radioactive contamination, emissions from sewage treatment plants, etc.

Stationary geographic research has been carried out regularly for many years at specially equipped geographical stations. They study in detail the changes in natural complexes over time. In Ukraine, such scientific complex physical and geographical studies were started by academician G. Vysotsky at the Velikoanadolsky station to study the influence of hydroclimatic and soil conditions on afforestation in steppe zone Ukraine. Stationary geographical research is carried out on the basis of the Institute of Geography of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Kyiv, Lvov, Odessa, Kharkov, Taurida universities.

Observation of the state of the atmosphere and hydrosphere is carried out at hydrometeorological stations and posts, where young specialists in meteorology and climatology, hydrology and hydroecology, and oceanology work. More than 5,000 employees work in the institutions of the Hydrometeorological Service of Ukraine. There are about two hundred hydrometeorological, air, air and agrometeorological stations in Ukraine. The state of rivers, lakes, reservoirs, sea estuaries is monitored at 400 hydrological posts. Along with them, agrometeorological indicators are recorded at 150 points, ozonometric and radar studies of the formation of clouds, precipitation, pollution of the atmosphere, water, and soil are carried out.

Our state is a member of the World Weather Service and the World Meteorological Organization. Hydrometeorological conditions are important economic and social factors: the social and economic condition of the state depends on them, ecological situation, AGRICULTURAL complex, energy, transport, utilities, military security, recreation. The sources of geographical information are local history studies and descriptions of the native land, cities, and other settlements. They also serve as descriptions of travel, tourist and climbing routes, excursions.

Essential components of geographic information are maps and atlases. Maps is the second language of cartography. Cartographic images transmit, reproduce the dimensions and properties of geographical objects using geographic means and signs (lines, points, figures) and a colored background. Combinations of graphic signs and background are means of cartographic modeling, creation of cartographic images (geoimage). To understand the natural and economic objects displayed on the map, the components of natural conditions, processes, patterns of their distribution, legends are attached to the maps. legend text, geographical names, terms and concepts allow you to "read" the map, use it, find new facts on it.

Maps are the most important components of the information building blocks of geographic atlases. Geographers and cartographers have significant experience in compiling complex and sectoral, scientific reference and educational atlases. National atlases are of exceptional importance. By Decree of the President of Ukraine L.D. Kuchma dated 08/01/2000 "On the National Atlas of Ukraine" a new cartographic work is being created - the National Atlas of Ukraine. It will reflect the spatial characteristics of natural conditions and resources, population, economy, environmental conditions, science and culture of Ukraine. National atlases are integral cartographic models of states as natural resource and socio-economic territorial systems. The national atlas of Ukraine should provide geographic information to the state, its regions and their governing bodies, scientific, educational, design, production and public institutions, help disseminate geographical knowledge about our state, promote its cooperation with other countries of the world.

Geographical information is produced by the Institute of Geography, the Institute of Geological Sciences, the Institute of Botany, the Institute of Zoology, the Council for the Study of the Productive Forces of Ukraine, regional natural science and socio-economic divisions of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine. A variety of geographical information is kept by the National Natural Museum of Ukraine, regional and district, city museums of local lore. Geographical research is carried out by scientific laboratories of universities, scientific departments of natural and natural-historical reserves, national natural parks, biosphere reserves. A variety of geographical information is available in statistical reference books, dictionaries, encyclopedias, scientific journals, and periodicals. The results of scientific research, descriptions of travels, regions of Ukraine and the world are given in the "Ukrainian Geographical Journal" (founded in 1992), the Journal "Geography and Fundamentals of Economics at School" (published since 1995), the weekly "Local History. Geography. Tourism" (published since J996 p.), scientific bulletins and collections published by scientific institutions, universities, reserves, printed as materials of scientific conferences, geographical congresses etc.

Geographical information is filled with mass media: newspapers, radio and television broadcasts. Geographic popular science, documentary and educational films are being created. The Internet provides great opportunities for obtaining and using up-to-date geographic information. Geographical descriptions and pictures are found in popular science and fiction, paintings, landscape architecture, etc.

I stage. Acquaintance and study of theoretical material.

1.1 Introduction: geography as a science. Methods of geographical research and sources of geographical information.

You can't do politics and economics without knowing geography.

Every scientific discipline contributes to shaping our understanding of the world. The role of geography in the system of sciences is unique, since only it gives an idea of ​​both the nature of our planet and human society, and forms the image of a particular territory. Geographical knowledge and skills are one of the necessary elements of culture.

♦ How did geography as a science develop?

Already the ancient peoples possessed certain geographical knowledge. The first written information about this that has come down to us dates back to the 4th-3rd millennium BC. e. These are basically territory maps.

A special place in the history of geography belongs to the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries. The main incentives for travelers at that time were the search for new trade routes and military conquests.

In the XVII-XIX centuries. geography developed most intensively in foreign Europe and Russia. Along with the discovery and description of new lands, geographers were looking for patterns in the placement of geographical objects. The breadth and depth of geographical research of that time can be judged by the example of the works Carl Ritter And Peter Semenov-Tyan-Shansky.

Geographic Mosaic: K. Ritter and P. P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky

K. Ritter (1779-1859) - German geographer, honorary member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. He developed the comparative method in geography, applying it to the study of landforms. In explaining social phenomena, he joined the school as

called geographical determinism, proving the decisive influence of nature on the fate of peoples. The main work is "Geography". During the lifetime of the scientist, 19 volumes devoted to Asia and Africa were published. P. P. Semenov-Tian-Shansky (1827-1914) - Russian traveler, geographer, botanist, entomologist, statistician, public figure and statesman. In 1856-1857. made a trip to the Tien Shan, established the non-volcanic origin of the mountains, discovered a vast glacial region, explored the lake. Issyk-Kul, compiled the first layout of the Tien Shan ranges. For these studies in 1906, he received the prefix Tien-Shansky to the surname. Compiled the “Geographical and Statistical Dictionary Russian Empire". He was the initiator of the first general census of the population of Russia. Proposed a zoning scheme for Russia. Together with the historian V. I. Lamansky, he directed the multi-volume edition “Russia. Complete geographical description our fatherland." He was a member of many Russian and foreign scientific societies. He published a three-volume "History of half a century of activity of the Russian Geographical Society".

The main goals of modern geography are the geographical substantiation of the rational territorial organization of society and nature management, the creation of a strategy for the environmentally safe development of civilization. The most important spheres of interest in geography are the processes of interaction between man and nature, the patterns of placement and interaction of the components of the geographic environment and their combinations at the local, regional, national (state), continental, oceanic and global levels.

♦ What elements form the system of scientific knowledge in geography?

As in any other science, geography has its own system of scientific knowledge. Well-known domestic geographer Vladimir Maksakovskiy formulated their characteristics.

Doctrine- a set of theoretical provisions (theories, concepts, etc.). An example is the doctrine of the biosphere, noosphere, nature management, the origin of cultivated plants, soils, geographic envelope, geographic zoning, PTK, etc.

Theory- a system of basic ideas in a particular branch of knowledge. An example is the theory of lithospheric plate tectonics, economic zoning.

Law- a necessary, essential, stable, recurring relationship between phenomena in nature and society. An example is the laws of origin and geographical distribution of the soils of the world, developed by the famous Russian soil scientist Vasily Dokuchaev.

regularity- compliance with the law, consistent manifestation of the law.

Concept- a set of the most essential elements of the theory, point of view, the main idea for understanding the essence of certain processes and phenomena. In economic geography, the concept of the supporting frame of the territory, put forward in the middle of the 20th century, is known. Nikolay Baransky, concept of big cycles Nikolai Kondratiev and etc.

Hypothesis- an assumption about the causes of any phenomena, not verified and not confirmed by experiment. Examples: hypotheses of the formation of the solar system, drift of the continents, stabilization of the population of the Earth, etc.

concept- a thought that reflects the essential properties, connections and relationships of objects and phenomena; considered as an element of doctrines, theories, concepts and hypotheses.

Term- a word or phrase denoting a concept and fixing it in a summary. Concepts and terms are the language of science. Mastery of geographical terminology is the first step to mastering geographical culture.

♦ What sources contain geographic information?

In modern geographical science, as in all spheres of human activity, the flow of information is constantly increasing. There are various sources for obtaining geographic information: statistical, cartographic, historical documents, scientific literature, encyclopedias, periodicals, the Internet, etc.

The modern world is developing very quickly, the situation is changing literally before our eyes. Internet sources can be widely used for up-to-date information. For example, general trends in the socio-economic development of the world, its individual regions and countries can be considered on the basis of UN data (http://www.un.org/russian). Operational information about the population and economy of Russia is contained on the website of the Federal State Statistics Service (http://www.gks.ru). To obtain the most complete and objective information, you need to use several different sources.

♦ What methods of geographical research exist?

As in any other science, there are various research methods in geography. Some of them are typically geographical, others are general scientific (Fig. 2).

A special place among the methods of geographical research is occupied by geographic forecasting, which has always been the traditional method in geography. Without a forecast, it is impossible to imagine the prospects for the development of any country or territory. In order to determine the changes in a particular territory that may occur as a result of human activities, scientists create a hypothesis for the future development of the object. For example, a geographic forecast has been created for the development of the situation in the Aral Sea basin, where various problems are closely intertwined.

To study the nature of continents and oceans, geographers use general geographical And industry methods research.

One of the main research methods in geography are observation And dimension, thanks to which they collect primary geographic information about the characteristics of continents and oceans. Direct observations and the necessary measurements are carried out during expeditions, staying directly at the object under study, for example, at a scientific station in Antarctica. Often they are carried out from research ships or even from cruise ships, from the orbits of space stations and geophysical rockets, from artificial satellites Earth and aircraft-laboratories (Fig. 4).

Space observations have enriched geographical science with new knowledge. During observations of the ocean near Antarctica with the help of a satellite, ocean vortices with a diameter of 30 to 200 km were first noticed and determined that they are similar to cyclones and anticyclones of the atmosphere. With the help of satellites, movements of lithospheric plates were recorded, reaching approximately 10 cm per year. Thanks to the survey of the ocean floor by spacecraft, they found differences in the topography of the ocean floor compared to the land surface and created the corresponding maps.

On the basis of the obtained primary geographic information, layouts or models are created (Fig. 5), landforms, cyclones and anti-cyclones, rivers with a dam and a reservoir, natural complexes, etc., various maps are developed.

In geography, there are also methods for obtaining secondary geographic information. This is due to the fact that many geographical objects are inaccessible to direct observation or are very large. Then scientists-researchers resort to the use of previously obtained and ordered data.

Scientists accumulate secondary geographical information gradually. The sources of information for them are maps, especially thematic ones, analyzing which can compare phenomena, create an image specific territory (Fig. 5). Ordered geographic information is given and tables, combining the various characteristics of the territory. An example of such a table is the geochronological scale. The source of secondary geographic information is graphs, diagrams, profiles.(Remember what kind of graphs of temperature changes, wind rose, climate diagrams, relief profiles look like.)

An important method of obtaining secondary information in geography is also descriptions, especially when it comes to the characteristics of the nature of individual continents, countries, mysterious seas and islands. Nowadays, the function of description is also performed by various video media - cinema and television.

A new source of secondary geographic information is geographic information system (GIS), designed for computer reading, analysis and provision of information. material from the site

GIS is fast. In GIS, there is a certain set of programs that help you quickly (in 3-5 minutes) create any geographic map. At the same time, the necessary data are entered, and their analysis is carried out automatically. And when working with atlas maps, when it is necessary to detect a certain relationship, for example, between the relief and the structure of the earth's crust, five times more time is used, because multi-scale maps located on different pages are needed.